Heat Transfer Analysis In Steel Structures by Vikas Adarsh Narang A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Civil Engineering May 2005 APPROVED: Professor Leonard D. Albano, Major Advisor Civil and Environmental Engineering Professor Robert W. Fitzgerald, Co-Advisor Civil and Environmental Engineering Professor Fredrick L. Hart, Head of Department Civil and Environmental EngineeringACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank my advisor Professor Leonard D. Albano for giving me the opportunity to carry out research work related to the field of structural engineering and fire protection. I am highly indebted to him for his valuable thoughts and contributions towards the development of my thesis and also for providing me with an ample amount of knowledge about the field of Fire Protection Engineering. I would also like to thank Professor Robert W. Fitzgerald for his guidelines and support as a senior to help me carry out appropriate research strategies for facilitating this thesis project. I would like to thank the people at Harvard Thermal, specially, Mr. Dave Rosato. Also, the contributions and support provided by NIST, Shundler Company Inc. have been highly significant without which this project would not have been possible. My special thanks to Professor Fredrick Hart and all the other staff members at the Civil & Environmental Engineering Department of Worcester Polytechnic Institute whose contributions and support have been invaluable.ABSTRACT ‘The potential hazard of fire is one of the major concerning issues after the recent events of 9/11 and others. A lot of studies and research work is being carried out presently, to ensure the safety of buildings. But, there is no accurate method to estimate the fire endurance/resistance for a building due to the variability of fire characteristics, ‘material properties of construction material, and other characteristics of a building. One can only provide guidelines and can adopt from the lessons learnt in the past to ensure better quality to make the buildings more fire proof, so that they can withstand high temperatures and stresses for a longer time, before collapse mechanism occurs. From a long time, live laboratory tests have been conducted to study the performance of assemblies by subjecting them to appropriate time-temperature histories that are derived from standardized fire curves. The performance-based approach is very time consuming and also involves high costs. In recent times, due to the advances in technology, computer models have been developed, that aid towards the simulations of assemblies and other components of a building that are subjected to a fire event. This approach helps in attaining reasonable results, thereby providing an alternative to the prescriptive and performance-based approaches. This project deals with the study of heat transfer mechanism that takes place in steel structures in case of a fire event. For proper and accurate simulation process, the use of software is a must along with the support of technical resources. Due to high thermal conductivity of steel the heat gets transferred rather fast in the steel section which creates non-uniform temperature distributions because of variable thermal properties, like thermal conductivity and specific heat. 3-D finite element software TAS (Thermal Analysis Software) was used to study the non-uniform temperature distributions in case of a W 12x27 beam protected with vermiculite coating. The results were compared with the studies done by Professor Bletzacker, which involved the furnace testing of a W 12x27 beam by subjecting it to ASTM E-119 curve time-temperature history. In addition to this, the sensitivity of results was evaluated based on the variation of thermal properties for concrete, vermiculite, and gypsum board. Different beam models forW12x27 section protected with vermiculite and gypsum board coatings were simulated (0 justify their performance based on temperature rise within the assembly. Also, simulations were performed for analyzing the behavior of the beam when subjected to different fire curves like ASTM E-119 and ENV. Analytical analysis was also carried out using the method of Lumped mass parameter method to provide a comparison of results from different models. Finally, conclusions and recommendations were made to ensure further development and understanding in the field of Structural and Fire Protection Engineering.TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION. 1.1 Background. vee De 12 Aim... -2- 1.3 Objectives....... wot Do 1.4 Scope of work -3- 15 Related activitis wae Be 2 LITERATURE REVIEW -6- 21 General -6- 2.2 Research Studies... on 6 - 23. Bletzacker’s Experiments -8- 24 Finite Element Software. we Oe 3.1 General -13- 3.2 ASTM E-119... . . . . . . . . 13- 33 Lab Tests -14- 3.3.1 General oe 14- 3.3.2 Time-Temperature Curve: 3.3.3 Drawbacks of Fire Tests. . . . . . . I7- 34 Behavior of actual fire. - 18- 3.4.1 General 18- 3.4.2 Growth. -19- 3.4.3 Fully developed fit ...ccmesnsnnnnnnnennnneinnnsnsnnennnsenns = 19 3.4.4 Decay phase -19- 3.5 Parametric Curves... 4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES. 4.1 Introduction 42 Definitions...... 4.2.1 Density (p) 4.2.2 Thermal Conductivity (k) . 4.2.3 Specific Heat (C,) 4.2.4 — Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (€, ) 4.2.5 Thermal Diffusivity. 4.2.6 Emissivitty 4.3 Thermal Properties of Steel.. 43.1 Introduction. 43.2 Density.... eentnnensene 43.3. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion. 43.4 Thermal Conductivity... 43.5 Specific Heat..... 43.6 Thermal diffusivity.43.7 Emissivity 44° Thermal Properties of Concrete. 44.1 General . 44.2 Density. 443 Thermal Conductivity. 44.4 Specific Heat.. 44.5 Thermal Diffusivity.... 4.5 Insulations and their Thermal Properties . 45.1 efinition of Insulation 45.2 Types of Insulations... 45.3 Thermal Properties of Vermiculit.... 4.5.4 Thermal Properties of Gypsum HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISN 5.1 General. 5.2 Conduction 5.2.1 Boundary Conditions for one-dimensional heat conduction .. 5.3 COnVECIONsrrssmninssinnnennnnnetannnntatnnntatsnsse 5.3.1 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convection 5.3.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Natural Convection 5.4 Radiation 5.4.1 View Factor. TAS SIMULATIONS. 6.1 TAS Models. 62 Objectives of TAS models 6.3 Model Development... 64 Bare steel model 64.1 Introduction... 64.2 TAS model results 64.3 Results summary 6.5 Bare steel model with concrete slab. 6.5.1 Introduction... 6.5.2 TAS model results. 6.5.3 Comparison of TAS model with Bletzacker’s Experiments 6.5.4 Results summary 6.6 Different values for Thermal conductivity. 6.6.1 Introduction... 6.6.2 TAS model results. 6.6.3 _ Results summary 6.7 Different values for Specific Heat .. 6.7.1 Introduction... 6.1.2 TAS model results. 6.7.3 Results summary6.8 — W12x27 steel beam with 0.5” thick vermiculite coating 6l- 6.8.1 Introduction. -61- 6.8.2 W12x27 steel beam with 0.5” thick vermiculite coating (constant thermal properties) -61- 68.3 W12x27 steel beam with 0.5” thick vermiculite coating (variable thermal properties) ..snenneenesues -64- 6.9 W12x27 steel beam with 5/8” thick gypsum board coating 69 6.9.1 Introduction. - 69 - 6.9.2. W12.x27 Steel beam with 5/8” thick Gypsum Board Enclosure (constant thermal properties) 6.9.3 W12x27 steel beam with 5/8” thick gypsum board enclosure (variable thermal properties ). -11- -70- 6.10 W12x27 steel beam with 0.5” thick vermiculite coating subjected to 15 - 6.10.1 Introduction. -15- 6.10.2 TAS model results....... 16 - 6.10.3 Comparison of temperature results for different fire intensiti -T1- 6.10.4 Comparison of results from ENV curve and ASTM E-119 6.10.5 Results summary...... 6.11 W12x27 steel beam with 5/8” thick gypsum board enclosure subjected to ENV fire curve. - 80- 6.11.1 Introduction... 80- 6.11.2 TAS model results. - 80- 6.11.3 Comparison between results obtained for different locations from ENV curve and ASTM E-119 -81- 6.11.4 — Results summary 82- 6.12 Comparison of results between Vermiculite and Gypsum models, subjected to ENV fire curve sevnsstnnstsennsennnnennsceneseens = 82 6.12.1 Results summary - 83 - 18 - -79- LUMPED MASS PARAMETER METHOD. TA Introduction... 7.2 ECCS method 7.3. Vermiculite Model 7.3.1 Introduction. 7.3.2 Comparison between results from different models 7.4 Gypsum Board Model 7.4.1 Introduction. 7.4.2 Comparison between results from different models 7.5 Mechanical Properties of Steel. 7.5.1 Mechanical properties of steel from vermiculite model.. 7.5.2 Mechanical properties of stee! from gypsum model... 75.3 Results SuMMALY .orornsseensennntnnnntnnnnesnnneesnnsesn CONCLUSIONS....scssssssssssssessssesesssseseessscssssessssneessssnsessesseesssssees 94 =98 - 9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK. 10 BIBLIOGRAPHY....sssccsssssscssssseesssssesssssseeesssseesssnsecsssnscssssseesssat 99 = 11 APPENDIX.. 101- A Bletzacker’s data. -101- B Bare steel model with 4” concrete slab. - 109 - CW 12x27 beam with 0.5” thick vermiculite coatin; 123 - DW 12x27 beam with 5/8" thick gypsum board, 125- EW 12x27 beam with 0.5" vermiculite coating subjected to ENV fire curve. -127- F — Lumped mass parameter method - 130-List of Figures Figure 1.1 Related activities... Figure 3.1 Assembly setup for a furnace test. Figure 3.2 ASTM E-119 Time-temperature curve... Figure 3.3 Heat flux Vs Time for different furnaces. Figure 3.4 Effect of furnace characteristics on fire test results. -17- Figure 3.5 Different phases in a fully developed fire.... Figure 3.6 Temperature-Time response curves for compartment fire based on ENV approach Figure 4.1 Thermal Expansion Vs Time ... Figure 4.2 Thermal Conductivity Vs Temperature for steel 1. Figure 4.4 Temperature prediction within a steel column due to the variation of Figure 4.3 Specific Heat Vs Temperature for st resultant emissivity Figure 4.5 Thermal Conductivity Vs Temperature for concrete... Figure 4.6 Specific Heat Vs Temperature for concrete. Figure 4.7 Thermal diffusivity Vs Temperature for concrete. Figure 4.8 Percentage composition of different materials in case of vermiculite. Figure 4.9 Comparison of graph of Specific heat Vs Temperature Figure 4.10 Percentage composition of different materials in ease of gypsum Figure 4.11 Thermal Conductivity Vs Temperature for gypsum ...s0ssnnes 37. Figure 4.12 Specific Heat Vs Time for gypsum -37- Figure 5.1 Temperature distribution with constant thermal conductivity ......0000007 38- Figure 5.2 Boundary conditions for one-dimensional heat conduction .. -39- Figure 5.3 Radiant heat exchange between a finite and infinitesimal area .. Figure 6.1 Locations in the beam. Figure 6.2 Cross-sectional view of 2-D W 12x27 steel beam Figure 6.3 Ismoetric view of 3-D Steel beam(W 12x27) developed using TAS Figure 6.4 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 4 & 3 Figure 6.5 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 2 & 1 Figure 6.6 Temperature Vs Time graph for all Locations...Figure 6.7 Isometric view of 3-D W 12x27 beam with 4"thick concrete slab, 54. Figure 6.8 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 4 & 3 -55- Figure 6.9 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 2 & 1 -55- Figure 6.10 Temperature Vs Time graph for Location 4 -56- Figure 6.11 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 4 & 3 wo 57 Figure 6.12 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 2 & 1... -57- Figure 6.13 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 due to different constant values for the thermal conductivity of concrete... -59- Figure 6.14 Temperature Vs Time at Location 4 due to different constant values for the specific heat of concrete - 60- Figure 6.15 Isometric view of W 12x27 steel beam with vermiculite coating -62- Figure 6.16 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 4 & 3 -62- Figure 6.17 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 2 & | 2 63- Figure 6.19 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Locations 2 & 1 -64- Figure 6.20 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 4 & -65- Figure 6.21 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 2 & 1. 66 - Figure 6.22 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 4. - 66- Figure 6.23 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for 2 OT- Location 3... Figure 6.24 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 2... Figure 6.25 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 1... Figure 6.26 Isometric view of W 12x27 steel beam with 5/8” thick gypsum board....- 69 - Figure 6.27 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 4 & 3 -70- Figure 6.28 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 2 & 1 -11- Figure 6.29 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 4 & 3 a T2- Figure 6.30 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 2 & 1...Figure 6.31 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 4. -B- Figure 6.32 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 3 -TB- Figure 6.33 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 2... Figure 6.34 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 1... Figure 6.35 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 4 & 3.. Figure 6.36 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 2 & 1 Figure 6.37 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 4 & 3. Figure 6.38 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 2 & 1 Figure 6.39 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 4 & 3. Figure 6.40 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 2 & 1 Figure 6.41 Temperature Vs Time data for Locations 4 & 3 Figure 6.42 Temperature Vs Time data for Locations 2 & 1 Figure 6.43 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Locations 4 & 3. -81- Figure 6.44 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Locations 2 & 1 -82- Figure 6.45 Temperature Vs Time graph for Location 4... 1 83 - Figure 7.1 Temperature Vs Time comparison from different models - 89 - Figure 7.2 Temperature Vs Time comparison between results from analytical method and TAS modeling . - 89 - Figure 7.3 Temperature Vs Time comparison between results from analytical method and Bletzacker’s data -90- Figure 7.4 Temperature Vs Time comparison between analytical methods and TAS models Figure 7.5 Yield Strength Vs Time for 0.5" thick vermiculite model. Figure 7.6 Modulus of Elasticity Vs Time for 0.5" thick vermiculite model... ime for 5/8” thick gypsum board model Figure 7.7 Yield Strength VsFigure 7.8 Modulus of Elasticity Vs Time for 5/8” thick gypsum board model Figure A.1 Comparison of graph of Specific heat Vs Temperature Figure B.1 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 and Location 3 Figure B.2 Temperature Vs Time for Location 2 and Location 1 Figure B.3 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 and Location 3 Figure B.4 Temperature Vs Time for Location 2 and Location 1 ¢ for Location 4 and Location 3 Figure B.5 Temperature Vs Ti Figure B.6 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 and Location 3 Figure B.7 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 and Location 3 Figure B.8 Temperature Vs Time for Location 2 and Location 1 Figure B.9 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 and Location 3 Figure B.10 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 and Location 3 Figure B.11 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 and Location 3 .... Figure B.12 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 and Location 3List of Tables ‘Table 4-1 Thermal Resistance data from tests done by Shundler Company ‘Table 5-1 Convective heat transfer coefficients for forced convection Table 5-2 Property values of air at atmospheric pressure... ‘Table 6-1 Sectional properties for W 12x27. ‘Table 6-2 Properties of Concrete .... Table 6-3 Temperature data for different Locations ‘Table 6-4 Different values of Thermal conductivity for concrete ‘Table 6-5 Different values of Specific heat for concrete s.r. ‘Table 7-1 Perimeter expressions for some particular cases of steel. 101 - sve = 103 ‘Table A-I Temperature results for different locations from Bletzacker's studies ‘Table A-II Thermal Properties of Stecl..... ‘Table A-III Thermal Resistivity data from test done by Schundler Company Inc... - 104 - Table A-IV Thermal conductivity at different temperatures. ............0::eceeeceeeeee > LOS - Table A-V Specific heat Vs Temperature data. - 106 - Table A-VI Thermal Conductivity data at different temperatures. 107- le A-VII Specific heat data at different temperatures... 108 - Je B-I ‘Time-Temperature data for thermal conductivity, ke = 1.95 WimK .. 109- le BAI Time-Temperature data for thermal conductivity, ke = 1.7 WimK. 10- Table B-IIT Time-Temperature data for thermal conductivity, ke= 1.6 WimK ......= 112 - Table B-IV Time-Temperature data for thermal conductivity, ke = 1.5 W/mK -114- Table B-V Time-Temperature data for specific heat, Cyc =1260I/kgK .......---ceeeee = 116 - ‘Table B-VI Time-Temperature data for specific heat, Cpe =1200J/kgK. 118 - ‘Table B-VII Time-Temperature data for specific heat, Cpe =10851/kgK. 119- Je B-VIIL Time-1 smperature data for specific heat, Cy. =1023I/kgK. 121- emperature data for vermiculite model with constant values of thermal conductivity and specific heat = 123- Table C-IT Time-Temperature data for vermiculite model with variable values of thermal conductivity and specific heat. = 124-Je D-I Time-temperature data for gypsum model with constant values of thermal conductivity and specific heat = 125- Table D-II Time-temperature data for gypsum model with variable values of thermal conductivity and specific heat = 126- ‘Table E-I ENV Curve formulation-Maximum intensity of fire at 56 minutes..........- 127 - ‘Table E-I ENV Curve formulation-Maximum intensity of fire at 35.35 minutes. 1 le E-IILENV Curve formulation-Maximum intensity of fire at 102 minutes. ‘Table F-1 Constant thermal properties for steel and vermiculite . ‘Table F-II Variable thermal properties for steel and constant thermal properties for vermiculite + 136 - Table F-III Variable thermal properties for steel and vermiculite -140- ‘Table F-IV Constant thermal properties for steel and gypsum. = 146 - ‘Table F-V Variable thermal properties for steel and constant thermal properties for gypsum Table F-VI Variable thermal properties for steel and gypsum...Notations A surface are for heat transfer A, =area of steel protection per unit length exposed to fire Specific heat of gases pecific heat of air pecific heat of concrete pecific heat of steel d, = insulation thickness temperature difference = emissivity of steel E,, is the thermal radiation per unit surface of Ay E,= initial Young's modulus at 20°C E, = Young's modulus at time T F = opening factor F ,o= initial Yield strength at 20°C F,-= Yield strength at time T = acceleration due to gravity Gr = Grashof number ‘A, are the overall heat exchange coefficients h -onvective heat transfer coefficient k,= thermal conductivity of steel k= thermal conductivity of concrete k= thermal conductivity of material L= length of solid surface ‘Nu = Nusselt number Pr = Prandtl number lesign fire load per unit area of compartment boundaryQ= rate of heat transfer across material thickness of dx q = heat transferred per unit time (W) Rd = Reynold’s number Ra = Raleigh number 1 {ime (minutes) 1” = parametric time for determining compartment temperature-time response 1, = parametric fire duration T, = temperature of steel T,, = fire temperature ;, = air temperature T = absolute temperature in K. U, = flow velocity @= absorptivity B = coefficient of thermal expansion for the fluid ansmissivity [= parameter to calculate parametric compartment temperature-time response free thermal strain 4, = structural steel temperature A, = thermal conductivity of protection material solute viscosity of fluid [pcr p = density, reflectivity q chermal inertia of the compartment boundary p, = density of insulation p, = density of structural steel 67x10 W/ m*K* 6 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant ® = configuration factor for radiation, insulation heat capacity factor v= relative viscosity of the fluid A@, = incremental increase in steel temperatureIntroduction INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Fire hazard is one of the biggest challenges that any building could face during its service life. If not properly designed and managed, a fire could lead to a large amount of destruction in terms of property, loss of life, money. Historically a prescriptive approach to structural fire safety in the form of codes has been utilized which helps to solve the problem to a certain extent by regulating design and construction quality. The validity of prescriptive approach and its level of safety is now a concern [8] duc to the development of performance-based approaches. A performance-based approach is a representation of the actual stages and developments that may occur in a structure during a fire event. During the early stages, building codes were the only source to provide specifications for a building in case of a fire event. Building codes provided measures on how to curb a fire event after a fire had occurred in a building. The codes served as guidelines for the number of sprinklers required, the location and design of exits and other issues rather than emphasizing more on protection of a building even before a fire event occurred. The awareness was really not there and it was only after incidents like September 11, 2001, and others that the real importance of fire protection was recognized. The awareness led to more concrete research and testing which observed the evolution of performance-based approach in the form of live laboratory testing. Specifications have been provided by ASTM, NIST, and UL directory from the lab tests that are conducted by these associations, The results pertaining to the thickness requirements and hourly ratings of assemblies have been incorporated into building codes. Architects and structural engineers have been following these specifications without actually analyzing and studying the behavior of the building in a fire event. But, there have been fingers raised to the fact that how reliable these laboratory tests are, and whether it is possible to reproduce these results. In the late 1990's the and early 2000's the technique of finite element software caught the eye of researchers, and since then various tools have been developed to provide simulations of fire environments and structural performance thereby reducing the cost of expensive performance-based tests.Introduction With so much research going on for steel design and its thermal properties [14] such as thermal conductivity and specific heat of how it would behave with respect to the change in temperature, it has become very important to use tools such as finite element software [3] which aid in facilitating the design procedure for the building. Simultaneously, to make steel more effective and protect it from fire hazards the insulating materials have gained significance importance in the market which leads to more and more research on their properties and behavior when exposed to fire conditions [14]. The variation in thermal characteristics of insulating materials such as vermiculite spray-on, and gypsum board play a major role in the heat transfer process that occurs through the insulation and then within the steel. This leads to research and development of new and improved fire protection materials. The use of different finite element tool such as SAFIR [3], [21] presents a reasonable picture of how the building component or structure would behave with the increase in temperature. The recognition of important characteristics such as elongation, thermal stresses, fire endurance points, boundary conditions and deflections [1] would help the engineer to better understand the key points of design and thus to make the building more sound in terms of fire exposure. 1.2 Aim ‘The purpose of this thesis is to study the heat transfer analysis in case of steel structures with the aid of finite element software. The main purpose is to study the processes of conduction, convection and radiation occurring in a member and then to analyze the sensitivity of the thermal analysis to the properties of steel and insulating materials. Tt is also intended to correlate the analytical results with Professor Bletzacker’s experimental studies [1] and to extend his work with the help of modern tools like TAS [25] 1.3 Objectives The main objective of this study is to understand the concept of heat transfer through the section of a stecl beam and gain experience with finite element software and analytical techniques. A second objective is to investigate the sensitivity of heat transfer analyses to thermal properties, such as thermal conductivity and specific heat.Introduction 1.4 Scope of work 1e scope of vities included the following: > Background research and understanding of the field of Fire Protection Engineering y Analysis of heat transfer in steel structures by use of 3-D finite element software TAS (Thermal Analysis Software) v Exploration of the effect of boundary conditions on the thermal behavior of a member > Sensitivity analysis of the parameters that play an important role in heat transfer mechanism towards the assemblies in the form of convection and radiation and within the assemblies in the form of conductivity > Investigation of the different types of coatings used for fire protection and their impact on the temperature profile of the steel during exposure to various time — temperature curves v Study of the effects of different fire curves and to compare these results with those obtained from a simple, analytical methodology 1.5. Related activities The project was carried out in a step-by-step manner by modeling different components of a structural assembly and studying the associated thermal properties and effects. Figure 1.1 presents the activities that were identified for achieving the goals for this project,Introduction MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER COMPUTER MODELING Conduction Convection Radiation ACTIVITIES RELATED TO STEEL DESIGN FOR FIRE > Structural CONDITIONS Properties ASCE, AISC ‘SFPE, NFPA Geometrical > Properties UL Directory Lee Thermat UBC poner ‘Manual OF Steel L, kanlaton Construction DES & PROPERTIES & MATERIALS Figure 1.1 Related activities For the TAS model development and simulations, different areas were explored which resulted in the study of various parameters. Some of the activities related to this project are explained below > Thermal conductivity, specific heat, and other thermal properties vary with temperature and thus were modeled as temperature-dependent parameters in the numerical analyses. v Equations have been suggested for the variation of thermal conductivity and specific heat with respect to time. These equations are presented in Chapter IV. Information and data for the model were gathered from the experimental studies y done by Professor Bletzacker [1]. > The insulation materials that were studied were gypsum board and spray-on vermiculite with different thicknesses and variation in their respective thermal properties.Introduction > v Influencing parameters like emissivity, conductivity were studied. ‘The data for these varying parameters was taken from the formulation provided by sources such as Eurocode [22] ‘A comparison would be made with the data obtained from Bletzacker’s experiments [1] and that obtained by TAS so as to study the effectiveness of computer modeling as an alternative to the high cost furnace test.Literature Review 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 General This section provides an overview of previous studies that have been conducted by researchers in the fields of Structural Engineering and Fire Protection. Different sources were reviewed in order to understand the techniques and key studies that have been conducted. 2.2, Research Studies 2.2.1 Wong M.B. and Ghojel [.1. Wong and Ghojel [23] conducted a sensitivity analysis in order to determine the appropriateness of the guidelines provided by Eurocode 3. ‘The parameters of thermal conductivity, specific heat, and emissivity were evaluated to determine the change in temperature of steel when subjected to a fire event. An equation for thermal conductivity variation for concrete was also proposed. For insulations having high thermal characteristic values, it has been suggested that the results due to the Eurocode 3 formulation and the exact solution may differ significantly. 2.2.2 jakumoto Sakumoto [14] conducted a fire test on an office building to identify the critical parameters and the necessity of research on new fire protection materials. A four-story office building with floor dimensions, 22.0 m x 12.2 m x 3.5 m, coated with 12.5 mm thick plaster board was considered for the tests. Firstly, analysis was done on a one layer model was analyzed to define the effect of openings and fire load on the overall rise of temperature in a structural member. The results suggested that larger opening area resulted in a higher temperature rise but shorter fire duration, due to the inflow of fresh air, Secondly, temperature data was gathered from a fire test that was conducted on a steel column with intumescent coating. This data was used to study the high temperature performance for different grades of steel by varying their chemical composition. The results of these studies indicated the effectiveness of different grades of steel as a strategy to reduce the loss of strength and stiffness at elevated temperatures.Literature Review 2.2.3, Chitty R. and Foster J. Chitty R. and Foster J. [3] used the technique of computer modeling to evaluate the thermal response of structures that had undergone a real fire event. The computer tools JASMINE, CFAST, and CRISP were used to study the thermal response of a school building and a residential tower block. Temperature assumptions for different locations in the buildings were made based on observations and data collected. A comparison of results obtained from the different software was also presented. The paper summarizes the significance of finite element modeling by proceeding from simpler to complex methods in order to study thermal responses of a building. The authors conclude and draw attention to the variability and difficulty in modeling different parameters that are associated with fire design. 2.2.4 Ioannides ‘The paper [13] addresses a method to determine the thickness of spray - applied fire t al. resistive material based on the prescriptive code approach. It addresses the standard test of ASTM -119 and proposes equations based on steel temperatures for calculating required thickness of insulation. These equations are supplemented with two examples that also identify the strategy for reducing high costs by avoiding unnecessary thickness of insulation. 2.2.5 Poh K.W. Poh K.W. [11] presented a mathematical relationship to represent the stress-strain behavior of steel at elevated temperature. Experimental data was used in conjunction with the technique of curve fitting to replicate the curve. Different stress-strain relationships and their drawbacks have also been discussed. The proposed equations are highly versatile and can be easily incorporated into computer models for analyzing behavior of steel at higher temperatures. 2.2.6 Lie T.T. Lie T.T. [9] suggested an analytical formulation for calculating steel temperature in a fire event. Equations were proposed for determining fire load and temperature of steel section for different conditions. Two examples were also been presented to illustrate the use ofLiterature Review the equations. Further, these equations were justified by comparing the analytical results with data from other experimental studi 2.2.7 Summary of studies From the previous studies, some points of interest can be drawn to create an awareness of the trends that exist in the fields of Structural and Fire Engineering. These points are summarized as below: 1. Finite element analysis has gained significant importance as a possible alternative to fire testing in order to save high cost Efforts are being made to develop a software that can handle both thermal and structural responses. 2. Strategies and formulations have been developed to boost the ease and significance of analytical techniques. Studies and modifications are still being done for existing formulations and ASTM E-119, 3. The studies suggest that the current practice of furnace testing may be significantly different from an actual room fire due to factors such as opening factor and fire load which have not been studied with greatly. According to these studies, the best understanding was provided by the study of sensitivity issues and parameters that are necessary to be modeled properly for accurate and reliable results. This was indicated by the studies conducted by Wong et al. [23] who conducted an in depth study to provide a foundation for future researchers. 2.3 Bletzacker’s Experiments In September 1966 a report titled “Effect of Structural Restraint on the Fire Resistance of Protected Steel Beam Floor and Roof Assemblies” [1] was submitted by Professor Richard Bletzacker. The research was sponsored by “American Iron and Steel Institute”. This report presented the findings from Professor Bletzacker’s experiments based on physical tests that were carried out on twelve separate beams with different restraining conditions and different compositions such as composite and non-composite slabs.Literature Review The type of beam used for Bletzacker’s experiments was a W12x27 which was also used in this project so as to create a benchmark for the obtained results. Time- temperature data, which was gathered from thermocouples, was presented in his report, and this data was used in this project for comparison between his findings and the capabilities of the TAS models. ‘The physical testing process was conducted at Ohio State University. The entire setup for the mechanical systems was possible due to the valuable help of agencies and different people. Once the setup was established, member restraints and material composition were varied to provide a detailed analysis and comparison of the twelve ‘members that were subjected to fire. In all cases Professor Bletzacker used the ASTM E-L19 time-temperature curve [24] to control the temperature of the furnace during the course of the experiment. The temperature profile for the steel beam was extracted at different locations within the cross-section by the use of thermocouples. The data obtained from these readings thus helped in developing plots to determine the pattern for the increase in steel temperature over the period of time. The data was used to estimate fire endurance time which was the time to when the beam could not carry the loads any longer and ultimately resulted in a failure or collapse. Similarly, plots for deflection and stress were also developed from this data. These studies were significant from the view point of deter ing endurance times by modeling the beam. as expected in the real world. The beam was subjected to loads and moments with the help of hydraulic jacks and other mechanical devices. However, it was not possible to represent an actual loading condition by the use of finite element software. Due to this reason, it was not possible to evaluate the stress, strain, and deformation results by the use of TAS [25]. 2.4 Finite Element Software 2.4.1 General Building codes by far have been the most -cepted solution to structural and fire design. the performance demonstrated by physical tests is incorporated within the building codes for designing purposes. Over the course of time, finite element models have gained significant importance, and research has been ongoing to establish an alternative toLiterature Review expensive and highly time consuming fire tests. Computer models have been developed to provide timely and economical simulations for results of a fire test. Researchers prefer finite element modeling to fire testing because the simulations can be used to target sensitive parameters that affect the overall fire event. 2.4.2 FEAST 2.4.2.1 General FEAST stands for “Finite Element Analysis of Structures at Temperatures”. This software was developed at the University of Manchester by Dr. T.C.H. Lui [22]. The program in itself is very versatile and has a detailed library for shell, solid, bolt, gap, and contact elements. Therefore, it can be utilized to analyze the local behavior of steel beams and columns. 2.4.2.2 Applications ‘The program is mainly used to study the behavior of steel framed connections and the effect of connections on the performance of steel beams exposed to fire conditions. Results from FEAST have shown a good correlation with laboratory tests, 2.4.2.3 Limitations Presently, FEAST is not capable of simulating buckling behavior in a steel member. Also, it is not capable of analyzing the non-linear behavior of large scale steel frames with many members. It cannot be used to simulate composite structural behavior. 2.4.3 SAFIR 2.4.3.1 General SAFIR [26] was developed at the University of Leige, Belgium by Franssen et al. 2000 [22]. SAFIR has the capabilities of simulating structural as well as thermal problems. Beam, truss, shell elements and 3-D solid elements are used for structural modeling and analysis. The are Jength method (Crisfield 1991) is included in the program to analyze post-buckling behavior but only for simple structures at present. Unlike FEAST, SAFIR does not have the capability to simulate connection behavior. =10-Literature Review 2.4.3.2 Limitations ‘Thermal analysis features are not very well-developed. The user has to conduct a thermal analysis for each part of the structure, and then prepare a library of temperature files to be used as an input for a subsequent structural analysis to evaluate forces, stresses, and deformations, 2.4.4 TAS (Thermal Analysis Software) 2.4.4.1 General r, \S [25] is a general purpose tool used to computer-simulate thermal problems. ‘The version of TAS which was used for this thesis project was Version 7.0.8, and it was developed at Harvard Thermal Inc. located in Boston, Massachusetts. The version was compiled on June 30, 2003. TAS is designed on the basis of Windows platform that provides the user with a single, integrated, graphical and interactive environment for model generation, execution and post-processing of the results.. The provision of dialog boxes to facilitate data input and prompts for avoiding common input errors makes TAS a user friendly software. The generation of brick elements and full use of boundary conditions helps in developing the model more precisely in order to achieve reasonable results. Three-dimensional geometry can be created using two-dimensional plate and three-dimensional brick and (etrahedron elements. The addition of heat sources in the form of radiation and convection sources facilitates the process of modeling heat transfer. Arrays for different properties and parameters, such as thermal conductivity, specific heat, and temperature can be provided in the form of temperature, temperature difference, time and time cyclic dependent. Heat loads can be supplied at specified points, locations or regions in the form of nodal or surface loads. TAS uses a finite element technique to model and solve the governing equations. This offers the versatility to easily create complex models involving many of the nonlinear cases often encountered. These include radiation, temperature-dependent thermal conductivity, and heat transfer coefficients that can be a function of temperature difference. The accuracy of the software has been proven over the past years. ‘The results of numerous models have been compared to classical solutions and the results of other =Literature Review programs such as MSC/NASTRAN, ANSYS and SINDA. ‘The program was written entirely in the C+ language. This ensures speed in the graphics and the solution. The program dynamically and efficiently allocates PC memory sufficient for the particular model being investigated. 2.4.4.2 Limitations One of the drawbacks of TAS is that it is not appropriate for combined thermal-structural analysis. It does not have a feature to add general point loads or uniformly distributed loads to the analysis of thermal stresses; it is limited to gravity loads only. Due to this reason it was not possible to obtain stress, strain, and deformation results, and thereby the structural failure due to the effect of temperature could not be evaluated. Steps are being taken at Harvard Thermal to incorporate features that would make TAS efficient enough to solve structural-related problems and give more detailed results in terms of stress, strain, and deformations. -12-Fire Tests 3 FIRE TE 3.1 General Most countries around the world rely on fire resistance tests to determine the performance of building materials and structural elements. The time-temperature curve used for a testis called a fire curve. There are different types of fire curves that have been established by researchers, viz. ASTM E-119 [24], and Eurocode [8]. In USA, the temperature profile and duration of a standard fire for designing and testing purposes is based on the provisions of ASTM E-119 [8], [24] 3.2, ASTM E-119 ASTM E-119 [8], [24] is the widely recognized standard for fire testing in the United States. The first edition was published in 1918 [8], with the most recent published in 2000. Technical committees help in setting up a standard, and this standard is revised as technology and understanding changes. There has been significant debate on the validity of ASTM E-119 data and methodology [8] due to the recent events of 9/11. One has to understand that ASTM E-119 is a guideline for fire safe design of buildings and not a predictor of behavior in an actual fire, Real fires are a function of many variables, such as fuel load, thermal radiation, heat flux, ventilation factor, and area of openings [8], [9], [23] which are related to the type of construction, building occupancy, and design. The main purpose of using the ASTM E-119 protocol is to establish and document the fire rating of different elements of a building. The test does not cover flame spread, fuel contribution, or smoke density. ASTM E-119 describes different strategies for conducting fire tests on the following structural assemblies and elements: Bearing walls and partitions Non-bearing walls and partitions Floors and roofs Loaded restrained beams veer ColumnsFire Tests 3.3 Lab Tests 3.3.1 General Lab testing is a very common method for determining the performance of a structural member from the view point of fire resistance. The main reason for conducting lab tests is essentially to test a structural element in a furnace from the viewpoint of critical temperature and fire endurance time or collapse mechanism [8], [14]. The element is then heated according to a standard time-temperature profile such as the ASTM E-119 curve [24]. The heating pro data can be taken regarding the deflections, stresses, strains, etc. This data however is not s is continued until failure of the ment occurs so that specific available to public, and only the critical values are published in the codes. Figure 3.1 presents a traditional setup of a lab conducted fire test. Figure 3.1 Assembly setup for a furnace tes \beam;(b)column [12], Chapter -14-Fire Tests Currently, there are studies being done and revisions are being made for the standard fire test procedure [8]. It is suggested by British Steel and the Buil ing research development, 1998 [8], on the basis of full scale fire test results at Cardington, UK that the actual temperature of an element when tested separately in a furnace is quite different from the temperature of the same element when exposed to a fire within a building. This is observed due to the various connections and differences in boundary conditions that eh is ‘occur when the beam or an element acts as a part of a frame. However, 1 ongoing and it will take some time to arrive at a clear conclusion. 3.3.2 Time-Temperature Curves ASTM E-119 is the most common time-temperature curve that is used for the purpose of testing and simulations. Figure 3.2 presents the time-temperature profile for ASTM E- 119. Temperature Vs Time $400 1200 1000 800 600 “Temperature (0) 400 200 ° SHH E ESP SP ES PLS LS Time (min) —aAs™ E119 Figure 3.2 ASTM E-119 Time-temperature curve However, different curves can be formulated for fire tests, based on the standard equations. The current version of ISO 834, [12] suggests that the time-temperature curve for the furnace tests is controlled by the following equation.Fire Tests 6, = 20+345log(8r +1) (3-1) where, 0, = furnace temperature (°C) 1 = temperature (minutes) ‘There are various other mathematical equations that have been suggested. Some of them are given below. Equation proposed by Williams — Leir (1973) <0, sale" raters) ral where, a,= 532, a, = -186, a,= 820, a,= 0.01, a, ) - [3-2] 8, e 05 and a,= 0.20 and @, is the ambient temperature Equation proposed by Fackler (1959) 8, = 0, + 7741-0"). 22.2Ve = [3-3] In these equations above, the base temperature or ambient temperature 8, is not considered to be 20°C which usually is the current practice. >on i) > Heat flux Vs Time for different furnaces [Castle, 1974} = 16-———+ Fire resistance time {min} Test laboratory 3.3.3 Fire Tests 849, — | 120 a t fey [a] 0 260-260-639 @ 160-150-5 109 80 60 e he) |e | fe 20 E | if a0 a e 2 5 a Figure 3.4 Effect of furnace characteristics on fire test results (Witteveen and Twilt, 1981/2), [12) Drawbacks of Fire Tests Fire tests may present variable results depending on the furnace conditions and other parameters. Some of the drawbacks of fire tests are listed below, > > y v Cost of specimen preparation and actual test procedure is very expensive ‘The test results are applicable only to a particular set of parameters that are already set and may not be true for an actual building construction It is difficult to test large assemblies due to the space limitations of a furnace It may not be possible in every case to supply the necessary loadings, restraints and moments to which a member would be subjected in actual construction Redistribution effects cannot be studied in detail because of the limitations of testing one member at a time The results obtained from a fire test are highly confidential from a manufacturer's point of view and cannot be applied for the purpose of research or further studies -17-Fire Tests > The thermal characteristics of a furnace play an important role in fire performance of elements and these parameters may vary from a furnace to furnace. Figure 3.3 presents the variability in heat flux for three different furnaces A, B, and C v Reproducibilit of results is not possible because of the variable thermal characteristics of a furnace. Harmanthy, 1969, suggested that the temperature rise in a furnace is a function of the thermal characteristics of furnace. Figure 3.4 illustrates the variability of results from a series of tests conducted by Witteveen, and Twilt, 1981/2, [12] on similar beams within different furnaces 3.4 Behavior of actual fire 3.4.1 General Compartment condition in an actual fire is an important study in the field of fire protection, Numerous curves have been suggested to explain the relation between temperature and time once a fire event takes place. It is important to note that factors such as thermal inertia, heat release rate, the presence of combustible materials, and the ventilation factor [8] play a critical role in the development of these fire curves. The behavior of compartment fire is described by three main phases, namely, 1. Growth 2. Fully developed fire 3. Decay period Figure 3.5 represents the different phases that develop in the case of a compartment fire. Fath developed [arown| { tee bec: - Temperature Time Figure 3.5 Different phases in a fully developed fire [12], Chapter 4 = 18-Fire Tests 3.4.2 Growth Growth is the initial phase of fire development. During this stage, combustion is restricted to certain areas of the compartment that may however result in significant localized rises in temperature. It may happen that many fires may not surpass this initial stage of fire development, due to insufficient fuel loads, limited availability of air supply, or human intervention. 3.4.3 Fully developed fire The rate of increase in temperature is directly proportional to the heat release rate. Therefore, during this stage there is a large increase in the temperature of the compartment with temperatures reaching to about 1000°C. The duration of this phase depends on the volatile matter that is present in a compartment. As the rate of generation of volatile material decreases, or when there is insufficient heat available to generate such volatiles, the phase begins to cease gradually. 3.4.4 Decay phase ‘The word “decay” means decrease. As the name clearly suggests, there is a decrease in the fire intensity during this phase due to the decrease in the available fuel and the rate of fuel combustion. This phase occurs when the quantity of volatile matter continues to decrease and is consumed, after the initial stages of fire. 3.5 Parametric Curves ‘Time-temperature curves other than ASTM E-119 [24] are formulated on the basis of standardized equations and these curves are known as parametric curves. The approach is based on compartment fire response whereby certain parameters need to be established before the temperature response is calculated. There are, however, certain assumptions that need to be made for analyzing the response [12]. 1. Combustion is complete and occurs totally within the boundaries of the compartment, 2. No temperature gradient exists in the compartment. =19-Fire Tests 3. Heat transfer characteristic known as thermal inertia, “b”, is a critical parameter for the determination of fire response. This parameter depends on several quantities including material density, thermal conductivity and specific heat. 4, Heat flow through compartment walls is assumed to be unidirectional, It was suggested by Wickstrom (1981/2, 1985 a), [12] that the compartment fire is dependent on the ratio of opening factor to the thermal inertia. A ventilation factor of 0.04 m and a thermal inertia of 1160 Ws/m?°C_ were assumed as reference values for a typical room for an office building to establish the standard furnace curve. In general, the temperature-time relations are expressed by the following equations, For the heating phase, 1325[1-0.324e*" —0.204e"'"" -0. are" ] - (3-41 1° = parametric time for determining compartment temperature-time response. is given by, tT Here, ‘ime I= parameter to calculate parametric compartment temperature-time response T is defined as, (4) r= > “135 (008) (1160) where, F = opening factor {ped = thermal inertia of the compartment boundary. For the cooling phase: for £3 <0.5 hours 1, = B pug ~625(¢" -13) - [3-6] for 0.5 < 1} <2 hours =20-Fire Tests - (3-71 for 13> 2 hours hear - 250(¢° = 13) - [3-8] @ yy. is the maximum temperature that is reached during the heating phase, and t} is » _ 0.13x107 4, 4 ven by, 4 given by. 1 - BI 4, design fire load per unit area of compartment boundary. Figure 3.6 illustrates the sensitivity of the time - temperature response for ENV 1991-2-2, from the theories of Wickstrom, and Lie. 4 oot oat o7b ue os F + Wiexstiom os} “Temporatare (dog ©) (thousands) oa oak co = 64 660 BO 100sDSaDS180 100, Time (minutos) Figure 3.6 Comparison of time-temperature response using the theory of Wickstrom,and Lie [12] From this chapter it was observed that there exists a significant amount of variability in the results that are obtained from furnace tests. Also, the behavior of fire curves from different formulations becomes an important area of study. -21-Material properties at elevated temperatures 4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES 4.1 Introduction This section provides an overview of the thermal properties of interest for typical construction materials such as steel, concrete, vermiculite and gypsum board. These properties were studied to facilitate the process of understanding and developing the models. 4.2. Definitions 4.2.1 Density () Density is a physical property of matter. In a qualitative manner density is defined as the heaviness of objects with a constant volume. It is denoted as p . Common. unit of density is kg/m’. 4.2.2 Thermal Conductivity (k, ‘Thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat flux that would pass through certain material depending on the temperature gradient over that material Thermal conductivity plays an important role in many heat and mass transport phenomena as it is a function of Prandt! number.It is denoted as k. Commonly used units are W/mK. and cal/sec -em -°C. 4.2.3 Specific Heat (C,) Specific heat is an intensive property which means that itis independent of the mass of a substance Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree celeius. It is denoted as CG, Common units for specific heat are IkgK and Ikg°C. 4.2.4 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (c,,) ‘The coefficient of thermal expansion is defined as the increase or elongation in -22-Material properties at elevated temperatures length occurring in a member per unit increase in temperature. It is denoted ase, Commonly used units are in/in/°C, em/em/°C. 4.2.5 Thermal Diffusivity ‘Thermal diffusivity is defined as the ratio of thermal conductivity to heat capacity. Its values are obtained on the basis of density, thermal conductivity and specific heat data for a particular material. It is denoted as "@". Common units are m’/sec, cm/sec, mm/sec. “(411 hermal conductivity in W/mK PC, = volumetric heat capacity measured in J/m*K Substances with high thermal diffusivity rapidly adjust their temperature to that of their surroundings, because they conduct heat quickly in comparison to their thermal 'bulk’ 4.2.6 Emissivitty Emissivity of a material is defined as the ratio of energy radiated to energy radiated by a black body at the same temperature. It is a dimensionless quantity. It is denoted as "e"" 4.3 Thermal Properties of Steel 4.3.1 Introduction Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, with carbon being the primary alloying material. Different quality/grades of steel can be manufactured by varying the amount of carbon and its distribution in the alloy [14]. Fire resistant steel is manufactured by adding molybdenum (Mo) and other alloying materials [14]. The behavior of steel when exposed to high temperatures is of critical importance for the safety and stability of the building. The temperature rise for a steel member is a function of the materials, thermal conductivity and specific heat [23]. Thermal conductivity tends to decrease with the increase in temperature while specific heat tends to increase with the increase inMaterial properties at elevated temperatures temperature, The properties are discussed in the following sections with the help of graphs from different sources. 4. 3.2 Density The standard value for the density of structural steel proposed by Eurocode 3, Part 1.2 [22] is 7850 kg/m’. For most calculations and research work density is assumed to be constant with the increase in temperature. Hence, a constant value was adopted for the modeling of the beam. 4.3.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion ‘The coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is denoted asé,,. Thermal expansion is temperature dependent and can be evaluated based on the equations proposed in Eurocode 3, Part 1.2 [22]. Figure 4.1 presents the plot for thermal expansion Vs temperature from Bletzacker’s data, Ey, = (-2.416x10") + (1.2x10°7)+(0.4x10% xT?) for 7 $750°C - [4-2] 0.011 for 750°C 860°C - [4-4] Thermal Expansion Vs Temperature 0.014000 0.012000 0.002000 0.000000 SPAS Fg a Temperature (°C) Figure 4.1 Thermal Expansion Vs Time based on Bletzacker’s Experimental Data, [1]Material properties at elevated temperatures 4.3.4 Thermal Conductivity Units for thermal conductivity are W/mK and W/em°C. The standard value for thermal conductivity of steel as suggested by Eurocode 3, Part 1.2 [22] is 54 W/mK at 20°C. However, thermal conductivity (k,) of steel varies with the change in temperature based on the relations established by Eurocode 3, Part 1.2 [22]. for 20°C 800°C - [4-6] Figure 4.2 represents thermal conductivity values based on Equations 4-5 and 4-6. 60 800 1000 1200 Steel (CEN 2001 4.3.5 Specific Heat Specific heat for steel is denoted asC,,. Units for specific heat are JAbs°C and J/kg K. ‘The equations suggested by Eurocode 3, Part 1.2 [22] for change of specific heat of steel with temperature are presented below. The results of these equations are graphically represented in Figure 4,3,Material properties at elevated temperatures 425 40.7337, + 0.001697; + 2.22x10°T? - [4-7] for 20°C < T, < 600°C ) 13002 448) T, -738 for 600°C < T,< 735°C sas[ 17820 -[4-8] \7,-731 for 735°C < T, = 900°C 650 for T,> 900°C [4-9] 2000 5 1400 200 1000 600 coe 400 4-7 200 o 200 100 00 00 tooo 1200 “Temperature CC) re 4, Heat Vs Temperature for 4.3.6 Thermal diffusivity According to Malhotra, [12], thermal diffusivity of steel shows a linear relationship up to a temperature of 750°C. @, = 0.87 - (0.84x10"8, ) [4-10] 4.3.7 Emissivity Wong M.B. et al [23] confirmed through use of a heat transfer model that the resultant emissivity depends on temperature and is not a constant. However, due to the lack of research work most researchers as me constant values. Eurocode 3 recommends a = 26-Material properties at elevated temperatures constant value of 0.625 for steel. Chitty et al, 1992, [12], Chapter 5, proved the significance of varying resultant emissivity to predict temperatures within a steel column, Figure 4.4 presents the results obtained from their tests. These tests prove that the results from a furnace test depend significantly on the thermal characteristics of a furnace and the geometry of the test element. These studies were significant from the view point of adopting constant values for emissivity to generate analytical solutions. However, due to the limitations of finite element analyses, constant values are adopted for the purpose of ulations. sa9°0 601° | eres = 0.3 “Eres = 0.5 —— Figure 4.4 Temperature prediction within a steel column due to the variation o| resultant emissivity [12], Chapter 5, p 77 -27-Material properties at elevated temperatures 4.4 Thermal Properties of Concrete 4.4.1 General In construction, concrete is a composite building material made from a combination of aggregate, cement binder and water. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand), portland cement, and water. After mixing, the cement hydrates and hardens into a stone- like material. Since concrete is a hygroscopic material, the heat transfer process is affected by the migration of water. Due to the properties of concrete it can absorb a large amount of heat. In most methods, constant thermal values are assumed for design purposes [23] 4.42 Density The loss or change in density of concrete is not significant with the change in temperature, Therefor , constant density is assumed for design or modeling purposes. As suggested by Eurocode [22], 2200 kg/m’ was assumed for all the models. 4.4.3 Thermal Conductivity ‘The equation suggested by ENV 1994-1-2 for change of thermal conductivity of concrete is presented below. The results from this equation are graphically represented in Figure 4.5. Wong M.B. et al. [23] conducted a sensitivity analysis and suggested that a constant value of 1.2 W/mK may be assumed for modeling purposes. The equation below is a general equation which maybe applied to different grades of concrete. (6. ay =2.0- 0.24] —= | +0.012| — [4-11] (120. 120. where, 0, = temperature of concrete (°C) k, thermal conductivity of concrete (W/mK) -28-Material properties at elevated temperatures 20h Loy gp dt ° ne Temperature CC) ” 5 z 2 g é 'emperature for soncrete (Schn ler, 19864) 4.4.4 Specific Heat Specific heat directly varies with temperature. The equation suggested by ENV 1994-1-2 [12] for changes in the thermal conductivity of concrete is presented below. The results of this equation and the values obtained from tests are graphically represented in Figure 4.6 As we can observe from the graph, the type of aggregate plays a critical role in the values. Cy. = 9004 af 2) ec) - [4-12] where, 6, = temperature of concrete (°C) specific heat of concrete (I/kgK) A constant value of 840 J/kg°C has been suggested by ENV 1994-1-2 for lightweight concrete. For this project, normal weight concrete was used for analyses. =29-Material properties at elevated temperatures Carbonate ENV 1994-1.2 z _——— crane 3 2 g é 00 200 wooo «1200 Tomperature (°0) Figure 4.6 Specific Heat Vs Temperature for concrete (Schneider, 1986a), [12], Chapter 6, p 89 4.4.5 Thermal Diffusivity ‘The thermal diffusivity of concrete decreases with an increase in temperature. Figure 4.7 shows the nature of thermal diffusivity for normal and lightweight concretes. ‘Coneret thermal lity (a) (hou) ° 200 400) 600 ‘800 Temperature (6) Figure 4.7 Thermal diffusivity Vs Temperature for concrete(Schneider, 1986a), [12], Chapter 6, p 91Material properties at elevated temperatures 4.5 Insulations and their Thermal Properties 4.5.1 Definition of Insulation Insulation is a material or combinations of materials that retard the flow of heat energy Some of the functions of insulations are: 1. Conserve energy by reducing heat loss or gain. 2. Control surface temperatures for personnel protection and comfort. 3. Facilitate temperature control of a process. 4, Prevent vapor flow and water condensation on cold surfaces. 5. Prevent or reduce damage to equipment from exposure to fire or corrosive atmospheres. 4.5.2 Types of Insulations 4.5.2.1 Fibrous Insulation Fibrous insulation is composed of small diameter fibers that finely divide the air space. ¢ fibers may be perpendicular or parallel to the surface being insulated, and they may or may not be bonded together. The most widely used insulators of this type are glass fiber and mineral wool 4.5.2.2 Cellular Insulation Cellular insulation is composed of small individual cells separated from one another. The cellular material may be glass or foamed plastic such as polystyrene (closed cell), polyurethane, and polyisocyanurate 4.5.2.3 Granular Insulation Granular insulation is composed of small nodules that contain voids or hollow spaces. It is not considered a true cellular material since gas can be transferred between the individual spaces. This type may be produced as a loose or pourable material, or combined with a binder and fibers to make a rigid insulation. Examples include calcium silicate, expanded vermiculite, perlite, cellulose, diatomaceous earth, and expanded polystyrene.Material properties at elevated temperatures 4.5.3 Thermal Properties of Vermiculite 4.5.3.1 General ‘The name Vermiculite is derived from the Latin word “Vermiculare” which means to breed worms. Vermiculite resembles mica in appearance. It is clean to handle, mold resistant, odorless and sterile due to the high temperatures to which it is subjected in production, Vermiculite exfoliates due to the presence of water which gets converted to steam. Vermiculite can be used for fire protection in the form of boards or as spray- applied plaster. The information presented below was obtained from a website for vermiculite [27] Chemical Formula: (Mg,Fe++,Al)3(Al,Si)sOxo(OH)2-4(H20) smpositio Figure 4.8 represents the percentage composition of different elements that are present in vermiculite. Molecular Weight = 504.19 gm Percentage composition of different components for Vermiculite | Magnesium Aluminum — & kon B Silicon BHydrogen ml Oxygen Figure 4.8 Percentage composition of different material in case of vermiculite -32-Material properties at elevated temperatures Empirical Formula: Mg, Fe" Al,38iO(OH)2-4(H20) 4. 2. Advantages of Vermiculite © Vermiculite has reduced thermal conductivity. © Itis light in weight. © It possesses improved workability. © Itis an excellent fire resistance material. © Ithas improved adhesion properties. © Ithas increased resistance to cracking and shrinkage. © Itis easy to install or apply. 4.5.3.3 Thermal Conductivity ‘The thermal conductivity of vermiculite increases with temperature, but after reaching a temperature in the range of about 1050°C to 1200°C the value decreases again. “Hoben International”, a leading professional engineering firm in England [7] has suggested that the thermal conductivity of vermiculite varies between 0.062 W/mK to 0.065 W/mK based on their laboratory tests. These tests also indicated that the melting point of vermiculite is around 1330°C. “SHUNDLER Company” [16], a US firm based in New Jersey, has also published test data for thermal resistance at specific temperature points. Since thermal conductivity is inversely proportional to thermal resistance, these values of thermal resistance can be used to obtain thermal conductivity values and incorporate them in the model. Table 4-1 represents the values obtained from the lab tests conducted by Schundler ‘Company for one cubic meter of vermiculite.Material properties at elevated temperatures Table 4-1 Thermal Resistance data from tests done by Shundler 16; ‘Temperature Thermal eo Resistance (Km’/W) 20 of 100 0:32 150 0.28 200 0.25 250 0.22 300 0.19 350 0.17 400 0.15 450 0.13 4.5.3.4 Specific heat ‘The specific heat of vermiculite has not been studied very deeply; itis an area of ongoing research with many unanswered questions. However, “Hoben International”, of England [7], suggests a constant value of 1800 J/kg K. Alternatively, Eurocode suggests a value of 1200 J/kg K, [12], Ch 6. There is a large variation between these two values. A specific heat profile in accordance with temperature was suggested by Toman Jan et. al 20] based on their laboratory experiments. Due to non-availability of established equations, data points were read from the graph and were then adjusted according to the technique of curve fitting. Figure 4.9 presents a comparison between the two data sets. -34-Material properties at elevated temperatures ‘Specie Heat Ve Temperature Specific heat capacity (J/kaK) PEEP SHE LPE ESS Temperate ee ee Temperature Figure 4.9 Comparison of graph of Specific heat Vs Temperature obtained from test data,[16) and from the technique of curve fitting(Interpolation’ 4.5.4 Thermal Properties of Gypsum 4.5.4.1 General Gypsum is a mineral found in sedimentary rock formations in a crystalline form known. as calcium sulfate dehydrate. Gypsum rock is mined or quarried and then crushed into fine powder. ‘The powder heated and treated through a chemical process called calcining which is a process for removing chemically combined components. Gypsum boards are rigid sheets of building material made from gypsum and other materials. It is also known as drywall construction. The common type of gypsum board that is used for construction purposes is designated as Type X based on its composition and fire ratings. Also, gypsum may be used in a single layer or multiple layers, depending on the type of building and its significance, The determination of the number of layers required, depend upon the type of building and code compliance regulations. Chemical formula: CaS0-2(H.0)Material properties at elevated temperatures smpositio Figure 4.10 represents the percentage composition of different components that comprise gypsum. Percentage composition of different components for gypsum CaO m S03 mB H20 Figure 4.10 Percentage composition of different materials in case of gypsum 4.5.4.2, Advantages of gypsum board Gypsum is easily available Gypsum boards provide a durable surface for interior ceilings and walls ‘They can be easily produced in the factory so there are no issues regarding moisture content Gypsum has a high melting point Gypsum panels are easy to install 4.5.4.3 Thermal Conductivity Much research has been conducted at the National Institute of Standards and ‘Technology also known as NIST. Cooper L.Y. [4] conducted lab tests on gypsum board to provide some understanding of how temperature influences properties of gypsum. As show! n in Figure 4.11 thermal conductivity rises after a temperature limit of 400°C and also there is a steep increase beyond 800°C. The change in thermal conductivity values -36-Material properties at elevated temperatures over a temperature limit of 400°C depends upon the presence of shrinkage cracks in the ‘gypsum board and also the intensity of the fire [4] 6 os 08 os a oa (on 00 —- o 200 400 600 ‘00 4000 TIC] ‘s Temperature for gypsum, [4] 4.5.44 Specific heat The specific heat of gypsum varies significantly with temperature increase [4]. Figure 4.12 represents the behavior of specific heat for gypsum board when subjected to high temperatures. The relationship is not linear and there is a large spike in the values during the initial heating period for temperatures in the range of 120°C to 200°C. Unfortunately, the reason for the spike was not known. 20000 6, [Kok] ° ‘200 400 ‘800 800 3000 ree} sure 4.12 Specific Heat Vs Time for -37-Heat Transfer Mechanisms 5 HEA’ 5.1 General _ TRANSFER MECHANISMS, The science of heat transfer is an important aspect in the study of structural performance during a fire event. Heat transfer mechanisms involve numerous mathematical equations that describe the temperature distribution through a structure/material. ‘The mechanisms of heat transfer are: 1. Conduction 2. Convection 3. Radiation 5.2. Conduction Conduction occurs within solids on a molecular scale without any motion of solid matter relative to one another. Figure 5.1 represents the conduction process occurring through an element of thickness Ax having constant thermal conductivity, k —~ Unit 4 area ¢ is! re X xtdx (1) (T+aT) mperature distribution with constant thermal conductivity [22, Chapter 6, p 171 FigureHeat Transfer Mechanisms ‘The basi sign in the equation indicates that the heat flows from the higher temperature side to the equation for conductive heat transfer is given by Fourier’s law. The negative lower temperature side. - (5-1) where, d7'= temperature difference across a thickness of dx ate of heat transfer across material thickness of dx k= thermal conductivity of material So, for a material of thickness Ax with different temperatures 7; and > at its two faces, as shown in Figure 5.2, + (5-2] 5.2.1 Boundary Conditions for one-dimensional heat conduction ‘The exposed surfaces are in contact with fluids at elevated temperatures. These fluid temperatures are used as boundary conditions for determining the temperature distribution in construction element. 1Heat Transfer Mechanisms Referring to Figure 5.2, the rate of heat transfer at the interface between the temperature Ty and the material surface T; is given by, O=nh, (tr, -1,) = 153] On the ambient air side, O=h,(T4-T.) - [54] T,, = fire temperature, T., = air temperature. hg, and h, are the overall surface heat exchange coefficients on the fire and air side respectively which depend on convective and radiative heat transfer. 5.3 Convection Convection is defined as the transfer of heat by motion of or within a fluid, It may arise from temperature differences either within the fluid or between the fluid and its boundary, or from the application of an external motive force. Convection heat transfer is one of the very complex problem types in engineering science. Convection is difficult to study because it is highly unpredictable in nature, and one can only make the best effort to assume certain parameters to achieve the goal of safety from the view point of flame spread [22]. There are two types of flows: 1) Laminar 2) Turbulent ‘The type of flow would be an important area of study when the heat transfer process ‘occurs through a fluid medium. In this case the heat transfer process occurs through the medium of air. ‘The study of convective heat transfer involves dimensionless numbers such as Nusselt, AL = [5-5] Here, L = length of solid surface he k= thermal conductivity of fluid -onvective heat transfer coefficient -40-Heat Transfer Mechanisms ‘There are primarily two types of convection processes, 1. Forced Convection 2. Natural Convection The following two sections explain in detail the different convection processes. 5.3.1 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convection Formulations as described below in Table 5-1 can be implemented to find the heat transfer coefficients for different types of flow conditions. Reynolds number is given by, R om = [5-6] fluid density U, = flow velocity = absolute viscosity of fluid Prandtl Number is given by, uC P. ~ [5-7 nay {5-7] here, k = thermal conductivity, = specific heat of air. Table 5-1 Convective heat transfer coefficients for forced conve. Chapter 6, p 176 Flow type Condition Characteristic | Nu(=hU/k) length Laminar flow, parallel 20 3 x 10° iL 0.037Re"® Pr!’ toa flat plate of length L Flow round a sphere General equation = L 2+0.6Re!? Pr! of diameter L -41-Heat Transfer Mechanisms 3.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Natural Convection Natural convection is caused by buoyancy forces due to density differences arising from ‘temperature variations in the fluid. At heating the density change in the boundary layer will cause the fluid to rise and be replaced by a cooler fluid that also will heat and rise. This phenomenon is called natural or free convection. Boiling or condensing processes are also referred to as convective heat transfer processes. The heat transfer per unit surface through convection was first described by Newton, and the relation is known as the Newton's Law of Cooling. The equation for convection can be expressed as: q=kAdT - [5-8] where, q = heat transferred per unit time (W) A= surface are for heat transfer (m?) k = convective heat transfer coefficient for the process (W/m?-K or W/m?-°C) ar temperature difference between the exposed surface and the bulk fluid (K or °C) Table 5-2 presents the variation in property values for air with increasing temperature Air acts as a thermal barrier and thus provides protection to the main component or material. By modeling the thermal properties of air the process of precise model building in case of finite element techniques can be facilitated. -42-Heat Transfer Mechanisms ible 5-2 Property values of air at atmosphe ‘homas (1980) [22, Chapter 6, p 176 Tk) plkgfm®)—CkV(kg.°C)] ux 108 vxl0& K Pr [kg/(m.s)] (m/s) [Wi(m°c)] 200 1.7684 ~— 1.0061 1.3289 7.490 0.01809 0.739 250 1.4128 —‘1,0053 1.488 949 0.02227 0.722 300 1.1774 1.0057 1.846 15.68 0.02624 0.708 350 0.9980 1.0080 2.075 20.76 0.03003 0.697 400 0.8826 1.0140 2.286 25.90 0.03365 0.689 450 0.7833 ‘1.0207 2.484 28.86 0.03707 0.683 500 0.7048 1.0295 2671 37.90 0.04038 0.680 550 0.6423 ‘1.0392 2.848 44.34 0.04360 0.680 600 0.5879 1.0551 3.018 5134 0.04659 0.680 650 05430 1.0635 3177 5851 0.04953 0.682 700 05030 1.0752 3.332 6625 0.05230 0.684 750 0.4709 1.0856 3.481 7391 0.05509 0.686 800 0.4405 1.0978 3.625 82.29 0.05779 0.689 850 04149 1.1095 3.765 90.75 0.06028 0.692 900 0.3925 1.1212 3.899 993 0.06279 0.696 950 0.3716 1.1321 4.023 108.2 0.06525 0.699 1000 0.3524 1.1417 4.152 1178 0.06752 0.702 1100 0.3204 1.1600 444 1386 0.0732 0.704 1200 0.2947 1.179 469 159.1 0.0782 0.707 1300 0.2707 1.197 493 182.1. 0.0837, 0.705 1400 0.2515 1.214 5.17 205.5 0.0891 0.705 1500 0.2355 1.230 5.40 229.1 0.0946 0.705 ‘The general equation for Nusselt number for the case of natural convection is given by, N, = BRa”™ - [5-9] The values of unknowns “B” and “m” depend upon the type of flow, surface configuration, flow type and dimensions. Ra is the Raleigh number and is given by the following equation, Ra=GrPr - [5-10] where, Pr is the Prandtl number (Equation 5-7), and Gr is known as the “Grashof number which is given by, -43-Heat Transfer Mechanisms + [5-11] Here, g = acceleration due to gravity B = coefficient of thermal expansion for the fluid AT = temperature difference between fluid and so surface v= relative viscosity of the fluid In the case of TAS models, the simulations were conducted for natural convection whereby arrays were modeled for the thermal properties of air. 5.4 Radiation In the case of radiative heat transfer there exists the phenomena of absorptivity @, reflectivity and transmissivity 7 that represent the fractions of incident thermal radiation that a body absorbs, reflects and transmits, respectively. atptt= = [5-12] A blackbody is a perfect emitter of heat. The total amount of thermal radiation emitted by a blackbody is given by, E, =oT* = (5-14) where, o tefan-Boltzmann constant = $.67x10* W/ m?K* T = absolute temperature in K. For analytical purposes, the radiant thermal exchange between two blackbodies as shown in Figure 5.3, can be calculated on the basis of the following equation, cos, cos 8, ne 40ers aad, where, dA, and dA, are areas of radiating and receiving surfaces respectively, 4, and 8, are the respective angles, E,, is the thermal radiation per unit surface of Ay ris the distance between the two surfaces.Heat Transfer Mechanisms day Figure 5.3 Radiant heat exchange between a finite and infinitesimal area (22) ‘Chapter 6, p 181 5.4.1 View Factor As shown in Figure 5.3, consider two surfaces Al and dA2 where Al is the emitting surface, The total thermal radiation from A1 to dA2 is given by, { E,, cos, cos8, Queass = (et ada The configuration factor or view factor, represents the fraction of thermal radiation WE, dA, ~ [5-15] from A; to dA2. The configuration or view factor has a maximum value of 1.0, and it is additive in nature. For the case of a complex structure, individual view or configuration factors can be found for different elements broken down into smaller parts. The resultant view or configuration factor can then be obtained by summation of all the corresponding factors. The factor “” plays an important role in numerical modeling of heat transfer as it determines the overall thermal response of structure. Radiation plays a key role as the amount of heat that is emitted from a surface contributes towards the overall fire event, and thus the temperature rise within supporting members,TAS Simulations 6 TAS SIMULATIONS 6.1 TAS Models ‘This section provides an introduction to TAS modeling and the methodology behind the model development process. A model was developed for a W 12x27 steel beam which was the same as considered by Professor Bletzacker [1] for his experiments. The first step was to develop a steel model for a W 12x27 section by using TAS. Time dependent properties for steel were modeled as arrays for systematic simulations which helped in ‘generating the results. The next step was to increase the complexity of the models by introducing additional elements such as concrete slab, vermiculite spray-applied insulation, and gypsum board insulation. Time-temperature data predicted by the models was compared with Professor Bletzacker’s experimental results, which served as a benchmark for this thesis. 6.2 Objectives of TAS models The objective of TAS modeling was to understand the finite element techniques and then to analyze the sensitivity of the model in terms of conduction, convection, and radiation by providing a comparison with Bletzacker’s experimental results [1]. The objectives can be elaborated as below, > To understand the techniques of finite element software and the features associated with TAS. v To proceed in a step by step manner from simpler models to more complex configurations by the introduction of additional elements such as concrete slab, vermiculite, and gypsum board insulation. Different fire curves (eg. ASTM E-119 and ENV) were also considered to study their important characteristics and contribution from the view point of modeling and designing, v To investigate and understand the nature of thermal properties of materials at elevated temperatures. > Study analytical methods to determine their significance and evaluate the sensitivity of results in comparison with TAS models, = 46-TAS Simulations ‘TAS is a user friendly and versatile model which allows the user to facilitate the design process by specifying the initial layout of nodes and then developing the brick elements. Heat was supplied to the beam through external sources in the form of convection and radiation. For all the models heat was supplied at five different locations which are described in the following section. Some of the important aspects to consider for designing a model are also described below. 6.3, Model Development 6.3.1 Boundary nodes Specifying boundary nodes is a very important aspect of a model in TAS. Note, that boundary nodes are very different from boundary conditions which essentially mean displacement conditions. Boundary nodes are important in a model from the view point of heat conduction through the cross- ion of the beam, and to get a sense of the stress, strain, and displacement picture in the form of color plots. For the case of a steel beam model, if no boundary nodes are specified then no heat conduction occurs and as a result the entire beam remains at a constant ambient temperature of 20°C. The reason for this is that the model behaves as if the radiative and convective heating effects occur in space with no connectivity to the steel beam. Thus, if a constant value is used, then the maximum temperature would be achieved at the first time-step without any iterative process. In this case the values were modeled as arrays based on the information obtained ike ASTM E-119 and ENV. For the case of from standardized time-temperature curv steel beam protected with fire proofing material, the boundary nodes were defined at the underside face of the insulating material located in the bottom flange. Alternatively, Bletzacker’s results [1] were implemented for the cases of bare steel model, and bare steel model with concrete whereby the boundary nodes were defined at the underside face of the bottom flange of unprotected steel. 6.3.2 Run Time Before executing the TAS model it is very necessary that the user checks the model and corrects any errors that are identified. TAS has a built-in capability for checking the model, which is simply initiated done by clicking on the “Check Model” option. The run time for the model depends on the number of elements and nodes, and also on the time -47-TAS Simulations step interval that has been adopted for the model through analytical calculations. The models were run on a Pentium IV processor with 512 MB RAM and 333 MHz processor speed. Large numbers of elements and nodes in a model increase the simulation time. For instance, approximately 6 to 8 hours were required for the simulation of a steel T-beam with vermiculite coating, a 4-inch thick concrete slab, and heat supplied from a total of five directions. 6.3.3 Qutput TAS has a post-processor that compiles the results for a particular model. The results are generated in the format of a text file with an “out” extension. This output file contains temperature data of all the nodes in the model at each time step. 6.3.4 Plotting results In order to plot the results of temperature changes over time, the region of the model or nodes of interest are first selected; the results are then plotted. By double clicking the graph line, all the data points that were used for plotting can be accessed. This data similarly can be copied to different software tools for further data analyses and comparisons. 6.3.5 Limitations TAS has significant limitations in terms of modeling imposed or distributed loads. The only loads that can be defined for a model are those related to gravity in three respective directions. As far as generating stress, strain and deformation results, TAS can only provide a range of minimum and maximum values for a particular time interval. TAS has the capability of generating these results through a unique solver known as GCG solver. Only color diagrams can be obtained for stress, strain and deformation results, and so it is very difficult to use TAS as an explicit tool for predicting and evaluating structural behavior at elevated temperatures. TAS was the only low-cost tool that was available for exploring the problem of thermal analyses. As an alternative use, other software such as SCINDIA or ABAQUS may help in generating fairly accurate stress results that would aid in the development of appropriate plots for the required parameters. = 48-TAS Simulations 6.3.6 Important Locations for study ‘Throughout the thesis four locations were considered for analyzing time-temperature relationships within the steel beam. Figure 6.1 presents these different locations Location 4 Location 3 Location 2 Location 1 Figure 6.1 Locations in the beam Location 1 was the region within the middle portion of the bottom flange, which has a width of 6.5". the thickness of the region was around 0.5". Location 2 encompassed the outer face of the flange depth. Therefore, the thickness of this location was the same as the thickness of flange, which was 0.24". Location 3 was referenced to the mid-height of the web from the bottom flange. The region consisted of a thickness of 0.25” 10 0.30". Location 4 was the depth of the top flange. The thickness of location 4 was the same as the depth of the top flange, which in this case was 0.24". -49-TAS Simulations 6.4 Bare steel model 6.4.1 Introduction A bare steel model was developed using finite element software TAS. The size and the dimensions for the model (Table 6-1) were the same as used by Professor Bletzacker for his experiments, which have been discussed earlier in the background literature section. The model was subjected to a time-temperature history directly from Professor Bletzacker's results [1] for temperatures within the bottom flange for the steel section. This initial model was analyzed solely for the purpose of observing and understanding the conduction phenomenon occurring through the section of the beam. The important parameters that were considered include the thermal conductivity and specific heat of steel, and these were modeled on the basis of the Eurocode equations (section 4.3.4). As previously described in section 6.3.6, in all TAS models, locations 1, 2, 3, 4, (Figure 6.1) were the focal points for comparing the finite element results with Bletzacker's experimental results. Figures 6.2 and 6.3 present different views for the bare steel model developed by using TAS for W 12x27 BEAM PROPERTIES FOR W 12x27 SECTION A (in?) | d(in) | bf (in) | ef (in) | twin) | Tain") | Safin?) | Ty (in) 795 | 11.96 | 6.497 | 04 | 0237 | 204 | 342 | 1830TAS Simulations igure 6.3 Ismoetric view of 3-D Steel beam(W 12x27) developed using TAS 6.4.2 TAS model results Figures 6.4 and 6.5 present temperature Vs time graphs for different locations through the beam. These results were obtained by varying the thermal conductivity and specific heat of the steel in accordance with temperature. Figure 6.6 presents the results for all four locations on a single graph. -51-TAS Simulations Temperature VsTime 00 Temperature VsTime 2 eo Eo 2 2m 2 a ° 6 SF PSPS HOS SHS FSF LSPS PHS ES ine Te oe tine ism (trie asm Figure 6.4 Temperature Vs rh for Locations 4 & 3 Temperature VeTine Tompetue VeTine 0 0 Tempe SESE SSS SELES Tine (06)TAS Simulations Temperature Vs Time 800 700 600 “O 500 400 300 200 100 ° SPE E LEE EEE ES Time (sec) —_*Location 4 Location 3 Location 2 == ‘Location 1 Figure 6.6 Temperature Vs Time graph for all Locations (Bare Steel Model 64.3 Results summary From Figures 6.4 and 6.5, it can be concluded that the model showed pretty good temperature distribution results throughout the beam when compared to the trend for ASTM E-119 curve, High temperature results were obtained for all locations, as expected due to the case of a bare steel model without any fire protection insulations, Figure 6.6 presents the results for all four locations. It was observed that there was a temperature lag between location 4 and other locations due to the fact that conduction that takes to transfer the heat from the bottom flange (location 1) towards the top flange (location 4). 6.5 Bare steel model with concrete slab 6.5.1 Introduction In this case, the previous model of bare steel was extended to include a 4" thick concrete slab over the top flange. Figure 6.7 presents an isometric view of the model with a 4” thick concrete slab, Concrete, due to its thermal characteristics has the capability of absorbing a significant amount of heat that is directed towards the top flange of the steel section. For this reason concrete slab is also known as a “Heat Sink”. The temperature of the top flange was expected to reduce drastically compared to the bare steel model, due toTAS Simulations the provision of the concrete slab, ‘The reduction in the temperature of steel section reduces the thermal stresses and also improves the structural rigidity and strength of the material. The data for the time-temperature history and change of thermal conductivity and specific heat for steel remained the same as for the bare steel model. Thermal conductivity and specific heat of concrete were treated as constants for each model. The properties of concrete that were adopted for the model are shown in Table 6-2 Table 6-2 Properties of Concrete, [1], [22] Width | Thickness | Thermal | Specific | Density fo (in) | Conductivity | Heat Keg/mi Wink thgK 3 a T5-1.95 | 1000-1260 | 2200 Conerete stab tel beam(W 12x27)model wi slab developed using TAS A" thick concrete 6.5.2 TAS model results Figures 6.8 and 6.9 present the plots for a specific case, where the values for thermal conductivity and specific heat of concrete are 1.95W/mK and 1260I/kgK respectively.TAS Simulations Temperature Vs Time 00 Temperature Vs Time ‘000 ao “SSLESSSELE Tete teraioné as SESSPSSOSSESS Tie) teaions a8 Figure 6.8 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 4 & 3 with 4" thick concrete slab Temperature Vs Time SESESHSOGSHES Tat) —Lovaion2 —asTME te Temperature Vs Tine TIPO SGPSH OSGOOD SHSSSSSGEOSE Tine see) [= oaaion — THE Te Figure 6.9 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 2 & 1 with 4" thick concrete slab 6.5.3 Comparison of TAS model with Bletzacker’s Experiments Table 6-3 provid 4 comparison between the results from Bletzacker’s experiments (1] and those from the bare steel model with a 4” thick concrete slab. Figure 6.10 presents a comparison of the results obtained from different models while Figures 6.11 and 6.12TAS Simulations present a comparison between Bletzacker’s experimental results [1] and the results from bare steel with 4” concrete slab model. Table 6-3 Temperature data for different Locations Location Bletzacker’s data ‘TAS model temperature ec) ec) Location 4 465.55 443.53 Location 3 698.88 P2405 Location 2 TAB.88 727.64 Location 729.44 729.44 Temperature Vs 9200. @ $$$ 1000, 800 600 400 Temperature (°C) 200 0 FFF HFEF HKH LEP ELE S SH Time (sec) — Bare steel, restrained — Bare steel with concrete, restrained| — Bletzacker's data —ASTME-119 Figure 6.10 Temperature Vs Time graph for.Temperature Vs Time TAS Simulations 00 Temper Ve Tine a 4 SEF FSIS SSL LSE Tne) = toed — sash? Data — ASTHE- 8 1000 Ey soo [ [ LL S Ss SLL SS Tne) SHS |= TAS Mosel — once’ Dan — AS TE-18| Figure 6.11 Temperature Vs Time raph for Locations 4 (lef & 3 (right) Temperature Vs Time Temperature Vs Time Temperature (-C) PESLSESELES Tt 5 tte da NEN FEL LESSSLSES Tee) (= Tes wos — bates Da — ASTUTE re 6.12 Temperature Vs 6.5.4 Results summary ‘As, shown in Figure 6.10, the temperature for the top flange (location 4) reduces about 240°C due to the 4" thick concrete slab. A large amount of heat that is conducted towards the top flange of the beam gets absorbed mainly due to the thermal properties of concrete.TAS Simulations Also, the data obtained for location 4 shows a good correlation with Bletzacker’s data (1]. Figures 6.11 and 6.12 present the time-temperature relationship for all locations. At all locations, the model showed good agreement with Professor Bletzacker’s experimental results [1]. These results suggest that the overall conduction, convection and radiation within the steel beam and concrete slab were adequately modeled and suitable for further study. 6.6 Different values for Thermal conductivity 6.6.1 Introduction ‘Models were developed and simulated for different values of thermal conductivity for ‘able 6-4, concrete to study the sensitivity of the temperature in the steel. As shown in each case dealt with a constant value of thermal conductivity for the concrete. These constant values were selected on the basis of articles and journals that have be published and also by engineering judgment. Table 6-4 Different values of Thermal conductivity for concrete Case Thermal Conductivity | Location 4 temperature (°C) (W/mK) from TAS model Case A 1.95 443.56 Case B 17 455.61 Case C 1.6 460.92 Case D 15 66.54 6.6.2 TAS model results Figure 6.13 presents the temperature Vs time plot for location 4 due to different constant values for the thermal conductivity of concrete.TAS Simulations Temperature Vs Time ‘500 400 350 “o 200 50 ce KE EP KS SPF PPE SP Time (see) Case A Case 8 — Case GC Case 0 Figure 6.13 Temperature Vs Time for Location 4 due to different constant values for the thermal conductivity of concrete 6.6.3 Results summary ‘As shown in Figure 6.13, there is not much change in the top flange temperature due to different values of thermal conductivity of concrete. It was observed that a percentage change of 5.8% to 13% for the values of thermal conductivity of concrete resulted in a 1.1% to 2.8% change in the temperature results at location 4, From these results, it can be concluded that the temperature profile is not that sensitive due to the variation of thermal conductivity of concrete in the range of 1.5 to 1.95 W/mK. The results were only analyzed for location 4 as the top flange was in direct contact with the slab. 6.7 Different values for Specific Heat 6.7.1 Introduction ‘The model was further exposed to study the effect of different constant values of specific heat of concrete, Again, the changes in the value of temperature for location 4 were studied. The results obtained for location 4 due to the changes made in specific heat are tabulated in Table 6-5.TAS Simulations lues of Specific heat for concrete Case ‘Specific heat (WkgK) | Location 4 temperature CC) from TAS model Case A 1023 454.30 Case B 1085 450.45 Case E 1200 F355 Case D 1260 460.92 6.7.2 TAS model results Figure 6.14 presents the temperature Vs time plot for location 4 due to different constant values for the specific heat of concrete. Temperature Vs 500 450 400 350 300 250 + 200 150 100 50 ° Temperature (©) SF KK FS KF KKK SF SF Time (see) —case A —Case 8 — Case C —CaseD Figure 6.14 Temperature Vs Time at Location 4 due to different constant values for the specific heat of concrete -60-TAS Simulations 6.7.3 Results summary As shown in Figure 6.14 there is not much change in the temperature range for location 4 due to the different values of specific heat. It was observed that a percentage change of 5.7% to 9.5% for the values of specific heat resulted in a 1% to 4% change for the temperature results for location 4. It can thus be concluded that the temperature profile is not that sensitive when subjected to a change in specific heat change of concrete over the range of 1023 to 1260 J/kgK. 6.8 W12x27 steel beam with 0.5" thick vermiculite coating 6.8.1 Introduction ‘The model of the W12x27 steel section with a 4" concrete slab was extended to include a 0.5" thick protective layer of spray-applied vermiculite coating. The first step towards imulating the performance was to use values for thermal properties of vermiculite. The next step was to conduct simulations with variable properties to investigate the sensitivity of the results and to provide a comparison with the results obtained from Bletzacker’s experiments [1]. More details of the model development are listed in parts A and C of the Appendix. 6.8.2 W12x27 steel beam with 0.5" thick vermiculite coating (constant thermal properties 6.8.2.1 Introduction The first step was to analyze the model with constant thermal properties for the vermiculite and to provide a comparison with Bletzacker’s data [1] to estimate the lag between the two temperature-time curves. This study would aid to understand the influence of variable thermal properties which are discussed in the next section. The thermal properties of steel were the same as for the previous models while for concrete constant values of 1.95 W/mK. and 1023 I/kg K were used for thermal conductivity and specific heat respectively. Figure 6.15 presents an aerial view of the model developed in AS -61-TAS Simulations Vermiculite coating ——> Conerete stab Figure 6.15 Isometric view of W 12x27 steel beam with 0.5" thick vermiculite coating ‘and 4" thick concrete slab 6.8.2.2 TAS model results Figures 6.16 and 6.17 present the temperature Vs time plots for W12x27 steel beam protected with 0.5” thick vermiculite coating having constant thermal properties. Temperature Vs Time Temperstute Ve Tine zm 5 SESE LLLP ELSES FFF LFS H PLES Tee see) Tine (ee) [ toeamons LOCATIONS ure 6.16 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 4 (left) & 3 -62-TAS Simulations Temporatuo Vs Time Temperature Vs Time SSPE PEP EC LES FFF LFF ES LES Tine (oe) Teese) LweatNa ocanont Figure 6.17 Temperature Vs Time graph for Locations 2 (left) & I (right) 3 Comparison of results obtained from TAS model and Bletzacker’s Data Figures 6.18 and 6.19 present the comparison of results from Bletzacker’s data [1] and TAS model for vermiculite coating. Temperature Vs Tine Temperature Ve Tine TEP ELLE ELLE SEPP EE PP EP IS Teo) Tine (oe) Figure 6.18 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Locations 4 (left) & 3 (right)TAS Simulations Temperature Vs Time Temperature Vs Tine i SESE LE PEPELES SES ELI SPE LES Tee Tein) [Ears a Ti ed — THE] arr baa — Ta — TIE Figure 6.19 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Locations 2 (left) & 1 (right 6.8.2.4 Results summary From Figures 6.18 and 6.19 it was observed that there was a temperature lag between the results from TAS model with constant thermal properties for vermiculite and Bletzacker's results [1]. This was mainly due to the constant thermal properties for vermiculite which is not the case in real life. It can be mentioned at this point that it becomes very important to model thermal properties of vermiculite as an array in order to achieve reasonable results. 6.8.3 W12x27 steel beam with 0.5" thick vermiculite coating (variable thermal Properties, 6.8.3.1 Introduction The basic model was the same as for the previous case involving constant thermal properties of vermiculite, the only difference being that the thermal properties of vermiculite were input as a temperature-dependent. The thermal properties of steel were the same as for the initial model of bare steel while for concret constant values of 1.95 -64-TAS Simulations WimK and 1023 Ikg K were used for thermal conductivity and specific heat respectively. As previously described in Chapter IV, section 4.5.3.3, for vermiculite the results from the tests were only available up to a temperature limit of 400°C to 450°C. For further assessment of thermal properties beyond this temperature lis jt, the technique of curve fitting was adopted. Different arrays were modeled to have a sense of the impact that would occur due to the changes in thermal characteristics for vermiculite, The thermal properties data for vermiculite have been discussed and presented in parts A and C of the Appendix 6.8.3.2 TAS model results Figures 6.20 and 6.21 present the results for a W 12x27 steel beam with 0.5" thick vermiculite coating having variable thermal properties. ‘Temperature Vs Tine Temperature Vs Tine Ts 100 00 1000 2 ° SPEC SPESESES SEE EESPELSS Tie) ete) TocaToxs [tocanons sure 6.20 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 4 (left) & 3TAS Simulations Temperature Vs Tine Temperature Vs Tine 0 oe ‘ . s SFP ES HCC SES Tine) “Tie see) Figure 6.21 Temperature Vs Time for Locations 2 (left) & 1 (right) 6.8.3.3 Comparison of results from different models Temperature Vs Time 300 cP EC EC KE EEE PCE EO SF Time (sec) TAS Mode! Variable Values ——=Bletzackers Data TAS Model Constant Values Figure 6.22 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 4 - 66 -TAS Simulations Temperature Vs Time 900 800 700 “o 600 500 400 200 ce PFE SE PEPE SP TAS Mode! Constant Values Figure 6.23 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 3 Temperature Vs Time 1000 5 900 800 700 + 600 O 500 oo g00 200 100 + “oS PPP PPP PPEE Time (sec) TAS Model Variable Values ——Bletzacker's Data TAS Mode! Constant Values Figure 6.24 Comparison of Temperature Vs Time data from different models for Location 2 -67-TAS Simulations Temperature Vs 1000 900 800 700 600

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