Cell Structure

Chapter 3

3.1 Impacts/Issues
Food For Thought
Bacteria in our intestines make vitamins and
keep us healthy but other bacteria make toxins
that can contaminate foods and even kill us

Video: Food for thought

3.2 What, Exactly, Is a Cell?

Cells are the fundamental units of all life

All cells start life with a plasma membrane,

cytoplasm, and a region of DNA which, in
eukaryotic cells only, is enclosed by a nucleus

Examples of Cells
Some single-celled organisms (protists)

Cell Structure
A plasma membrane surrounds the cell and
controls which substances move in and out
Plasma membrane
A cells outermost membrane

Lipid bilayer
Structural foundation of cell membranes; mainly
phospholipids arranged tail-to-tail in a bilayer

A Lipid Bilayer

one layer
of lipids
one layer
of lipids

a lipid bilayer
p. 43

Cytoplasm

An important part of homeostasis is maintaining

the composition of cytoplasm, which differs from
fluid outside the cell
Cytoplasm
Semifluid substance enclosed by a cells plasma
membrane

Organelles

Cell metabolism occurs in cytoplasm and

internal compartments, including organelles

Organelle
Structure that carries out a specialized metabolic
function inside a cell

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Cells are classed as eukaryotes or prokaryotes
based on how DNA is housed in the cell
Nucleus
Organelle with two membranes that holds a
eukaryotic cells DNA

Nucleoid
Region of cytoplasm where DNA is concentrated
in a prokaryotic cell

Surface-to-Volume Ratio
Cells must be small to efficiently exchange
materials with their environment
Surface-to-volume ratio limits cell size and
influences cell shape
Surface-to-volume ratio
A relationship in which the volume of an object
increases with the cube of the diameter, but the
surface areas increases with the square

Surface-to-Volume Ratio

Animation: Surface-to-volume ratio

The Cell Theory

Cell theory is the fundamental theory of biology

Cell theory

All organisms consist of one or more cells

The cell is the smallest unit of life
Each new cell arises from another cell
A cell passes hereditary information to its
offspring

The Cell Theory

Animation: Overview of cells

3.3 Measuring Cells

Most cells are visible only with the help of

microscopes

Different types of microscopes use light or

electrons to reveal different details of cells

Bacteria on the Tip of a Pin

Bacteria are the smallest and simplest cells

Fig. 3-3a, p. 45

Fig. 3-3b, p. 45

Fig. 3-3c, p. 45

Animalcules and Beasties

No one knew cells existed until microscopes
were invented

1600s: van Leeuwenhoeks microscope

sample holder

focusing knob

lens
Leeuwenhoeks microscope
p. 45

Hooke, Schleiden, and Schwann

1600s: Robert Hooke improved the microscope
and coined the term cell

1839: Matthias Schleiden and Theodore

Schwann realized cells were alive and proposed
the cell theory

Modern Microscopes

Different types of microscopes reveal different

aspects of cell structure

Light microscope (phase contrast)

Light microscope (reflected light)
Fluorescence microscope
Transmission electron microscope
Scanning electron microscope

Same Organism, Different Microscopes

10m

A Light micrograph.
A phase-contrast
microscope yields
high-contrast images
of transparent
specimens, such
as cells.

B Light micrograph.
A re ected light
microscope captures
light reected from
opaque specimens.

C Fluorescence
micrograph. The
chlorophyll
molecules in these
cells emitted red
light (they
uoresced)
naturally.

D A transmission
electron
micrograph
reveals
fantastically
detailed images of
internal
structures.

E A scanning
electron
micrograph shows
surface details of
cells and
structures. SEMs
may be artificially
colored to
highlight certain
details.

Fig. 3-4, p. 46

Relative Sizes

Fig. 3-5a, p. 46

electron microscopes
viruses

molecules of life

small
molecules

0.1 nm

lipids DNA
(width)

1 nm

mitochondria,
chloroplasts

light microscopes
most
eukaryotic
most
cells
bacteria

complex carbohydrates
proteins

10 nm

100 nm

1 m

10 m

Fig. 3-5a, p. 46

Fig. 3-5b, p. 47

human eye (no microscope)

largest organisms
small animals
humans

frog eggs

100 m

1 mm

1 cm

10 cm

1m

10 m

100 m

Fig. 3-5b, p. 47

Animation: How an electron microscope

works

Animation: Wavelengths of light

3.4 The Structure of Cell Membranes

The plasma membrane is basically a lipid bilayer
balloon filled with fluid

The nonpolar tails of both layers are sandwiched

between the polar heads

uid

p. 48

The Fluid Mosaic Model

A cell membrane is a mosaic of proteins and
lipids (mainly phospholipids) that functions as a
selectively permeable barrier that separates an
internal environment from an external one
Fluid mosaic model
A cell membrane can be considered a twodimensional fluid of mixed composition

Membrane Proteins
Proteins associated with a membrane carry out
most membrane functions
Transport proteins passively or actively assist
specific ions or molecules across a membrane
Enzymes speed chemical processes
Adhesion proteins help cells stick together
Recognition proteins tag cells as self
Receptor proteins bind to a particular substance
outside the cell

Cell Membrane Structure

Fig. 3-6a, p. 48

A Phospholipids are the most abundant

component of eukaryotic cell membranes.
Each phospholipid molecule has a
hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails.

hydrophilic
head

two
hydrophobic
tails

Fig. 3-6a, p. 48

Fig. 3-6b, p. 48

B In a watery uid, phospholipids

spontaneously line up into two layers:
hydrophobic tails cluster together, and
hydrophilic heads face outward, toward
the uid. This lipid bilayer forms the
framework of all cell membranes.

one layer
of lipids
one layer
of lipids

Fig. 3-6b, p. 48

Fig. 3-6c, p. 48

Animation: Lipid bilayer organization

Animation: Cell membranes

Animation: Fluid mosaic model

3.5 Introducing Prokaryotic Cells

Domains Bacteria and Archaea make up the

prokaryotes

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms with no

nucleus, but many have a cell wall and one or
more flagella or pili

Prokaryote Body Plan

Cell wall
Semirigid but permeable structure that surrounds
the plasma membrane of some cells
Consists of peptides and polysaccharides (in
bacteria) or proteins (in archaeans)
In some bacteria, a sticky capsule of
polysaccharides surrounds the cell wall

Prokaryote Body Plan

The cytoplasm contains ribosomes, a circular

DNA molecule in a nucleoid region, and may
contain additional genes as plasmids
Ribosome
Organelle of protein synthesis

Prokaryote Body Plan

Surface extensions allow certain actions

Flagellum
Long, slender cellular structure used for mobility

Pilus
A protein filament used to help cells cling to or
move across surfaces, or for plasmid transfer

Prokaryote Body Plan

agellum

capsule
cell wall
plasma membrane
cytoplasm,
with ribosomes
DNA in nucleoid

pilus
Fig. 3-8, p. 50

Animation: Typical prokaryotic cell

Prokaryote Diversity

As a group, prokaryotes are the smallest and

most metabolically diverse forms of life

Prokaryotes inhabit nearly all regions of the

biosphere many archaeans are adapted to
extreme environments

Prokaryote Diversity: Bacteria

A Protein filaments, or pili, anchor bacterial

cells to one another and to surfaces. Here,
Salmonella Typhimurium cells (red) use
their pili to invade human cells.
Fig. 3-7a, p. 50

B Ball-shaped Nostoc cells are a type of

freshwater photosynthetic bacteria. The
cells in each strand stick together in a
sheath of their own jellylike secretions.
Fig. 3-7b, p. 50

Prokaryote Diversity: Archaeans

C The archaean Pyrococcus furiosus was discovered in

ocean sediments near an active volcano. It lives best at
100C (212F), and it makes a rare kind of enzyme that
contains tungsten atoms.
Fig. 3-7c, p. 51

D Ferroglobus placidus prefers superheated water

spewing from the ocean oor. The durable composition
of archaean lipid bilayers (note the gridlike texture)
keeps their membranes intact at extreme heat and pH.
Fig. 3-7d, p. 51

Biofilms

Biofilms are shared living arrangements among

bacteria and other microbial organisms that
provide various advantages to the community
Biofilm
Community of different types of microorganisms
living within a shared mass of slime

3.6 A Peek Inside a Eukaryotic Cell

All eukaryotic cells start life with a nucleus,

ribosomes, organelles of the endomembrane
system (including endoplasmic reticulum,
vesicles, Golgi bodies), mitochondria, and other
organelles

The Nucleus
Pores, receptors, and transport proteins in the
nuclear envelope control the movement of
molecules into and out of the nucleus
Nuclear envelope
A double membrane that constitutes the outer
boundary of the nucleus

The Endomembrane System

The endomembrane system includes rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles, and
Golgi bodies
Endomembrane system
Series of interacting organelles between the
nucleus and plasma membrane
Makes and modifies lipids and proteins
Recycles molecules and particles such as wornout cell parts, and inactivates toxins

The Endomembrane System

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A continuous system of sacs and tubes that is an
extension of the nuclear envelope
Rough ER is studded with ribosomes (for protein
production)
Smooth ER has no ribosomes

The Endomembrane System

Vesicle
Small, membrane-enclosed, saclike organelle
Stores, transports, or degrades its contents

Peroxisome
Enzyme-filled vesicle that breaks down amino
acids, fatty acids, and toxic substances

Lysosome
Vesicle with enzymes for intracellular digestion

The Endomembrane System

Golgi body
Organelle that modifies polypeptides and lipids
Sorts and packages the finished products into
transport vesicles

Vacuole
A fluid-filled organelle that isolates or disposes of
wastes, debris, or toxic materials

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own
DNA they resemble bacteria and may have
evolved by endosymbiosis
Mitochondrion
Double-membraned organelle that produces ATP

Chloroplast
Organelle of photosynthesis

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts:

Bacteria-Like Organelles

Fig. 3-11a, p. 54

outer membrane

outer
compartment
inner compartment
inner membrane

Fig. 3-11a, p. 54

Fig. 3-11b, p. 54

two outer
membranes
stroma
inner
membrane

Fig. 3-11b, p. 54

Animation: Structure of a
mitochondrion

Animation: Structure of a chloroplast

The Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton
Dynamic network of protein filaments that
support, organize, and move eukaryotic cells and
their internal structures

The cytoskeleton interacts with accessory

proteins, such as motor proteins

Cytoskeletal Elements
Microtubules
Cytoskeletal elements involved in movement
Hollow filaments of tubulin subunits

Microfilaments
Reinforcing cytoskeletal elements
Fibers of actin subunits

Intermediate filaments
Elements that lock cells and tissues together

Cytoskeletal Elements

Fig. 3-12a, p. 55

tubulin subunit

Fig. 3-12a, p. 55

Fig. 3-12b, p. 55

10 m
Fig. 3-12b, p. 55

Motor Proteins
Motor proteins are the basis of movement they
interact with microfilaments in pseudopods or (in
cilia and eukaryotic flagella) microtubules
Motor proteins
Energy-using proteins that interact with
cytoskeletal elements to move cells parts or the
whole cell

Motor Proteins
A motor protein moves a vesicle along a
microtubule

Animation: Motor proteins

Cilia and False Feet

Cilia
Short, hairlike structures that project from the
plasma membrane of some eukaryotic cells
Coordinated beating stirs fluid, propels motile cells
Moved by organized arrays of microtubules
Example: clears particles from airways

Flagella
Eukaryotic flagella are whiplike structures that
propel cells such as sperm through fluid
Different internal structure and motion than
prokaryotic flagella

False Feet

Pseudopod (false foot)

Extendable lobe of membrane-enclosed
cytoplasm for movement or to engulf prey
Moved by motor proteins attached to
microfilaments that drag the plasma membrane
Example: amoebas

Components of an Animal Cell

8
9
2
1

3
6

7
4

Fig. 3-9, p. 52

Animation: Common eukaryotic

organelles

An Animal Cell

nuclear mitochondrion DNA in

envelope
nucleus

nuclear
pore

rough ER with
attached ribosomes
Fig. 3-10, p. 53

Animation: Structure of a
mitochondrion

Animation: The endomembrane system

Animation: Flagella structure

Animation: Nuclear envelope

Animation: Structure of a chloroplast

Animation: Cytoskeletal components

3.7 Cell Surface Specializations

Cell junctions
Connect a cell structurally and functionally to
another cell or to extracellular matrix (ECM)

Extracellular matrix (ECM)

Complex mixture of substances secreted by cells
Supports cells and tissues
Functions in cell signaling

Types of Animal Cell Junctions

Tight junction
An array of fibrous proteins that joins epithelial cells
and prevents fluids from leaking between them

Adhering junction
Anchors cells to each other or to extracellular matrix

Gap junction
Forms a channel across plasma membranes of
adjoining animal cells

Types of Animal Cell Junctions

1 Tight junctions
Rows of proteins
that run parallel
with the free
surface of a
tissue; stop leaks
between adjoining
cells.

2 Adhering junction
A mass of
interconnected
proteins that welds
one cell to another
or to ECM; anchored
under the plasma
membrane by
intermediate
filaments.

3 Gap junction
Cylindrical clusters
of proteins that span
the plasma
membrane of
adjoining cells;
clusters are often
paired as channels
that open and close.

Fig. 3-14, p. 56

Animation: Animal cell junctions

Tight Junctions Around Kidney Cells

Cell Connections in Plants

In plants, plasmodesmata connect the
cytoplasms of adjoining cells
Plasmodesmata
Open channels that extend across the primary
walls of adjoining cells
Allow materials such as water, nutrients, and
signaling molecules to flow through

Animation: Plant cell walls

3.8 Impacts/Issues Revisited

Fresh foods marked with this symbol have been

irradiated to kill bacteria potential health risks
from eating irradiated foods are unknown

p. 57

p. 57

Digging Into Data:

Organelles and Cystic Fibrosis

Fig. 3-16a, p. 59

ATP

ATP

CF deletion

Fig. 3-16a, p. 59

Fig. 3-16b, p. 59