Comparative Anatomy of the

Vertebrates:

[CHAPTER 7:

Mineralized Tissues: An Introduction to the Skeleton]

OUTLINE:
I. Functions of the Skeletal System
II. Steps in the Formation of Skeletal Tissues
III. Bone
Types of Bone based on structure:
A. Compact
B. Spongy
C. Dentin
D. Acellular
Types of Bone based on development:
E. Membrane
F. Replacement
IV. Cartilage
A. Hyaline
B. Fibrocartilage
C. Elastic
D. Calcified
V. Skeletal Remodeling
VI. Tendons, Ligaments, and Joints
VII. Heterotropic bones

More or less parallel to the direction of

force
o Characteristic of amniotes
b) Periosteal Bone
o Formed on the inner surface of
periosteum which covers all except at
their articular surfaces
SPONGY OR CANCELLOUS BONE
a) Trabeculae provides maximum strength
o Haversian systems absent
b) Marrow in the trabeculae supports blood
vessels, nerve fibers and adipose tissues
c) Endosteum has the capacity to deposit bone
and remodel it
~ Flat Bones: core of spongy bone and marrow
sandwiched between two layers of compact
surface: sternum, scapulae, skull mem. bones
DENTIN

How is the skeleton relevant to comparative anatomy?

Because it is left behind in the fossil records
I. FUNCTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Supporting framework for the body

Protection of internal organs
Muscle attachment/leverage for locomotion
Storage of minerals
Hematopoiesis (bone marrow)

II. STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF SKELETAL

TISSUES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Aggregation of mesenchyme to form blastema

Some mesenchyme cells become fibroblasts
Synthesis of collagen by fibroblasts
The fibrils aggregate to form collagen fibers
The fibers form dense collagen bundles that
are woven into network of dense CT
6. Deposition of minerals
7. Formation of cartilage or bone
III. BONE
-

Matrix of collagenous fibers + hydroxyapatite

crystals + (water + mucopolysaccharide)
Osteoblasts become TRAPPED by the bone
they have laid around them
Lacunae contains osteocytes
Canaliculi present. It houses the protoplasmic
processes extending from the osteocytes

COMPACT OR LAMELLAR BONE

a) Osteon or Haversian system present (thus,
vascularized)
o Blood vessels are responsible for the
configuration of haversian systems

Same constituents as bone

Odontoblasts are NOT TRAPPED in lacunae
during osteogenesis because they RETREAT
as they deposit dentin
- Leave behind protoplasmic processes called
dentinal tubules (canaliculi counterpart)
- Dentin forms only in the outer surface of the
dermis
~ Placoid scales enameloid are odontoblast in
origin;
scales of
basal-ray finned
and
elasmobranch fishes and in teeth are dentin

ACELLULAR BONE - ASPIDIN

- RETREAT as they deposit dentin
- Leave behind NO protoplasmic processes
~ Flexible scales of modern fishes and the
cementum of the vertebrate teeth
MEMBRANE BONE
-

Bone deposited DIRECTLY

within a
membranous
blastema
through
intramembranous ossification
- Lacks haversian canals
~ dermal bones: bones of the lower jaw, skull,
pectoral girdles; periosteal bone
REPLACEMENT BONE
-

Deposited where hyaline cartilage already

exists through endochondral ossification
In ectotherms, chondrogenesus us throughout
life; in birds and mammals, centers cease
elaborating cartilage after sexual maturity

Comparative Anatomy of the

Vertebrates:

[CHAPTER 7:

Mineralized Tissues: An Introduction to the Skeleton]

It must be noted that in both kinds of ossification, the

immediate result is formation of temporary spongy
bone.
IV. CARTILAGE
-

Matrix of collagenous fibers + sulfated

mucopolysaccharide
Chondroblasts become chondrocytes after
being TRAPPED in lacunae
Canaliculi absent. Blood vessels absent

HYALINE CARTILAGE
-

Precursor of replacement bone, hence least

differentiated
~ Found chiefly on the articular surfaces of bones
within the joints of tetrapods
FIBROCARTILAGE
-

Thick, dense, collagenous bundles in the

interstitial matrix
~ intervertebral discs of mammals

Directly continuous with the periosteum

Holds the bone in their proper alignment in the
joint
~ Nuchal ligament is the longest ligament in
mammals
VS. Falcofrom cartilage = mesenteries;
skeletal structures
Aponeuroses
- Tendons and ligaments that are flat and wide
~ gala aponeurotica of the mammalian scalp
Sesamoid cartilages
- Mineralized nodules in tendons or ligaments
~ patella
3. JOINT OR ARTHROSIS
-

ELASTIC CARTILAGE
-

Contains network of fibers in addition to

collagen fibers
~ pinna of the ear, walls of outer ear canal,
epiglottis
CALCIFIED CARTILAGE
Calcium salts deposited within the interstitial
substance of hyaline or fibrocartilage
~ jaws of sharks

not

Site where two bones or cartilages meet

Diarthrosis if freely movable, enclosed by
synovial membrane; ~ hinge joints
Amphiarthrosis if limited movement, no
fibrocartilage; ~ joints between centra of
mammalian vertebrae
Synarthrosis if sutured thus immovable;
~ joints in the roof of the mammalian skull

Ankylosis
-

a condition where the suture was obliterated. ~

maxilla and premaxilla of humans

Symphysis
-

V. SKELETAL REMODELING
-

Bone resorption and replacement maintains

homeostasis
Withdrawal of calcium is regulated by
parathyroid hormone and calcitonin
Skeletal repair
Can occur in response to mechanical stress =
secondary haversian systems, thicker bones,
prominences enlarged

VI. TENDONS, LIGAMENTS, AND JOINTS

1. TENDONS
-

Connect muscles to bones

Directly continuous with the epimysium and
periosteum

2. LIGAMENTS
-

Connect bone to bone

Less regular arrangement of collagen

joint in the midline of the body, bilateral bones

with fibrocartilage

Mineralized Tissues and the Invertebrates

- matrix of collagenous fibers +
carbonate
Bone, dentin,
vertebrates!

and enameloid

calcium

are restricted to

VII. HETEROTROPIC BONES

- develop by endochondral or intramembranous
- in areas subject to stress in amniotes
~ os cordis, baculum, os clitoridis, gizzard of
doves, tongue of bats, gular pouch, diaphragm of
camelsl syrinx of birds, upper eyelid of crocodiles;
tarsal plate in humans; rostral bone in snout of
swine; cloacal bone in some lizards