I The Reasons for Sewage Treatment of rivers began to be widespread in this country from the early because ofthe re -water-carriage “The water-carriage system for sewage had been employed by both Greeks and Romans, but with the overthrow of Roman civilisation th for many centuries. By 1850 they were bec water closets originally unpleasant and expensi jeveloped of const i had not been desi dwellers m ie hardened noses of those days, and the authori penalties on those who used rain-water drains (0 carry s Rowever, had become too widespread to be stopped and pens with offenders even beginning to omit the cesspits and connect the water closets firect to the street drains. rere rampant, particularly chose ‘one epidemic of cholera in this velopment was the construction sewage from houses to the nearest water $0 the ling and dangerous and intolerabre ‘of underground sewers to conve} Course, but this simply transferred the nuisance and filth from the st tivers and streams, The result was the immediate and progress deterioration of natural watercourses. Everything conspired to aggravate this wid revolution itself had 2 two-fold effect. Fi ion of populatio lischarge of large quantities of offe ams, whereas previously the matter reaching the rivers Tn quantity and more widely distributed, Secondly, industrial ge 1 streams of creasing Volumes of waste waters ion, and the indus- aused a sudden con- | development which short had been development led to the difrom industrial processes, These contributed mate courses, and in many cases their effec by domestic sewage tour the riversand streams ofthe country into nothing better |smelling, oper to public health. epidemics of diseases such as dysentry, typhi 88 compared with the years before ion of undergroui The following account Londonin the middle the River Thames a he experiences of adi century isof inter ‘The cry of the day seemed to be “India isin revolt and the Thames stinks”. Ii was hard to tell which circumstance was more disturbing to the British public, the mutiny in provinces far beyond the seas or the odours arising from the once proud ri hing the shores of the Houses of Parliament. Here frightened legislators resorted to the use of curtains saturated with chloride of lime to mask the stenches wafted in Parliamentary chambers from the river, and travellers went far out of ‘their way :0 evoid passing over the bridges spanning the foetid floods of the lower Thames: in other parts of the country, and one witness Royal Commission on River Pollution Prevention in 1868 ‘Outrageous foulness of the River Calder by ners Using, instead of ink, “water” taken from the river, adding: “Could the odour only accompany this sheet also, it would add much to the interest of this memorandum”. Fish kills were severe and in one in the River Tame below Bir- ‘mingham in 1867 about 60 000 fish were to have died, To improve this very unsatisfactory state of affairs, Parliament, in 1857, appointed the first of a series of Royal Commissions to explore possible remedies and submit recommendations, -vent river pollution were invest and eventually the Rivers Poll inland watercourse without fret render included to cover industrial effiuents. Every local aut sible for treating the sewage draining from it turers were under a similar obliga- reat their industrial effluents before discharge toa stream unless, as became customary, they arranged fora local authority toaccept them into. public sewer for \weatment with the ordinary sewage. The enforcement of the river pollution law ‘was in the hands of the county councils and county borough councils until the formation of river boards in 1948. ‘These boards were responsible for pollution and in 1963 were reconstructed as river authorities wers. The similar river purification boards for Scotland were later. formed two year apy co England and Wales. Provan of Palluon (Sclland) Act 381 andthe 3. et A cr ap a st gS es aed tat 8 sc a yl dl ee Fe a ci ions tocay would clerly be much worse without adequate sewage seal th eeu ‘sal use of the water closet, a population more wae eter ental moran wae SPH appreciated. ion to nat jon, requirements ofthe Eurepean Community In adn es na have tobe met in such teas a8 Fiver water (0 De Agate fis abating wars ts cour te princely coastal beaches. A ircive on dangerous Substance is euling in “daughter” directives covering dstarge of sch sb- ‘tinea ac mercury and cadmium, The parent directive also refers (0 vari organ substances including pesticides2 Sewage and Industrial Effluents SOME GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Sewage may be defined as “the waste waters of a commu excreta and all other wastes from domestic processes, In times of fain, surface waters and washings from sireets and roofs may enter the sewers which are therefore called “combined 5 also finds its way the used waters of industry, may varying proportions. The industrial effluent ins particular ‘be contributed by one type of manufacturing operation or may consist of waste waters of widely varying composition from many different indus (© most ‘The mixed sewage conveyed to treatmer character influenced by the type and propor other factors can also have a considerable cS of the collecting sewers, taken in travelling the outfal been pumped and the hardness of the carrying water, No two sewages are therefore. alike; Some are much “stronger” or more concentrated and some are more resistant totreatment. The quantity of sewage per head also varies from town to town and of a vou these figures can occur. At any sewage-treatms ‘volume and “strength” of sewage are never constant; they vary wi dday, the day of the week and the activities of industry. be appreciated, therefore, th: system of sewage treatment and that i there can be no completely stereotyped iual works, although conforming to the les, must be designed and operaied in accordance with the Saractrstice of the particular sewage to be treated and the quality of effivent characteristics required, colour, which normally Domestic sewage sa highly turbid liquid, greyish in olou, sing up any dissolved onygen whieh may be present age orjnsverrecivnguneted sewage turning black an@ fo. A and it is the activity of lich uses up fon. ‘These fuids must be converted to reasonably ion of rivers is to be avoided, causes putrefa clean water ifthe pol (CRUDE SEWAGE SCREENS GRIT REMOVAL PLANT suunse EFFLUENT To LAND To River ig 1. Rosie lnyout of a mediumesined sewapetreatment plant Se ‘incorporating biological filtrationuid, sugar dissol finely dispersed “colloidal” form which gives th creamy appearance. ‘The first step in the treatment of sewage is generally a process of settlement 10 ‘rom its weight of water, separation by ent being incomplete, producing a liquid portion still con- mi ion and a solid portion still associated with a considerable ri liquid, which complicates the treatment of sewage. in the presence of oxygen. This process called “nitrification” occurs naturally in Sais ep ceEEARE- especialy designed nT Te eatment of Sewage 1 ammonia may affect fish life inal proses i eating river water for public supply. A simplified diagram showing the basic laycut of a sewage-treatment plant i so pls iB ige-treatment plant is 3 Preliminary Treatment SCREENING AND GRIT SEPARATION ‘The settlement of sewage to separate the suspended solid impurities is in tise almost invariably preceded by two stages of treatment to remove large Solid pieces and grit derived mainly from road and roof surfaces. Sereering Screens are normally located upstream from the grit channels, each arrange- ment having advantages and disadvantages. is customary to pass the sewage through screens (Fig. par ‘any suspended or -d on the screen. A coarser set of ‘The primary objective of screens isto intercept trash, wood, lerge rags, etc. ‘which would clog channels and pipes or damage pumps. Screens also inevitabl 35 paper, peelings and faecal of fand the greater the turbulence the more likely disintegrated and hence not be intercepted by the screens. Certain industrial effluents, e.g. from text can also contribute consideratly to the total ‘quantity of screenings. can be cifficult. Three burial, often now after Screenings are obnoxious and their hygienic dispos mettods of disposal which have been employe ro bales or bag ‘An alternative sp scazening isto pass the whole flow of sewage through @ machine nwa 2 €Gopymnnrartg. This fst nerceps the screenings and 1ssecTioN THROUGH 10.R COMMINUTOR CHAMBER Fig. 2. Mechanically-raked screensnnels or tanks consist of some form of catch-pit or enlarged channel ted where the sewage enters the treatment works and designed to give as possible. As the flow of he time of day, the develop- 10 working parts permané point is grit-laden and therefore causes severe wear and tear, have much t0 ‘commend them. of grit collected varies widely from works to works, being 1 type of sewerage system, climatic conditions and, in the case of ‘the nature of the ares drained and of the street surfaces. a clean and innocuous ig embankments or similar 4 Primary Treatment SEDIMENTATION nex steps to submit the sewage which are ‘enough for the suspended pa settled effluent passes forward. rectangular horizontal-flow, oc its. These are usually rectang, 1ed capacity may be equivalent end, where most of the sludge is sludge accu regular intervals after it has been scraped, under water, tc sludge hoppers end outlets. Upeward-flow tanks, These are either circular or square in plan. Sewage enters atthe centre of the tank and at as. evel as possible consistent with causing no slowly upwards and outwards 10 ige being left behind. The in which the sludge col inthe shape ofan inverted cone ‘oF pyramid. A discharge pipe, ascending from this sludge hopper and terminating in& chamber ata lower level than the water surface, enables the deposited liquid comatically by opening a valve. This type of tank is more ere-tangular horizontal-flow tank owing tits depth, so they are rarely built now. Radial low or mixed tanks. ‘The drawbacks of upward How nk led xo ten referred to an outlet weir around the circumference. The deposited sludge is slowly moved 9Fig, 6, Circular sedimentation rank5 Secondary Treatment BIOLOGICAL FILTERS ‘The necessary further treatment was originally achieved by applying the sewage to land. This process is rarely used nowadays because of the large area of fand required. Whether the “broad irrigation” or “intermittent downward tion” systems were used only a portion of the land was in use at any one ti remainder having to be rested to re-2erate the soil and to allow the deposited sludge {Tobe assimilated into the land. The areas of resting land were often cropped, hence the term “sewage farm’ purifying agencies are the bacte-ia and other forms of ‘which in the presence of air met impurit ith which they come into contact as they would with Tmmure or dead vegetation, Under suitable conditions the effluent is clear and sparkling, stable and inoffensive. Contact beds. In order to overcome the drawbacks of land treatm beds” were introdiiced. These consisted of brick or concre‘e tanks Seep, filled with medium such as broken stone, clinker or slag. Each bed ‘operated on a cycle consisting of (a) filling with settled ses tliow the bacteria which developed in the bed to met emptying, (d) standing empty to re-aerate. Normally three such cycles occurres Sacteria which developed in the bed were of the same types as those fertile soil and the contact bed could therefore be regarded as an artificial land irrigation area and, in this respect, marked an important advance. A serious HDavback was that the spaces between the pieces of medium gradually became ‘Shoked vith accumulated biological growths. The necessary periodical excavation Ghd washing of the medium was an expensive and formidable task which led to the eventual abandonment of the contact bed. ters. The modern biological filter developed partly from and partly tthe contact bed. It consists essentially ofa bed of hard medium Shout 18 m deep over which settled sewage is sprayed. The medium is now generally stone ot-slag about 50 mm in size, although different plants may have ffferent sizes, The surfaces ofthe pieces of medium, asin the contact bed, become cevered with a jelly-like film in which the necessary bacteria live together with ‘concurrently Wi protozoa, fungi, worms, ins s, As the settled sewage percol- ates downwards over these ‘surfaces the microscopic organisms attack the impurities. Free access of air into the bed is vital ro the process since the ‘organisms are aerobes needing oxygen. ‘The varied animal life plays an important part in the process by feeding on the accumulating bacteria and fungi thus as ting blockage i film growth. The eventual choking-up previously noted as taking sontact bed does ' properly 0} noted that the word filter out suspended the necessary bacteria and presence of air, not designed to present an extended surface on which sewage can be brought imate contact in the ods are used for distributing settled sewage over the surface of a iy fixed sprays are employed, but usually some form of special wrovided. A deservedly popular type, used in conjunction fs that equipped with a central column and radial lations have become the layman's recognized identifica- Ikiers” may revolve merely under the influence ‘of water issuing from the holes in the horizontal Gins_an example of et propulsion, Thereare, however, advantages in controlling the speed of rotation to achieve maximum efficiency and, when the head or presture of sewage is insufficient, electric motors may power the distributors, ‘nother type, used with rectangular filters isa travelling distributor which {pans the bed and moves backwards and forwards longitudinally; here again the trouve power may be the flow of sewage itself, but new installations ust electric drives. oe ‘ Fig. 7. Circular biological filter ‘The “loading” which can be applied to a biol amount of impurity left in the sewage after Sediment filter depends uj fonand the characteristics of 2Bed is usually about equal to that of which are partly chemi- reated effluent has a cee Suralweys contains suspended matter derived mainly from the breaking away of particles fe film from the filter medium. The quantity of this fers lable to seasonal fluctuations and it must be removed before employed which are simi tanks already described, but of smaller cap passed toa watercourse, while solid matter intercepted in such tanks and known as Rinmus sludge is dealt with by one of the various methods of sludge treatment (Section 8). without recircul pieces of medium and choke the rie heated effluent, which is present, prevents their undue accumul the filter medium, The effluent draining from a properly operated bed is almost | k palMany — | sevmentation | ~\ PUMP ] TaN | . an BINA CL [turer \_ pga v _ — | { oosis | | me ——— onricrento sewase | === sivrereo seuace | === re recirculation of filter effluent | Fig.9, Diagrammatic layout of biological fiterp Rectangular biological filter Fes | In onder to achieve these advantages, gr fed pipes nd ibe ae no et sy eee, Pumping uly essa 10 | reeirculate the tested effluent, but the adc ynal capital and running costs ‘Through the agency of biological filters and humus tanks « comparatively {volved may be justified by the saving in iter plant capacity. clear and inoffensive effiuent can be produced which will often satisfy the equi Glens Tor discharge to a river in respect of both organic impurity removal and ‘The annoyance from the flter-flies, which often occurs with ments for charge 1 vr in eee oF Myidegrobustandlablemediod —|-——_*Sllation, is sully much reduced when fers are ‘operated by the recirculation of treatment but have the following disadvantage although much less than for contact beds and small fraction of that needed for land treatment, is nevertheless considerable, (i) filters form @ favourable Alternating double filtration. 1 ‘of small flies which sometimes cause annoyance in the ‘ovo filters in series, first through -aces of suspended solids are difficult remove high overal ‘against production of the particularly high- tervals varying from o1 T effluents which may be required in certain places. The development of fiefied methods of using biological filters, dealt with below, has enabled the frst two of these disadvantages to be reduced. The third can be overcome by employing one of the methods of tertiary treatment described in Section 7. (i the area of land required, | led sewage is passed through ‘and then through a secondary tion. The order of the two filters seven days, the secondary filter Recirculatory (or recirculation), In this process (Fig. 9) the settled sewage fed to filters is fi ‘and for this reason the systeu1can fed with treated effluent which has passed through ‘the potentialities being similar to those of recirculation sCombined processes. There are instances where treatment by biological ‘combined with some other system. Perhaps the best known example is ‘which sewage is given a 3 one of he a systems (see Sect sewage t0 the la ‘Although not number of newer surfaces tort. These generally consist of discs 2-4 m in diam- ick mounted on a shaft above a tank (Fig. 10). The Rosating biological eter and a few mi Fig. 10. Rotating dise biological contactor ‘The unit is arranged so that about one third of the disc diameter will dip into sewage passing through the tank, As the discs slowly rotate the organisms in the slime are alternately brought into contact with sewage and the atmosphere, so enabling treatment through biological oxidation to take place, The rotation also agitates the sewage in the rank main of organisms in free suspension. Various different designs may before and after, the biological oxidation stage separate settlement tanks. Rotating con the sewage of less than 100 people or sui they are easily encl ing contactors are wid these processes, which are very much at the development '¢ biological growths take place on sand particles kept suspended by an ‘sewage or other liquor. With sewage itis necessary to ensure that sufficient oxygen is dissolved in the flow to enable aerobic treatment to take place, land excess growth must be separated from the sand. The process hasalso been used without free dissolved oxygen for the removal of nitrate fromn effluents; the organ: g the nitrogen as bubbles of gas.6 Secondary Treatment (Il) ACTIVATED-SLUDGE PROCESS tionary and only the sway fon Intheactivated- sludge process the necessary bacteria are added to the incoming sewage Several methods of aeration are in use, divisible into two main categories, according to whether aeration is effected by diffused-air bubbles or surface. aeration devices. Difwetair oxen. This sytem (Fig. 12) employs compressed air enters the aeration tank in the form of sms es through “ai diffusers are normally porous domes laid out on the tank floor. The air babbl ig aeration and agitation to keep the timate contact with the sewage. Power is of course surface, fulfilling the dual purpose of pr activated-sludge particles needed to pressurize the Mechanical surface aeration stems. These rely on agitation at the surface of tanks, the constantly changing surface causing oxygen to pass into solution from the atmosphere. The agitation simultaneously keeps the sewage and activated sludge in intimate contact. Surface aerators are of two main types—those mounted vertically and those mounted horizontally. With the vertical aerators (Fg. 13) the aeration tank is usually divided into a number of compartments in the centres of ‘which the aerators are fixed, These may include a vertical tube up which sewage and activeted sludge is drawn and scattered over the surface, although similar ‘circulation can be achieved without tubes. In the horizontal sem revol¥- ling longitudinal aerators agitate the surface of the liquid, achieving the desired effect. In all these plants power is required for the operation of the acrating ‘mechanism. PRIMARY AERATION FINAL | spriuear {seOIMENTAT TANK seTTung | ‘fF TANK TANK HETUANES ACTRESS SUROLUE ACTIVATED SLUDGE iagrammatic layout of an activated-sludge plant A relatively new development in the activated-sludge process is the designed near the inlet where dissolved oxygen is deliberately "This enables oxygen, which is used in the oxidation of bbe recovered by the activated sludge through the production of a mixers, whereas in the “‘Vitox"” process the oxygen activated sludge drawn by pump from the main tank. High-purity oxygen pro- cesses have found particular application in the treatment of strong organic indus- trial effluents and sewage containing such effluents. Following aeration, the treated sewage must be separated from the activated in either upward-flow or radial-low tanks, as described in Section 4. The cffiuent, which is generally similar to that from a biological filter instal- » then passes to Extended-aeration activated-sludge processes. For treatment of the sewage from small communities, prefabricated extended-aeration plants are sometimes used. ‘These dispense with preliminary settlement and the sewage, after screening or it (othe aeration compartment in which it is held