Optical Fibre Communication

Systems
Lecture 4 - Detectors & Receivers

Professor Z Ghassemlooy
Electronics & It Division
School of Engineering
Sheffield Hallam University
U.K.
www.shu.ac.uk/ocr
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Contents
Properties and Characteristics
Types of Photodiodes
PIN
APD

Receivers
Noise Sources
Performance
SNR
BER

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Photodetection - Definition
iIt converts the optical energy into an electrical
current that is then processed by electronics to
recover the information.
Detection Techniques
Thermal Effects
Wave Interaction Effects
Photon Effects

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Photodiode - Characteristics
An electronics device, whose vi-characteristics is sensitive to the
intensity of an incident light wave.
I

Forward-biased
Photovoltic
operation

Dark current

V
Po
Reverse-biased
photoconductive
operation

Small dark current due to:

leakage
thermal excitation
Quantum efficiency
(electrons/photons)
Responsivity

Short-circuit
photoconductive
operation
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Photodetector - Types
iThe most commonly used photodetectors in optical
communications are:
Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN) a

No internal gain
Low bias voltage [10-50 V @ = 850 nm, 5-15 V @ = 1300 1550 nm]
Highly linear
Low dark current
Most widely used

Avalanche Photo-Detector (APD)

Internal gain (increased sensitivity)

Best for high speed and highly sensitive receivers
Strong temperature dependence
High bias voltage[250 V @ = 850 nm, 20-30 V @ = 1300 1550 nm]
Costly
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Photodiode (PIN) - Structure

Photons
Depletion
region

n
electron

Io

p
hole

Output

n
electron
RL (load
resistor)

hole

Bias voltage

No carriers in the I region

No current flow

Reverse-biased
Photons generated electron-hole pair
Current flow through the diode
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Reponsivity
PIN:
R = Io/Po

APD:
RAPD = G R

A/W

Io = Photocurrent
Po = Incident(detected) optical power
G = APD gain
= Quantum efficiency
= average number of electron-hole pairs emitted re/ average
number of incident photons rp
Note: rp = Po/hf
Thus

and Io = qPo/hf

= 99% ~ 1

R = q/hf
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Photodiode Responsivities
i Silicon (Si)
Least expensive

i Germanium (Ge)
Classic detector

i Indium gallium
arsenide (InGaAs)
Highest speed

G Keiser , 2000
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Photodiode - Equivalent Circuit

Contact leads

Photodiode

Rs
Io

Cj

Rj

Amplifier

L
RL

Ramp
Camp

Output

L = Large, (i.e o/c) Rs = Small, (i.e s/c)

CT = Cj + Camp

RT = Rj || RL || Ramp

The detector behaves approximately like a first

order RC low-pas filter with a bandwidth of:
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

1
B=
2CT RT
9

Photodiode Pulse Responses

At low bias levels rise and fall times are different. Since photo
collection time becomes significant contributor to the rise time.
G Keiser , 2000
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

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Photodiode Pulse Responses

Small area photodiode

Small area photodiode

Large area photodiode

w = depletion layer
s = absorption coefficient

Due to carrier generated in w

Due to diffusion of carrier from the edge of w

G Keiser , 2000
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

11

Photodiodes Typical Characteristics

Si

Parameters
PIN
Wavelength range
Peak
(nm)

Ge
APD

400-1100
900
830

PIN

APD

800-1800
1550
1300

InGaAS
PIN
APD
900-1700
1300
1300
(1550)
(1550)

Responsivity
(A/W)

0.350.55

50-120

0.5-0.65

2.5-25

0.5-0.7

Quantum
Efficiency (%)

65-90

77

50-55

55-75

60-70

60-70

Bias voltage (-V)

45-100

220

6-10

20-35

<30

Dark current (nA)

1-10

0.1-1

50-500

10-500

1-5

Rise time (ns)

0.5-1

0.1-2

0.1-0.5

0.5-0.8

0.06-0.5

0.1-0.5

Capacitance (pF)

1.2-3

1.3-2

2-5

2-5

0.5-2

0.1-0.5

Source: R. J. Hoss
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

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Minimum Received Power

Is a measure of receiver sensitivity defined for a specific:
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR),
Bit error Rate (BER),
Bandwidth (bit rate),
at the receiver output.
Detector

Pr
Amplifier
Power loss

Po

MRP = Minimum Detected Power (MDP) Coupling Loss

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

13

MRP Vs. Bandwidth

-20

SNR (dB)
50

MRP (-dBm)

-30
-40

30
-50

10

-60

=1300

-70
1

10

20

50

100 200 500 1000

Bandwidth (MHz)
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

14

Optical Receiver
Optical signal
To recover the
information signal

Photodetection
Converting
optical
signal into
an electrical
signal

Amplification
(Pre/post)

Filtering
Limiting the
bandwidth,
thus reducing
the noise
power

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Signal Processing

Information signal

15

Selection Criteria and Task

Optical
i Optical Sensitivity for a given
BER and SNR
i Operating wavelength
i Dynamic range
i Simplicity
i Reliability and stability

Electrical
i Data rate
i Bit error rate (digital)
i Maximum Bandwidth
(analogue)
i Signal-to-noise ratio
(analogue)

Task:
To extract the optical signal (low level) from various
noise disturbances
To reconstruct the original information correctly
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

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Receivers: Basics
iThe most important and complex section of an optical
fibre system
iIt sensitivity is design dependent, particularly the first
stage or front-end
iMain source of major noise sources:
Shot noise current
Thermal noise: Due to biasing/amplifier input impedance
Amplifier noise:
Current
Voltage

Transimpedance noise
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

17

Receiver - Bandwidth
A range of frequencies that can be defined in terms of:
Spectral profile of a signal
Response of filter networks
Equivalent bandwidth: Defines the amount of noise in a
system
Types of Bandwidth
Ideal
Baseband
Passband
Intermediate-Channel
Transmission
Noise
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

18

Ideal, Low-pass and Band-pass Filters

Band-pass filter
Low-pass filter

0 dB
-3

Higher order
filter

Ideal
Frequency
Bbp
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Blp
19

Noise Equivalent Bandwidth (NEB) B

NEB
-3 dB

Area under the response

cure
=
Area under the noise curve.

B3dB
B

Defines as the ideal

bandwidth
describing the point where:

Filter response

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

20

Optical System
P(t)
m(t)

Optical drive
circuit

Light
source

Fibre

Photodiode
ip(t)
Amplifier

P(t ) = Pt (1 + Mm (t ))
Photocurrent

i p (t ) = R P(t ) = R Pt (1 + Mm(t ))

Signal current
Average photocurrent
Photocurrent =
+
io(t)
(DC current) Io
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

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Optical System - contd.

For m(t) = sin t
The mean square signal current is

is = io (t )
2

is = io (t ) G
2

for PIN
2

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

for APD

22

Optical System - Noise Sources

i Source Noise
i Modal noise
Due to interaction of (constructive &
destructive) multiple coherent modes, resulting
in intensity modulation.
i Photodetector Noise a
i Preamplifier (receiver) Noise a
i Distortion due to Non-linearity
i Crosstalk and Reflection in the Couplers
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

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Noise - Source Noise - contd.

iLED: Due to:
In-coherent intensity fluctuation
Beat frequencies between modes

iLD: Due to:

Non-linearities
Quantum noise: In the photon generation
Mode hopping: Within the cavity
Reflection from the fibre back into the cavity, which reduces
coherence
Difficult to measure, to isolate and to quantify
Most problematic with multimode LD and multimode fibre
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

24

Photocurrent Statistics
iIs inherently a statistical process, which has mean and variance
The mean correspond to the signal that we are interested to
recover
The variance represents the noise power at the detectors output

iLet noise current be defined as:

inoise(t) = i(t) - IDC
(Amps)
IDC = Photocurrent Io
Noise current from random current pulses is termed as shot-noise.

iShot-noise:
Quantum
Dark current
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

25

Quantum Shot Noise

The photons arrive randomly in a packet form, with no two
packets containing the same amount of photons.
Random generation of electron-hole pair, thus current.
Variation of the total current generated, about an average value.

This variation is best known as QUANTUM SHOT NOISE.

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

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Shot Noise - PIN

The mean square quantum shot noise current on Io

ish = 2 qI o B
2

(A 2 )

The mean square dark current noise (also classified as shot noise)

ids = 2qI l B
2

(A )

Where Il = surface leakage current

Total shot noise current ITs = Dark current + Photocurrent

The total mean square

shot noise

iTs = 2q( I o + I l ) B
2

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

(A 2 )
27

Noise Power Spectrum

Power spectrum

I2o
ITs2

Shot noise
0

Modulation
bandwidth

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Frequency

28

Shot Noise - APD

The mean square photocurrent noise
iTs = 2 q[( I o + I d )G F + I l ]B
2

where
Id = Bulk dark current,
F = The noise figure = Gx for 0<x<1

(A )

Bias voltage
hf
Av
RL

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Vo

Vi

29

Noise - contd.
Thermal Noise

ith =
2

4 KTB

RL = Total load seen at the input of the preamplifier

K = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38x10 -23 J/K
T = Temperature in degree Kelvin = Co + 273

RL

Total Noise
PIN

iT = ish + ids + ith

APD

iT = ish + id + ids + ith

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

30

Electrical Amplifier Noise

Amplifier type
- Voltage Noise

- Current Noise

BJT

va = 2
2

JEFT

qI c
gm

va = 2
2

ia = 2qI b B
2

Total amplifier noise

i2 A

1
=
B

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

qI d
gm

ia = 2 qI g B
2

2
2
[
i
+
(
v
a
a / Z )] df

31

Receiver Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

hf

io

PIN
SNR =

io

SNR =

iT

Io

APD

SNR =

2qB( I o + I d ) +

iT

iA

4 KTB 2
+i A
RL

G2 Io

2qB[( I o + I d )G 2+ x + I l ] +

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

4 KTB
Fn + i 2 A
RL
32

SNR - Quantum Limit

The mean square quantum shot noise current on Io

ish = 2 qI o B
2

Io
SNR )Q =
2 qB

(A 2 )

IoP oq / hf
=
2 qB
Io Po / hf
=
2B
re nelectron / s
nelectron
= =
=
= N
B
bit / s
bit

Shot noise

Poisson
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

33

Type of Receivers - Low Impedance

Voltage Amplifier
- Simple
- Limited dynamic range
- It is prone to overload and saturation
Av

hf
CT

RL

Vo

Vi

1
RC limited bandwidth B =
2CT RL
RL = Rdetector || Ramp.
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Ramp= High
34

Type of Receivers - High Impedance

Voltage Amplifier with Equaliser
Equaliser
Av
hf

Vo

Vi
CT

RL

Rdetector is large to reduce the effect of thermal noise

Detector out put is integrated over a long time constant, and is
restored by differentiation

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

35

Type of Receivers - Transimpedance

Feedback Amplifier
The most widely used b
Wide bandwidth
No equalisation
Greater dynamic range (same gain at all frequencies)
Slightly higher noise figure than HIVA
RF
Bandwidth

Av
hf

B=
CT

RL

Vi

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

Vo

Av
2CT RF

36

Transimpedance Feedback Amplifier

R

V*
F

V*
A

-A
I*
sh

RL

CT

SNR =

I*
Th

I*
A

Vi

Vi

G 2 I o2

(
)
1
( ) + R {1 + 3 ( 2 BR C ) } B

2 qI G 2 F (G ) + 4 kT + I *
o
A

RT

* 2
VA
T

*
Where I . is the noise power spectral density, and RT = RL||RF
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

37

Optical Receiver - Analogue

iEmploy an analogue preamplifier stage, followed by
either an analogue output stage (depending on the type
of receiver).

Comms. Special. Inc.

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

38

Optical Receiver - Digital

i 1st stage is a current-to-voltage converter.
i 2nd stage is a voltage comparator, which produces a clean,
fast rise-time digital output signal. The trigger level may be
adjusted to produce a symmetrical digital signal.

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

39

Receiver Performance
iSignal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
iBit Error Rate (BER)

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

40

SNR Vs Receiver Sensitivity

Note: Io =RPo

G Keiser , 2000

Po(dBm)
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

41

Bit Error Rate (BER)

bon

Variance 2on
1
vth
0

boff
Variance 2off

1
Q
BER = Pe = 1 erf

2
2

Where

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

vth boff
Q=
off

bon vth
=

on

42

Bit Error Rate (BER) - contd.

For
off = on = RMS noise
bon = V, and boff = 0
Thus
Therefore:

vth = V/2

and

Q = V/2

1
V
Pe = 1 erf

2
2 2

In terms of power signal-to-noise ratio (S/N)

1
S

Pe = 1 erf 0.345

2
N

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

43

BER Performance

i Minimum input power

depends on acceptable bit
error rate
i Many receivers designed
for 1E-12 or better BER

G Keiser , 2000
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

44

Basic Receiver Design

Bias
Bias

Clock
Clock
Recovery
Recovery

AGC
AGC

-g

Temperature
Temperature
Control
Control

Decision
Decision
Circuit
Circuit
Monitors
Monitors
&
& Alarms
Alarms

i Optimized for one particular

Sensitivity range
Wavelength
Bit rate

0110

Remote
Remote
Control
Control

i Can include circuits

for telemetry
Agilent Tech.

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

45

Optical Receivers - Commercial

Devices
i28 GHz Monolithic InGaAs PIN Photodetector
i100 kHz- 40 Gb/s
iDC - 65 Gb/s InGaAs PIN Photodiodes
i100 GHz Dual-Depletion InGaAs/InP Photodiode

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

46

Wide-Band Optical Receiver (40 Gb/s)

Operating current 75 mA
Bandwidth: 100 KHz to 35 GHz
Power dissipation: 400 mW
Responsivity: 0.6 A/W
Wavelength response: 800 - 1600 nm Power gain: 8 dB

Linearity response

Sensitivity response
Typical eye diagram

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

47

Wide-Band Optical Receiver (DC - 65

Gb/s)
i InGaAs PIN Photodiodes
i Reverse bias voltage: +3V
i Responsivity: 0.5 A/W at 1300 and 1550 nm wavelength.
i Opto-electronic Integrated Circuits (OEICs) which combine
optical, microwave, and digital functions on the same chip
i Application:

Ethernet fiber local area networks

Synchronized Optical Network SONET,
ISDN,
Telephony
Digital CATV).
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

48

Summary
iPhotodiode characteristics
iTypes of photodiode: PIN and APD
iPhotodiode responsivity & equivalent circuit
iMinimum received power
iOptical receiver:
Types
Bandwidth

iNoise
iSignal-t-noise ratio
iBit error rate
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy

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