EXAM-FRIGHT KILLER 50 Advanced Topics Izabella SzilvasProofread by Geoff HARDCASTLE. Cover art by Istvan MOHOS ISBN 963 460 938 4 © Szilvas Izabella 2005 Printed in Gécsej Nyomda Kft. ZalaegerszegCONTENTS Acknowledgements Foreword Abortion Advertising ais Alcoholism Alternative Medicine at Banks and aking Capital Punishment Cloning & Genetic Engi ring Computers and the Internet Conscription Crime Disasters Divorce Drug Abuse & Drug Dependence Drugs in Sports E-Learning Education Employment Enersy ‘The European Union Euthanasia Extreme Sports Familial Issues Football Hooliganism 2 15 18 a 25 29 32 a 47 63 66 nm 14 7 87 98 104 115 120 122 4124 Genetically Modified Food Global Warming Globalisation Home Education Homelessness Mariage Modia Matters NGOs The Ozone Hole Paranormal Phenomena Poverty Rainforests Religion Smoking Space Exploration Sports and Exercise Stock Market Terrorism The Tourist Industry Trade Unions Unemployment Urbanisation Vivisection Wedding Welfare Sources of Information 427 434 134 140 144 146 450 159 162 164 170 474 47 181 4185 491 197 200 205 208 210 213 219 224 29Exam-Fright Killer ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My primary debt is to-all students of mine, whose industry, enthusiasm and thirst for knowledge have inspired me, for over two decades, to find additional information about hot issues and to serve the result in a digestible form. In fact, first-hand experience of co-operating with learners of English in Preparation for exams has driven me to set electronic pen to electronic paper and publish this book. Thanks to you all, “Manékéim”. I am very grateful to my former colleague, Peter Sabath, for his expert guidance. Reading through the first topics, he offered professional advice on the style and format of the book. The points that he made about vocabulary and organisation, during the early stages of drafting, have brought consistency to the final manuscript. Towe a great deal to Zoltén Basti, a best friend and great student, who made helpful suggestions about what topics to include and how to explore them. I would also like to thank him for his unfailing support throughout the preparation of this book, and for his close perusal: hopefully, only the bare minimum of printing errors has escaped his eyes. Very special thanks are due to Istvan Mohos for his invaluable contributions to the book. His wise counsel and his tactfully witty remarks have significantly improved all attributes of Exam-Fright Killer, from content to Proper use of punctuation marks. About the latter, however, I must make a confession. As regards commas, I am stubborn as a mule. So, if you spot a superfluous comma, or feel uncomfortable with the apparent lack of one, the fault lies with me, exclusively. Istvan must also take full credit for the stunning design of the front and back covers of the book. I am deeply indebted to Geoff Hardcastle, whose constructive comments on the text are reflected in the finished work. This book has benefited greatly from his valuable suggestions, and it would have been impossible without his generous and expert advice. Finally, my thanks also to my good friends Gizella Beke, Iiva Harkény and Katalin Bésze, and to my family; for all the support, encouragement and love that I have received from you over the years.Exam-Fright Killer FOREWORD WHAT IS THIS BOOK ABOUT? Exam-Fright Killer consists of fifty topics that advanced students of English are likely to encounter when taking language exams. In choosing the topics I have tried to select issues of general interest which may be set as discussion topics and as reading or writing tasks, both at the Hungarian advanced level national examination and at the international examinations popular with Hungarian candidates: ECL, ELC, Pitman, and Trinity. ‘When selecting what to include, I have also attempted to focus on issues that are not covered in detail in coursebooks commonly used in Hungary. I am fully aware that you may rightly feel dissatisfied with my present choices because scores of important topics, such as fashion, shopping, design, elections ‘or mobile phones, have been ignored. In the revised edition I will try to make up for this limited selection. ‘My aim with this book is to provide basic, general, background information on a range of subjects frequently discussed in the papers and on radio and television programmes. “Basic” is a key word here: rather than analysing issues in-depth, I strive to provide short-cut, “in a nutshell” discussions of matters of concern. “General” must also be underlined. Although I make frequent references to British and American institutions, laws, customs and habits, this book is not a cultural reader, but a rough outline of the general aspects of everyday issues. Another essential goal of this book is to help learners with the target vocabulary necessary to understand, speak or wi about these topics. I have paid particular attention to commonly cited arguments for and against issues that are surrounded by considerable controversy. Both sides of such cases are presented, summarising frequently expressed bodies of opinion, in table form. As this book is a kind of schoolbook for instruction and practice, containing a lot of essential advanced: vocabulary of the topics covered, it can be put to a variety of uses. The information can be utilised when students are asked to give a short talk, debate an issue, perform a reading comprehension task, or write an argumentative essay. The topics can contribute to a broadening of students’ general knowledge and to improving their command of English.Exam-Fright Killer HOW TO USE THIS BOOK? ‘% “Exam-Fright Killer” is designed to be user-friendly. > To help you see the organisation of a topic at a glance and to aid with learning and revising vocabulary, I have provided a variety of visual clues — a number of typeface styles and sizes. Three symbols are used to indicate the hierarchy of ideas, to help you get a quick overview, or to obtain information in more detail, = The symbol # introduces headings, topics or related issues, which are also emphasized by Jarger, underlined, italicised letters in bold type. = The symbol > indicates explanations and lists, printed in bold underlined font, elaborating on the points raised in the headings. = The symbol m is used to introduce further detail = Useful words and expressions are set in boldface italics. > This book is best read on an individual, self-study basis, You can choose to read it all to get the gist of the subject matter, or you can pick particular topics to learn. T would like to encourage you to mull over the information contained in this book: agree or disagree with the arguments and think of further imports; look for news stories and suitable websites to widen your understanding of the topic; compare this ‘material with your personal experience; augment topics that you read with interest, with relevant Hungarian detail WHO IS THIS BOOK FOR? Exam-Fright Killer was written for learners of “English as a foreign language”, for students who are preparing for language exams, and whose command of English is at levels from intermediate upwards. I do hope, however, that a wider range of people will find this book worth reading: advanced users who wish to read brief summaries of everyday topics. AUTHOR'S NOTE T hope that you enjoy reading this book and that you find it helpful. I look forward to hearing about what you think of the format and content of these fifty advanced topics. I welcome your remarks, suggestions and (moderate amounts of) criticism via electronic mail, at “examfright50@ yahoo.com”. Orders for purchasing Exam-Fright Killer can be placed at the same e-mail address. Izabella SzilvasSerreeeereeeeeeeeeee Exam-Fright KillerABORTION Introduction # Abortion usually means induced abortion, which is intentionally brought on to Regutation on Abortion * terminate a pregnancy. Depending on the age of the foetus, it is performed using drugs or surgery. In case of spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), medical intervention is not the cause of ending the life of the foetus. Facts > Approximately 46 million abortions are performed worldwide each year. > An estimated 20 million abortions are performed under unsafe conditions in countries where abortion is restricted or prohibited. > Every year, illegal abortions account for an estimated 78,000 pregnancy-related deaths of the mother, due to infection, haemorthage, uterus injury and the toxic effects of agents taken to induce abortion. > Viability, the embryo’s ability to live outside the mother’s womb, is accepted at about 24 weeks’ gestation, Legal background > Abortion had not been considered illegal until the 19th century, but it was banned in several countries after Pope Pius IX declared that “ensoulment” occurred at conception. The methods used in illegal abortions were extremely dangerous; for example, knitting needles, or ingesting lead solutions. > n taxed or le abortion laws in the 20th century. Liberalised abortion regulations became widespread in the late 1960s. Legalisation was an answer to pressures of the feminist movement, to changes in women’s equality and rights, and to high death rates caused by illegal abortions. > Atpresent, three basic types of regulation exist in different parts of the world. ‘= Abortion is banned and illegal abortion is penalised. = The necessity of abortion is accepted in certain situations: a doctor must certify that the woman’s life or health is in jeopardy; pregnancies caused by rape or incest can be terminated; the husband’s consent is needed. = Abortion is performed at the woman’s request. Religious background > Inthe Roman Catholic Church abortion is absolutely unacceptable. > Other religions, such as the Church of England, the Church of Scotland, Judaism and Islam, permit abortion in extreme circumstances: it is usually acceptable if carrying the pregnancy to full term puts the mother’s life af risk.Exam-Fright Killer Reasons for Abortion Arguments For and Against Abortion * * * Frequent reasons for the termination of pregnancy > Caused by contraceptive failure, the pregnancy is unwanted. > The mother is too young or too old, or she wishes to establish herself in her job and pursue a career before having children. > Relationship or marriage problems (c.g. domestic violence or divorce) forces the mother to sacrifice the unborn baby. Single women lack the financial and emotional support necessary to bring up children born out of wedlock. Homeless people think twice before starting a family. _ ‘There is alarae family already. Pregnancy is the result of rape or incest. The baby is likely to be born with serious disability. ‘The parents want to prevent the child suffering from a hereditary disease. v vvyyy Abortion is a polarising ethical issue surrounded by political, social, scientific and ‘religious debates, which evoke heated arguments, passion and hatred. It has brought about legal battles and violent confrontations with hard-line anti-abortion groups, attacking abortion clinics, accosting and obstructing patients and health-care providers. On the other hand, “Women on Waves”, an Amsterdam-based volunteer ‘group sails an abortion clinic to countries with highly restrictive abortion laws. ‘Aboard the ship a medical team offers abortion pills, contraceptives and counselling to ‘women seeking help. The arguments of pro-choice supporters are based on the theory that the foetus has legal rights only after it becomes viable. They are concemed with human rights in general and women’s rights in particular, and emphasise the health risks of illegal abortions. Right-to-life supporters claim the existence of life from the moment of conception and regard the termination of pregnancy as a crime. PRO-Abortion Arguments Made by ANTi-Abortion Arguments Made by Pro-Choice Supporters Pro-Life Advocates Women have the right to exercise | m Where others’ rights are at stake, society control over their reproductive lives. | must restrict the individual's freedom of Governments cannot_restrict_personal | choice. What about “the woman's right freedom; they cannot control a woman's | to control her own body” for those body. female babies killed by abortion? The foetus is not a human being until it | m The foetus has legal rights because, as is “a living thing”: an embryo is only | human life begins at conception, an potential life. Thus, the foetus has no | embryo is a human being. Consequently, legal rights. Personhood at conception is | abortion is a crime, a form of murder. a religious belief,Pain can be perceived only after thirty weeks. Before that there are only reflex actions. = The baby is capable of feoling pain when itis killed, Parents should be able to decide whether or not to give birth to ill or ‘retarded infants. human also ‘ight to live. Birth control methods are not perfect. Contraception services are not available to teenagers and the poor. Legal abortion helps parents limit the size of the family. m= Abortion should not be a form of birth ontrol. Instead, contraception should be practised if necessary. Sex education and easily accessible family Planning services can decrease the ‘number of unwanted pregnancies. tis unfair to bring an unwanted child into the world. It is true that unwanted babies can be adopted, but adoption is a_slow_and painful process: many couples spend years on waiting lists. = Every child is wanted by someone. Adoption instead of abortion is more beneficial for all parties involved. A.ban on abor t back: alley_and_clothes hanger abortions, risking women’s lives and health. legal abortions are performed under insanitary conditions by quacks using = Abortion must be banned. If abortion were made illegal, millions of children would survive, because women generally hesitate to break the law. ‘Those who perform illegal abortions unsafe drugs or risky surgical | __ must be severely punished. procedures, yet charging huge fees. a child to be f= If one wants sexual intercourse, one ‘Punish the mother is child abuse, ‘should pay the price. ‘A lot of teenagers have unsafe sex irresponsibly. Still, a mistake should not_take away a_minor’s childhood, should not ruin her plans for life and should not trap her. = Abortion decisions are often made by minors, who are not mature enough to make the right choice. The _government__should __finance abortion. Depriving the poor of help is discrimination, which leads to trapping mothers in the poverty cycle. Itis less expensive for the government to subsidise abortion than pro welfare benefits for families who up unwanted children. = Taxpayers’ money should not be spent ‘on abortion. Besides being expensive, abortion is against the laws of nature, and flies in the face of religious beliefs.Exam-Fright Killer Introduction #* Hand in hand with sales Objectives of Advertising # ADVERTISING market research, planning, pricin and the distribution of goods, advertising is a decisive element of the marketing process. Sharply intensified global competition and continuous changes in consumer desires have increased the importance of marketing. Without 4 proper analysis of consumer trends, without professionally designing the route of products from factories to shops, without advertising goods and services heavily, companies ‘would be unable to do a roaring trade, necessary for their survival and profits. Important phases in the history of advertising > Theil rtising was recognised in ancient times: archaeologists found ‘painted signs on the walls of houses in Rome and Pompeii, offering property and popularising taverns. > Inthe Middle Ages, merchants paid town criers to shout the unique qualities of their ‘goods. The first trademarks were also born in this era > 19th century industrialisation and improvements in_printing techniques helped advertising gain more ground. Newspapers hired space brokers to sell ad space, ‘merchandising of packaged goods under brand names began, and the first mail- order houses appeared. > with the invention of the radio, television and the Intemet, and in_conjunction with explosive global economic advertising has become ‘omnipresent. Advertising and sales promotion have grown into a multi-billion dollar business worldwide. Most companies have big promotion budgets. They engage advertising agencies to plan, create and produce their advertising campaigns and to design their promotion services. The primary objective of advertising is to promote the sale of commodities or Services. To achieve this goal, advertising and promotion aim to: > establish or maintain brand name recognition establish familiarity with a brand and keep buyers loyal to It create a positive image of a company and associate its logo with reliability and value > inform prospective buyers about product availability > a product > induce people to purchase the advertised item, > > In general, advertising makes use of two closely connected human feelings - desires and fears. > Advertisers try to convince people that particular_products can enhance their lifestyles: they will enjoy more comfort, improved appearance, better health, more fulfilling jobs and higher social status.Techniques # and Channels of Advertising Advertising > also that solutions to one’s worries: people can alleviate poverty, fight sickness or avoid possible disasters if they buy commodities and services promoted in the media. Ads me which in_ com sin fic com campaians, fi is channels: advertising materials i exhibit igitalised in order to attract prospective buyers. Flyers are put in mailboxes or given to people in the street. > > Shops and consumer magazines advertise special offers. > Delivery trucks display institutional and product messages. > Large posters are painted on hoardings (billboards). > Handwritten notes, advertising second-hand goods, flats or babysitting, are pinned to walls, telephone boxes and bulletin boards. ‘Sandwich boards are carried by “sandwich men” walking around the streets. Products are advertised through direct mail or mail-order catalogues. > Advertisements are disseminated through miscellaneous media: window displays, calendars, wrapping paper, shopping bags, shipping cartons, telephone credit cards and take-away food cartons. > The Yellow Pages contains companies in alphabetical order, according to particular ‘types of business. > Adverts, small ads and classified ads fill many pages in newspapers and magazines, > Commercials are broadcast on the radio and television. infomercials are longer commercials disguised as entertainment programmes. The power of advertising on TV is enhanced by the latest_advances in technology. Instead of “spot” advertisements, digital product placement is becoming widely used. The computer makes real-time virtual advertising possible: images of a product can be produced behind a soccer player; brand names can be put on cups, matches, bottles and wherever the client desires, during both live and pre-recorded broadcast. Using a “Digital Time Machine”, programmes can be shortened to add extra seconds for commercials. Interactive television is able to track viewers’ watching habits, keep ‘extensive databases and target ads on individual viewers. > The Internet is becoming one of the most effective ways of promotion. Companies have their own dedicated web sites, use click throughs (links to the business’ web site), send mail shots, register with a search engine to have their business link appear near the top of the list, and place banners on related web sites and on sites With a lot of traffic. Internet promotion offers a lot of advantages to advertisers. It is ‘Sast and reaches a potentially global audience. Interactive ads make the contact, with customers flexible. Market research and targeting the audience are far more effective. Contrary to other media, messages can be edited and changed almost instantaneously. vy > Promotion employs a wide vs Juring techniques: sampling of goods, discount ‘coupons, special price-reduced packages, mail-in premium merchandise offers, contests, sweepstakes, and the frequent use of magic words such as “sale”, “bargain”, “buy two and get the third one free”, “trial offer at half price”, “buy now, pay later”.Exam-Fright Killer Arguments For and Against Advertising 10 % Proponents of advertising argue that advertising gives people greater freedom of choice and enables manufacturers to sell their products in larger quantities. In turn, mass sales allow companies to merchandise their goods at a lower cost than ‘were produced in small quantities. they Critics see advertising as an annoying, unnecessary, unreliable, even dishonest institution. They maintain that advertisements add to the cost of goods and services and harmfully influence the human psyche. Arguments AGAINST Advertising it creates a mass market and stimulates competition between companies. But for advertisements, goods and services would be more expensive, as fewer people would wish to purchase them. ‘Taking the number of the audience into account, Internet marketing is relatively cost effective. Arguments FOR Advertising = Advertising keeps prices down, because | = more expensive because of ‘costly advertising budgets, for which the eustomer is made to pay. Advertising does not create real competition. As many leading products are produced by the same multinational company, the competition between brands boosts the profits of the same corporation. 1 Ads contribute to job security, because they help companies sell their goods; hence firms can retain their staff. Advertising itself generates employment and provides a great career opportunity for the creative. ‘= Multinational companies destroy smaller firms, causing considerable job losses. Only the wealthiest companies can buy advertising time and push their goods by advertising them heavily. = Adverts create consumer awareness. ‘Ads, especially on the Internet, give customers the most up-to-date product information. That way they help consumers satisfy their needs. Making it easier to compare qualities and prices, they allow well-founded decisions on what goods or services to purchase. Without advertisements, the customers” freedom of choice would be a mere illusion. = Small and classified ads provide a useful ‘service for the public: they help people find a job, find a partner and buy or sell their property. Ads promote public welfare as well, by raising health awareness: sober driving and anti- smoking advertising campaigns help millions of people break their harmful habits. Thanks to ads, charities are able to multiply humanitarian aid. m Ads create unreal needs. They brainwash us, manipulate us and force us to buy unnecessary things so u with the Joneses”. Ads depict a sham world when they make us. associate products with the images of success, happiness, popularity and a posh lifestyle. Encouraging us to live beyond our means, advertisements can easily lead to dissatisfaction with our own living standards. Stimulating envy among the worse-off, praying on our base instincts vanity and greed, adverts ‘can make us turn to crime: mugging, shoplifting or bullying. = Internet marketing is the worst form of promotion. Information overload makes it nearly impossible to distinguish crap from quality. Customers do not enjoy a greater freedom of choice, because it not the customer but the search engine’s algorithm that ranks the sites.Advertising = Customers who are dissatisfied with particular ads or feel cheated out of their money have the opportunity to officially complain about adverts. developed countries advertising is tightly fequlated. Media conglomerates have their own self-imposed codes of ethics. Business commissions and advertising standards authorities establish sets of criteria that all advertisements have to meet. Under these regulations, companies that make false claims about a product, derogate the products: of competitors or show bad taste are forced to withdraw their advertisement, and have to bear financial liability as well. = Advertising is not about the truth or facts, but about enerating corporate profits. Ads earl Ail_of them “bend the truth and misrepresent the product. Many ads are misleading, hyping up goods and services. ‘They promote qualities a product does not have, while they hide its defects: why should one believe that unhealthy sugary cornflakes are nutritious? Advertisements are often sexist. Washing powder, for instance, is offered by smart males to females, exclusively. Products of good quality do Not need to be advertised. = Advertisements help finance the media, Commercial TV and radio industries depend on ads, and they can provide their services at reasonable prices, thanks to them. The newspaper industry derives considerable income from advertising, necessary to keep prices down. Online advertising makes hardjare, software and Internet access cheaper, available not only to the elite but also to the masses. = In the world of mega corporations advertisers control the media. They prefer programming that attracts the largest audiences. Serious and quality programmes are not sponsored; light and unchallenging content proliferates. ‘This mediocre programming is not worth watching, reading or listening to, even if {fees and prices are reasonable, thanks to advertisements, = Gathert on interests, likes ‘and dislikes is beneficial for businesses and customers alike: drawing on the information, companies can design, refine and tailor their products to ‘consumers’ real needs. = Market research and audience research graanisations spy on people. They get information about customers’ income, education, age, and about their recreational, viewing and surfing habits, which is a gross violation of privacy. = Commercials provide _ entertainment ‘They abound with memorable slogans and catchy jingles. Many of them catch the — imagination through their creativeness and double meaning. They show celebrities, have nice music, unusual sound effects and attractive artwork. Others are humorous, able to bring a little laughter into people’s lives. ‘= Advertising is a “royal pain in the neck”, Long commercial breaks, interrupting TV programmes, are extremely irritating. Not only are mailboxes, jammed with leaflets, a nuisance to ‘empty, but the junk paper could only have been produced by killing trees. A lot of Intemet sites have so many animated banners and pop-ups that they make surfing annoying. Internet spyware, masquerading under the guise of gathering data on buyers’ interests, seriously degrades home computer performance. Spam messages of electronic trash, meanwhile, clog the space in e-mail accounts, harbour computer viruses, and are a daunting waste of time. 1———————_—_—_—_— Exam-Fright Killer Introduction * HIV's * Behaviour ‘and HIV Tests 412 The origin and discovery of the disease > AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is caused by a retrovirus alled HIV (Human Imr fii irus) > HIV originated in rural areas of central Africa around 1930. AIDS was first identified in the USA in 1981, then in Africa shortly thereafter. The virus was first isolated in 1983, by Luc Montagnier. The of All > AIDS quickly spread_into_a worldwide epidemic. The WHO (World Health Organisation) and UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS) estimate that 40 million people the world over were living with HIV infection or AIDS in 2003. By that time, 20 million people had died from the disease. > More than 95% of all HIV-infected people live in third-world countries. The highest rate of infection in 2003 was reported in sub-Saharan Africa, where approximately 26.6 million people were infected — one in five adults. Adults of working and parenting age are being wiped out, leaving millions of children orphaned. It is feared that HIV will rage through China and India, the world’s two ‘most populous countries, and will also devastate Russia. > AIDS is the most devastating disease humankind has ever faced. It is the fourth leading cause of death worldwide. It affects men, women and children in every country, on every continent. It is a fatal, deadly, lethal epidemic — the plague of the 20th century. HIV’s behaviour has been thoroughly studied, and various diagnostic tests have been developed to detect its presence. > HIV copies its genetic material into the genetic material of human cells. It infects key cells (CD4 cells), which co-ordinate the immune system’s fight against infection. It commandeers the cell to produce a new HIV virus. The newly formed virus leaves the cell and destroys it in the process. As a result, the virus weakens and damages the immune system, which becomes unable to protect the body, as itIases its capacity to fight diseases that would not normally create a problem. > A variety of tests, such as ELISA, Western Blot, and CD4 cell counts, have been developed to diagnose the stages of HIV infection and to screen blood and blood products. HIV infection is detected by an HIV antibody test done on blood, saliva ‘or urine, Antibodies are proteins created by the immune system to destroy HIV. It takes antibodies 5 to 12 weeks to develop after infection.Ways of Trans mission Stages “IV Infection ‘Troatment Ant-HIV Drugs %* HIV is present in the blood, sexual fluids and breast milk, It can be passed on if these fluids get into another person's body: > through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person > through contact with infected blood: sharing contaminated needles or body piercing ‘equipment, transfusion, blood getting into a cut or sore on the body > from an HIV-positive woman during the course of pregnancy, birth, or breast feeding (mother to child transmission). HIV cannot be transmitted through: > saliva: although saliva contains the virus, the level is too low to be infectious > casual contact: hugging, kissing, sharing dishes or bathroom facilities, a handshake, 4 cough, a sneeze or an insect bite, because the virus dies quickly if exposed to the environment. IDS a course of iliness > st 1(2 to 4 weeks): such as fever, fatigue, headache and sore joints. HIV reproduces rapidly in the blood. > ‘Stage 2 (10 years or more): a prolonged asymptomatic phase. The infected might remain unaware that they carry HIV. The virus progressively destroys the immune system. > ‘Stage 3 (some months to several years): early symptomatic phase, with extensive weight loss, fatigue, fever and diarrhoea. > Stage 4 (several months to years): late symptomatic phase, characterised by the ‘appearance of any of 26 opportunistic infections (diseases which take the opportunity to attack a weak immune system), and rare cancers. They are the AIDS-defining complications in the stage of full-blown AIDS; for instance, pneumonia, tuberculosis, shingles, herpes, meningit i neurological disorders. A clinical illness develops, which finally kills the infected, The main thrust of treating AIDS > Antiretroviral drugs block the virus’ ability to replicate. A combination of three ‘drugs called triple therapy or AIDS cocktail is used, because HIV mutates and some versions become resistant to particular drugs. These medications have a wide range of side effects such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, insomnia, muscle pain, ‘damage to the liver and inflammation of the pancreas. Triple therapy is expensive and difficult to follow: patients have to take up to twenty tablets a day on a specific schedule. The infected in the developing world cannot afford this therapy. > Medications are prescribed to fight the. infections and rare cancers. > Psychological treatment and counselling help people live with a fatal disease, cope with its emotional toll and overcome the social stigma attached to AIDS. 413Exam-Fright Killer * Prevention Perspectives 14 The effectiveness of drugs and treatment > Drugs may extend the life expectancy of patients, lower death rates among HIV- positive people, fight off the onset of AIDS, reduce the risk of developing an ing illness and improve the quality of life of infected people, but no 3S to completely eradicate HIV from the ere is no no cure for All Precautions to take > Individuals can avoid HIV infection if they: = abstain from sex with HIV positive partners practise safe sex, especially by using a condom = stick to one faithful partner i = are intravenous drug users, but do not share needles = avoid getting blood transfusion in countries where the blood supply is not sereened for AIDS. > Governments, NGOs (non-governmental organisations) and charities issue strict ‘health-care guidelines and run safe-sex campaigns, public education programmes ‘and needle-exchange programmes, to reduce HIV transmission and to teach safe behaviours. As AIDS is a worldwide epidemic, it must be tackled on a global scale, Means and efforts to combat the disease must be co-ordinated in the following fields: > Developing new drugs which prevent HIV entering the cells and fortify the immune system in order to stimulate the production of CD4 cells. > Regulating pharmaceutical companies to sacrifice some of their profits in order to ‘make their products affordable, because lack of access to drugs can be catastrophic to the inflicted. > Providing humanitarian aid to developing nations, where poverty, huge debts to the West, struggling economies and a general lack of good quality, well-supplied health care make fighting off the disease impossible. > Effective public education is necessary to raise public awareness and teach people how to protect themselves. The infected must be helped to fight the social stigma ‘and discrimination which they have to face: they often suffer physical abuse and lose their jobs; children are thrown out of school; medical staff refuses to perform medical procedures. The infected are discriminated against, because serious misinformation pervades public perception about the transmission of the disease. Many people still mistakenly believe that AIDS is a corollary of homosexual behaviour.ALCOHOLISM Introduction % The Babylonians, ancient Greeks and Romans consumed alcoholic beverages with Levels of Alcohol Consumption pleasure. In the Middle Ages, alcoholic brews were a safe alternative to water, which was often contaminated with cholera bacteria. In the 19th century, the “Temperance Movement” began to portray drink as evil. From 1919-1933, the prohibition in the US gave birth to the “speakeasy”, and bootlegging profits helped the Mafia to get a foothold in legitimate American business. Historically, drunkards were considered irresponsible and immoral people of Weak character. Drinking was regarded as a matter of personal decision, so the individual was held responsible for this harmful habit. In the mid-20th century, however, it was realised that alcohol dependence is a type of drug dependence. lism is such a widespread disease that it constit a maj ic health Broblem. Alcoholism affects a broad cross-section of society, from business executives to farm workers, from housewives to church members. The number of women and young people drinking in excess and having drink problems is on the tise. According to the WHO (World Health Organisation), nearly 62 million people ‘the world over suffer from alcohol dependence. Alcohol-use disorders account for 3.5% of the total cases of diseases worldwide, Research suggests that moderate consumption of wine and beer might have some health benefits. The 38s of the drink, the amount of alcohol it The seriousness of the drink problem depends on the amount of alcohol ingested and the frequency of consumption. Researchers distinguish between the following levels: > Abstinence from alcohol means never touching a drop. Teetotallers are always sober; never have a nightcap, or one for the road. > Social drinking is a moderate way of alcohol consumption. Social drinkers only drink with other people. For them, alcohol is an accompaniment to social situations: celebrations, parties or business dinners. They sometimes get tipsy and ‘mellow, but they usually avoid having one oo many. They do not have foo much booze so as not to wake up with a hangover the next day. > Heavy drinking has serious long-term health impacts. Binge-drinking, favoured mostly by the young, is especially dangerous. Young people get together with friends to a booze-up and get intoxicated in the course of one drinking session. ‘They get absolutely plastered, bladdered, legless, or blind drunk, having knocked back a skinful. After polishing off whole bottles of wine, they get as drunk as a skunk, > Problem (harmful) drinking is a serious threat to health. Heavy drinkers cannot refrain from alcohol, even though it causes harm to their families and to society, as well. With alcohol becoming the focus of life, their behaviour might become agreeable and antisocial. Some are closet alcoholics (secret drinkers). Although many of them deny their drink problem, it becomes difficult to control their use of alcohol. Heavy drinkers find it increasingly hard to be on the wagon. 415Exan-Fright Killer Harmful Effects, Long-term Toll of Heavy Drinking Causes of Drinking 16 * > Alco! ner iction) is the full-blown disease. Alcoholics cannot control drinking. They have an overwhelming desire to drink so as.to avoid withdrawal symptoms such as feeling sick, trembling, sweating, and a craving for alcohol. Some get drunk routinely; others drink small amounts regularly, and are able to hide the problem. Many of them, who develop a greater tolerance to alcohol, can hold their drink. Alcoholism is a maj lal, e lic and public health problem. > Alcoholism has long-term medical complications. Alcohol depresses the functions of the central nervous system. Alcoholics have an increased risk of developing diseases: hepatitis, cirrhosis, stomach and pancreas disorders, sexual difficulties, high blood pressure, mouth and liver cancers, obesity, stroke, memory loss, neurological and mental health problems. Drinking women have an increased risk of infertility and miscarriage. Drinking mothers often give birth to babies with foetal alcohol syndrome (a combin: of mental and physical defects). > Intoxicated people are prone to accidents: drowning, death in fire or drink-and-drive accidents. > Alcoholism may cause relationship problems with partners, children, friends and colleagues, because drunkards are usually aggressive and antisocial. Alcohol often triggers domestic violence: wife and child battering, abuse and rape. > Alcoholics often run into financial difficulty, because they spend more money on ‘quenching their thirst for alcohol than they can afford. Also, as their productivity at work declines, they are the first to be fired and the last to be employed again. > Risk-taking and impulsive behaviour induced by alcohol encourage people to have unsafe sex, ing in unwanted pregnancy or sexuall diseases (HIV infection). > Alcoholism is closely related to crime: property crime to get money for the booze, vandalism, football hooliganism, and assault or murder committed under the influence of alcohol. > A high percentage of suicide cases are triggered by alcohol. > Treating the chronic and acute effects of alcohol misuse is a heavy financial burden on health services. Genetic, psychological and social factors all play a part in one’s descent into alcoholism. > Alcoholism runs in families, probably as a result of genetic factors and environmental influences such as peet pressure, parental behaviour, social acceptance of drinking and the availability of alcoholic beverages. > Many people hit the bottle to escape their problems and drown their sorrows. They ‘want to forget about painful or embarrassing situations, or wish to cope with unresolved conflicts, many of which were brought about by drinking. > A great number of drinkers need alcohol to relieve stress, anxiety or depression. > Those who suffer from low self-esteem use alcohol to bolster their self-confidence and lose their inhibitions.How to Quit Drinking * * Alcoholism ined individual efforts to s m fruittul in less serio cases. Those who wish to give up drinking are advised to: > muster uy h willpower to stop > cut back on social activities which involve drinking (e.g. parties, pub or club) > have alcohol-free days and buy small rewards for themselves > drink low alcohol beers and eat when drinking. > avoid rounds, drink more slowly and work out a reasonable drinking limit > resist pressure from people encouraging them to drink, and have excuses lined up > try again if they relapse. Heavy drinkers often have to seek institutional help. > Individual or group therapy sessions, led by nurses, doctors or counsellors, provide counselling and advice. Cognitive-behaviour therapy helps addicts change their ‘mindset and behaviour, through discussion. > Aversion or deterrent therapy involves taking drugs which cause unpleasant side effects when alcohol is consumed. > Detoxification treatment is a course of medicine (benzodiazepines) to help patients cope with withdrawal symptoms. In some cases Delirium tremens (the DT's) occurs, which is a severe withdrawal reaction characterised by tremors (the shakes), delirium (agitation, confusion, hallucinations), and convulsions. After a successful detox some people relapse and go back to drinking heavily. > Al or rehabilitati yammes are aimed at maintaining abstinence from alcoholic drinks. Expert counselling, the support of the family and self-help groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, help drinkers stay off alcohol or keep within the safe limits, and adapt to a new way of life. Banning drinking does not solve alcohol-related problems, because it usually creates ‘black market for alcoholic beverages and forces people to hide their drink problem. Imposing harsher punishment for alcohol-related disorder and crime, increasing the price of alcoholic beverages and imposing a total ban on alcohol advertising may reduce the number of people suffering from alcoholism. Prevention and early intervention may prove effective in the long run. Public health campaigns launched to promote responsible drinking and to improve public understanding of the disease may help people resist the temptation of alcohol. 417Exam-Fright Ki ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE Introduction #* Alternative Medicine, also known as Unconventional Medicine, Complementary or Main Types #* Holistic Medicine 18 Alternative Medicine (CAM) and Holistic Medicine, includes a wide range of ‘approaches, therapies and health products which are not part of conventional western medicine. CAM is characterised by its holistic approach to iliness: it tries to treat the whole ‘Person. Besides physical symptoms, patients’ mental, emotional and spiritual well- being, their lifestyle, environment and diet are also considered before practitioners prescribe an appropriate course of treatment. In other words, holistic medicine aims to cure the disease as well as to promote general well-being, placing strong emphasis on the prevention of health problems at the same time. CAM is used for the treatment of a very wide range of ailments, for pain mana, it and for improving quality of life, alongside mainstream medicine. In cancer clinics, for example, acupressure helps. reduce nausea caused by chemotherapy. Acupuncture and osteopathy are often applied in pain clinics as well Not long ago, most alternative medical practices were considered useless and found bizarre by both the medical establishment and the public, Recently, however, several practices have been found to be effective, have gained popularity and have become part of mainstream medicine. Proponents of alternative medicine argue that holistic medicine is safer and more natural than conventional treatment. Its efficacy has been shown through practice. Opponents claim that unconventional practices are unproven, since the number of ‘scientific studies done so far is insufficient to examine their effectiveness, or to discover their adverse side effects. Comprehensive alternative medical systems include both theory and practice. > Ayurveda (the “science of life”) originated in India. It uses diet, exercise and meditation to achieve the harmony of body, mind and spirit. > Traditional Chinese medicine aims to achieve a balance of energy in the body, ‘because ailments are thought to be caused by energy disturbances. It applies herbal medicine, massage, exercise, nutritional therapies, acupuncture, and an energy therapy called Qi Gong. > Homeopathy, an ancient Greek practice, was revived by Samuel Hahnemann in the 19th century. It is based on the principle “like cures like” or “like with like”. It supposes that a substance which causes symptoms in a healthy person can cure the same symptoms in someone who is sick. Using plant, animal or mineral materials, homeopaths treat ailments with very diluted doses of the substance that is responsible for a disease. Homeopathy has been shown beneficial for hay fever, asthma, colds, high blood pressure, insomnia and depression.Alternative Medicine > Naturopathic medicine is based on the theory that the body is able to heal itself as long as it gets clean air and water, right food and exercise. Originating with the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, this idea was further developed by Father Kneipp and Vincent Preissnitz in the 19th century. It postulates that toxins, additives and pollutants accumulated in the body ‘weaken the immune system, which, in turn, loses its vital power of healing. Naturopathy uses hydrotherapy, diet, detoxification, acupuncture, herbal medicine, massage, osteopathy and other techniques to restore the body’s balance. Its efficacy has been proved in the treatment of auto-immune conditions, sinus problems, digestive disorders, headaches and fatigue. 4% Popular CAM therapies > Acupuncture, which has been practised in China for over 3,000 years and in Europe since the 17th century, is one of the most widely used forms of holistic medicine. It seeks to balance the flow of energy and regulate the function of inner organs by ‘fingertip pressure, ot by inserting fine needles into selected points from over 300 ‘acupoints on the body. Acupuncture treats ailments such as asthma, headaches and digestive problems. It is known to be effective in relieving pain, helping give up addictions and promoting general health. There are over 100 conditions recognised in which acupuncture works. > Biologically Based Treatments rely on things found in nature. Their aim is to stimulate the body’s own healing power by supplying it with the necessary level of vitamins and minerals. = A very widespread biologically based treatment is herbal medicine, the most ancient form of medicine in the world. A great majority of people still rely on it, and a quarter of our prescription drugs are derived from plants. Its remedies, which come in the form of teas, capsules, ointments, powders, lozenges and tinctures, are made from the stems, leaves, flowers, roots, bark, berries, fruits and seeds of a plant or a combination of plants. Some systems also use mineral and animal products. The effectiveness of herbal remedies has been demonstrated for a variety of conditions: colds, anxiety, insomnia and nausea, among others. > Manual Healing or Manipulative and Body-based Methods cover a range of techniques which cure medical problems by moving or realigning body parts, improving joint mobility, stretching and relaxing muscles and improving circulation. They are based on the theory that the imbalance of the body’s structure affects the function of internal organs. = Practitioners of chiropractic care adjust the spinal cord = Massage therapy manipulates the body's soft tissues. = Practitioners of reflexology touch or rub particular areas of the feet. = Osteopaths move and press the muscles and bones. Osteopathy has proved effective in the treatment of back pain, neck stiffness, knee problems, digestive disorders and headaches. 19Exam-Fright Killer Risks Associated With Holistic Medicine > Mind-body Control focuses on the mind's role in treating medical conditions, as the mind is thought to be able to heal the body by affecting its functions. ‘= Hypnosis helps deal with pain, anxiety or addictions. = Psychotherapy, meditation and yoga are used for relaxation. = Art, dance and music therapy, faith healing and biofeedback are also widespread mind-body techniques. > Energy therapies attempt to restore health by affecting the flow of energy in the body. = In the case of healing touch, practitioners direct energy by placing their hands on or near the patient's body, to correct disturbances. = Reiki involves the channelling of universal energy to malfunctioning parts of the body. It is often used in the treatment of stress-related conditions. = Spiritual healers channel “Divine energy” within the patient. = Bioelectromagnetics uses pulsed energy or magnetic fields to facilitate the healing process of the body and mind. It is used for bone repair, nerve stimulation, wound healing and immune system stimulation. = Qi Gong and yoga exercises aim to promote physiological and mental changes. ‘These exercises can increase circulation or reduce heart rate and blood pressure. They effectively treat ailments such as back pain, digestive disorders and weight imbalance. * lt ive there are safe. Havit ic usually ‘gentler than comparable conventional treatments, However, one must always ‘approach holistic therapies with caution. > Acupuncture is safe if practised by a qualified practitioner; if the needles are sterile and inserted correctly so as not to cause damage to internal organs or tissues. > “Natural” does not equal “good”. Herbal remedies do not face extensive scientific tests before they are marketed. AS a result, both their herb quality and effective dosage can vary. Often, other plant substances, even drugs like steroids are mixed with the medicine. Herbs may be contaminated with pesticides and heavy metals. At high dosage they may have serious side effects. Certain remedies may cause high blood pressure, liver damage or allergic reactions (e.g. Ephedra had been available for years before it proved to have been fatal to some people with heart problems). > Choosing a reliable licensed practitioner is of great importance. Inexperienced or untrained practitioners can cause more harm than good. > One of the risks is delaying or stopping proven traditional treatment in favour of holistic medicine. There are diseases, such as cancer, diabetes or chronic conditions, whose treatment preclude holistic alternatives. Patients receiving both alternative and conventional therapy must always inform their doctor so that drug interactions can be avoided.ART Introduction The first known forms of art are cave paintings dating back 32,000 years. Ancient as it is, art is difficult cause it has dif it meanir ling on itis it by the artis historian, t or wublic. The definition of art is also shaped by time, undergoing changes in different eras. > In Western cultures art traditionally meant skills and techniques of high quality. ‘There was no sharp distinction drawn between arts and crafts (e.g. between painting and pottery) until the Renaissance. Artists worked in guilds, which set standaris of quality. > During the Renaissance, visual arts rose in status above that of crafts, because artists were viewed as creative geniuses, > The higher status of visual arts was firmly entrenched in the 17th century. Art academies, referring to their ware as “fine arts", set ground rules for producing them. Academic principles governing composition and technique were soon challenged by Romantic artists, Impressionists and 20th century abstract arts, among others. > Numerous trends and new art in the 21st centuries the: of fine arts. Some artists are inspired by crafis, some tum to unconventional materials, Everyday objects, newspapers, plastic bottles and other rubbish may be transformed into modem sculptures. Others work in land art, combining architecture, landscaping and sculpture. Classification 3 Distinctive features of contemporary art of Art > Artis a form of self-expression, the cons values and world view of the artist. > Works of art, judged by academic or intellectual standards, appeal to both emotions, and intellect and can be appreciated for their own sake, without regard to their utility. > Artists are often on a lifelong quest of “raising the bar”, reaching higher and higher Strata of artistic excellence. They are free to experiment with styles, materials and techniques to find the best ones for conveying their message and subject matter. %* Generally accepted definitions of art > In the narrowest sense, artis limited to the fine arts: painting and sculpture. > Ina broader sense, art refers to the two-dimensional and three-dimensional visual atts, including drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, photography, film, and decorative arts, > In the broadest sense, art encompasses literature, music, dance, drama and any other form of creative activity (e.g. digital art). In other words, the art universe is a vast domain of literary arts, media arts, performing arts and visual arts. > Further distinctions can be made between professional art, fine arts, amateur art, ‘commercial art, folk art, and decorative arts or crafts. is conveyance of ideas, emotions, moral 21Exam-Fright Killer Purposes * and Importance of Art Digital * Fine Art Commercial = * Although its purpose differs from era to era, art is of utmost importance in all cultures. > of great value to arc! who try to reconstruct the life of the human race in prehistoric times. During those bygone days, art was used for rituals ensuring a successful hunt or guaranteeing female fertility. > In the form of pictographs and hieroglyphs, art is the predecessor of writing and the alphabet. > During the Middle Ages, the primary purpose of art was to communicate religious beliefs, teach people about Christianity and honour the Almighty. Monumental cathedrals and churches, decorated with wonderful carvings, relief sculptures, sculptures, paintings, frescoes, tapestries, stained glass and jewellery, are imbued with a sense of mystery and the power of God. > Portraits, landscapes, still lifes recorded people and their surroundings in a medium. il, tempera or watercolour, before the invention of photography. > Art attests to the power, wealth and prestic and institutions in all ages. ‘Magnificent castles and palaces, impressive government buildings, priceless art collections speak to the monetary and social status of their owners. For the prosperous, collecting artworks by well-known or would-be artists is both investment and art patronage. > As art lends expression to important customs, values and principles of a society, it can truly mirror historical periods. > Works of art delight with their beauty, enchant with their enigmatic message and provoke with their bold innovation. In short, art's purpose is to trigger emotional or intellectual responses from the audience, to provide food for thought, to lift body and mind. > Chariots of the human spirit, prominent works of art are national treasures, and at the ‘same time they constitute an inherent part of the world’s cultural heritage. Digital fine art, in which computer or digital technology is incorporated into the artistic process, is a new form of art, born of the revolution in information technology. The term “digital art” covers widely disparate disciplines, ranging from photography and painting to sculpture and motion picture. As digital technology allows a combination of techniques, mixing conventional art forms and manipulating light, motion and sound, it offers an artistic challenge to experiment with new forms of self-expression. The objective of commercial art is to make money._Its goal is to produce many ‘artworks cheaply and to sell them fast, so profitability takes precedence over excellence. However, some works rise to the level_of professional _arts. ‘Commercial art forms range from business card designs, posters and advertisements to portraits and video films. Commercial art forms have created a fast-growing, independent industry, in which advertising, broadcasting, picture and sound recording, performing arts, visual arts and publishing compete. The industry often provides a means of marketing works of professional and amateur arts: records, books or posters of paintings. a ||Decorative art Amateur Art Folk Art Art %* Works of decorative art are set apart from works of most other art forms by their usefulness, as their purpose is to enhance, furnish or embellish spaces, or to make people look more attractive. Many areas of crafts, amateur art and commercial art fall within the scope of decorative art: textile design, furniture design, metalwork, glasswork, ceramics, and fashion design (e.g. clothing, jewellery and accessories). Outstanding works, characterised by individuality and technical mastery, have high artistic merit and quality. Amateur art is a discipline whose works are created primarily for pleasure, by non-professionals, Amateur _art_plays_a_significant_role_in_life, enriching individuals and communities alike. > Through artistic activities individuals can actualise their creative potential. It gives great personal satisfaction, pride and pleasure to be able to create a work of art, even if the end product is imperfect: the process of making things is as enjoyable as beholding the result is. > One's participation in artistic activities fosters a love of the fine arts. > Amateur art shows, exhibitions, art courses and workshops, performances by amateur art groups are wonderful recreation and a means of gaining knowledge, developing skills, expressing ourselves and spending our free time creatively. > Art education and artistic activities are fundamental to the development of young people. Engagement in art bolsters young people’s self-confidence and emotional ‘maturity, ignites their imagination and leads to self-discovery. > Because amateur art contributes to_a better quality of life, both the central ‘government and the local authorities should promote artistic activities. They should make arts accessible to everyone, in order to: = encourage personal development and social interaction = increase the constructive use of leisure time = broaden the citizens? cultural and educational backgrounds = build the community spirit = bring about a deeper understanding of the community’s culture. Folk art, embedded in local or regional traditions, is also known _as popular, naive, peasant or vernacular art. It mirrors a common ethnic and cultural heritage, the basic beliefs, ideas, customs and values that a particular community shares. its purpose is to beautify objects used in a household or a community every day. > The term is applied to hand-made and decorated household objects, ranging from clothing, furniture, utensils and toys to shop signs, pottery, and props used in festivals and entertainment. Styles of architecture, sculpture, painting, embroidery, ‘weaving and other textile arts, dance and music are also at home in the framework of folk art. > Anonymous artisans of the world of folk art: = build chairs, chests and other pieces of furniture = cast bijou jewellery and silverware = decorate ordinary wooden objects with carvings 23Exam-Fright Killer = throw earthenware vessels on a potter's wheel, glaze them, then fire them in a kiln = weave or embroider fablecloths and tapestry and make laces for dresses build omate belfries, wayside crosses and create paintings decorate their homes with wall hangings made of straw or other natural materials. > The importance of keeping folk art traditions alive is not lost either on governmental ‘of non-governmental organisations, which actively partake in their preservation, revival and popularisation. For instance, the European Folk Culture Organisation (EFCO) seeks to enrich national identity and promote mutual understanding among the nations of the European Union, by means of supporting, teaching and disseminating folk art traditions. Art + Sponsors of artists and art institutions come from many different walks of life. Sponsorship : > Wealthy families and individuals, aristocrats and magnates have always played the tole of sponsors and supported artists by commissioning work from them. At art auctions people of means spend enormous amounts of money on famous works of «art for their private collections. > Corporate funding of art is a more recent phenomenon. Multinational companies, major banks and accounting firms realise that sponsoring the arts offers mutual benefits, even if the profits do not contribute directly to the bottom line. By financing exhibitions and concerts, by underwriting educational programmes for residents, by investing in shows, operas and live music, corporations create a favourable image, generate public awareness and promote their products or ‘services. They can wine and dine important clients in style in an art gallery, where the elegance of the surroundings is more conducive to striking a deal. They may even commission artists to paint portraits of the company VIPs (Very Important Persons). > Despite being subsidised by the commercial sector, art and art institutions would not survive without public support. That means you. Governments of democratic countries adopt the arm’s-length principle: the government does not control the arts and does not use them for its own political purposes, either. States may support the arts indirectly, through non-political channels. = Donations to art institutions and organisations are tax deductible, which encourages private donors and businesses to become benefactors. = Financial support of individual artists and commissioning individual works of art are under the jurisdiction of arts councils, where decisions about grants are made by professional arti = Direct government funding is provided for national flagship institutions such as state art galleries and museums. = Arts education and Community Arts Training at state schools are financed by both the central government and the local authorities. = Local governments develop comprehensive arts programmes, including projects for strengthening the arts infrastructure, in order to make it convenient for everyone to create, display, perform and observe art. Local authorities often entice artists to move to or stay in the locality, by giving them preferential treatment and by funding positions of “Artist-in-Residence”.Banks and Banking BANKS AND BANKING ‘Types of ® The Central Bank: Banks serves as the government's banker and advises the government collects government income and manages government debt acts as lender to provide the necessary liquidity decides and implements monetary policy acts as the banker of the banking system and has control over it supervises other banks’ operations and is a lender of last resor 1e mon 2m, sets national interest rates and is: . ‘The central bank of the UK is the Bank of England, called “The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street”; the central bank of the US is the Federal Reserve Bank, called “Fed. > In the US banknotes and coins are issued by the Department of the Treasury. %* Commercial banks > Commercial banks are also called clearing banks or high-street banks. > The most important English commercial banks are the “big four”: National Westminster, Barclays, Lloyds TSB, and HSBC (formerly known as Midland). > In the US there are over 14,000 different commercial banks. vvvyvvyvy * Building societie > Building societies give mortgages to help people buy a house. They also offer a range of savings accounts. > In the US they are called Savings and Loan Associations (S&Ls or thrifts), ®* Merchant banks > Merchant banks provide services only to businesses, on a large scale. 4 The City (also known as the “Square Mile”) ~ the business and financial centre in London, with the headquarters of most banks, the Stock Exchange, insurance companies and stockbrokers ~ is renowned for its atmosphere of stability and personal trust, Wall Street, in New York, USA, has the same status. * Many people dislike banks, claiming that they: demand high charges on overdraft, but offer poor interest rates for savers have too short and inconvenient business hours often lose customers’ money as a result of bad investments have a history of scandals concerning “insider trading’: financial “inside information” is used for bankers’ personal profit. vvvyExam-Fright Killer Banks and People Services Provided by Commercial Banks * Banks are not for people on the breadline: the have-nots, who are down-at-heel, down on their luck, or poverty-stricken. %* A typical banking customer is the average man, who scrimps and saves, budgets carefully, is sometimes in the red, or up to his ears in debt. 4 Banks are a godsend for the prosperous: the wealthy, who are made of money, who have money to burn, for whom money is no object, and who spend it like water. Holders get a cheque book with numbered, blank cheques with which to disburse money from their account. They are sent regular monthly statements with information about the balance of the account. instead of paying in cash for goods or for your expenses. You fill out a blank cheque in your cheque book, specifying the ‘name of the recipient, the amount to be paid, and by affixing ‘your signature. that someone wrote to you, by taking it to your bank and having the bank transfer the stated amount from the issuer’s account (possibly at a different bank) to yours. If you are depositing, the money stays in your bank account. When you cash a cheque, you receive actual money. by writing a cheque for more than the balance remaining in your bank account, your bank charges you a penalty, and will not pay any money to the intended recipient of your cheque. The recipient's bank then charges the intended recipient's account with an additional penalty, for trying to cash a bad cheque. = You can open a deposit or a savings account in order to save money. The bank pays you interest on the deposited principal. With a standing ‘oder, direct debit ‘or banker's order you give instructions to your bank to pay your bills directly. ‘your salary goes directly into your bank account, to withdraw money from your account. if you can secure the loan by putting up (offering) other assets of equal or greater worth as collateral.Banks and Banking = Youcan get, it mortgage if you ‘Want to buy a house. ‘A mortgage is a special type of loan for which the house itself is the collateral. Mortgages are apt to be a great financial burden. You often get mortgaged up to the hilt, because you usually borrow 90-95% of the total price and pay it back in fixed monthly payments for 15 to 30 years, until the mortgage is redeemed. Of course, you have to pay interest on the loan. If payments are not kept up, the house will be repossessed by the bank. You may get a mortgage interest relief: you, pay less income tax if you can prove that you were not able to use part of your earned income, because you were paying it out as interest ‘on your mortgage loan. = Credit_cards (c.g. Visa, MasterCard) make everyday transactions safer and more convenient. You can use them to pay for goods and services instead of cash or cheques. When you pay, the card is swiped, and the printed bill has to be Signed. For security reasons, the PIN is now quite commonly used with credit cards. Purchases can be made by mail, over the telephone, or on the Internet. People with good credit ‘ratings get a gold card, providing a higher credit limit. = If you have a debit card (e.g. Delta or Switch), the whole amount is directly deducted from your bank account. = In the case of a charge card (¢.g. American Express), you must repay to the bank the whole amount purchased with the card (plus the service fee), each month. In contrast, on an ordinary credit card the outstanding charges that are not repaid to the bank at the end of the month are automatically converted into a loan, which you will have to repay eventually, with interest. = When you buy things with an affinity card, a fraction of the purchase price goes to a charity. = Traveller's cheques are useful when taking extended trips far from home, where people do not know your credit record (you cannot write cheques), and you do not want to carry a lot of cash because cash can be stolen ot lost. Traveller’s cheques are in effect “personalised cash”: you pay for them in advance at your bank, which guarantees the face amounts against loss or theft. You have to sign each cheque at the bank when you buy it, and you sign each cheque again when you spend it. A separate paper, containing the unique serial number of each cheque, can be used to report and to claim an immediate cash refund for lost or stolen cheques. = Foreign currency | can be bought in local banks, at the prevailing exchange rates, if you are planning to take a trip abroad. : = Other services offered by banks to individual customers are various insurance policies and stock market securities, reflecting the reality that customer accounts typically comprise but a small fraction of the total financial business interests of a bank. 27