Chapter 1 THE NOUN ‘A noun is that part of speed (dog), a place (park, Oxfor ‘a quality (bravery), a state (happiness) "Nouns ean function as 1) the subject of a verb “The boy runs in the street. ©) the indirect object of a verb fered mother some flowers. 4) the object of a preposition ‘The girl went to school. nt of the verb to be er is an engineer. ) an apposition ‘Miss Smith, my seeretary, a telex. 2) direct address ‘Tom/Boy, come here! 1.1, FORM Some words function only as nouns ion, courage), while others may function as jouns or verbs having either to answer, attempt ~ to attempt to-call; change ~ to change. dance ~ to dance; dream - 5 to end; fall ~ to fall; fear - to fear; help ~ to help; hope Joke Kiss ~to kiss; offer ~to offer: stop ~ to stop try ~ tory: vote 06 [ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE + cloth ~ feet eet evel leet to per'mit ; ‘produce ~ + trebel ~ to re’bel ) motns and adjectives (co igh ‘record - to re'cord) ; Compound Nouns In English there are nouns which are made up of two or more parts. These compound ‘nouns may be either single words or they may be made up of two or more separate words. ‘Single-word compound nouns may be made up of: 4) two nouns (butterfly ; classroom; cupboard; footprint ; footstep; raincoat ; saucepan ; seaside; typew b) an adjective and a noun (blackbird; blackboard; greenhouse; heavyweight ; longhand ; redhead) ; ©) a verb and an adverb particle or preposition (breakdown; downpour ; income; outcome; upkeep) ; 4) an adverb particle or preposition and a noun (outlaw ; outlook ; upgrowth). AA large number of single-word compound nouns are built up with the help of suffixes and prefixes. The suffixes may be added to a) verbs to abolish - abolition to accept ~ acceptance to accompany ~ accompaniment to communicate ~ commun to compare ~ comparison ~ to compel ~ compulsion to compensate ~ compensation to complete ~ completion to compose ~ composition to confide - confidence” to confuse ~ confusion to congratulate ~ congra to conspire ~ conspiracy to construct ~ construction to approve ~ approval to arrive - arrival ~ to ascend ~ ascent to assist ~ assistance/assistant~ to attract ~ attraction to begin ~ beginning/beginner ~ to behave - behaviour — to bore - boredom to calculate ~ calculation to converse ~ conversation to correct - correction to cover ~ coverage/covering. to create ~ creation — to decide ~ decision ~ } I 1 ‘THE NOUN : to defend - defence to defy - defiance— to depart - departure— to depend ~ dependence to descend ~ descer to describe ~ de: to destroy ~ dest to develop - development to discover ~ discoverer/discovery to employ ~ employee/employer/ employment to encourage ~ encouragement to enter ~ entrance/entry to exclaim ~ exclamation to exhaust ~ exhaustion to exist ~ existence to expect - expectations to expel ~ expuls to explain ~ explanation to explode - explosi to explore ~ expl to expose - exposure to extend - exter to form - forma to grow ~ growth to judge ~ judgement to know ~ knowledge to laugh ~ laughter to manage ~ management to mock ~ mockery to move - movement to obey ~ obedience to obstruct - obstruction {0 occupy ~ occu to occur ~ occurence to oppose ~ opposition to organise - orgs to paint ~ painter/painting to perform - performance to permit - permission to persuade ~ persuasion to press ~ pressure to prevail - prevalence to proceed ~ procedure to proclaim ~ pro to produce - prod to pronounce ~ pronunc to propose ~ proposal to prosper ~ prost to provide - pr to publish ~ publisher/publication to punish ~ punishment to qualify ~ qualification to rebel ~ rebellion to recognize ~ recognition to reduce ~ reduction to rely ~ reliance to repeat ~ repetition to resemble - resemblance to reside - residence to resign ~ rENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE overcoat; overdose; overdraft; overwork superintendent ; superman ; super ‘superstructure ; supertax two oF more separate words 4) anoun + a prepositional phrase (mother-in-law ; edit “THE NOUN 9 oiling point ; walking stick) ‘compound noun, only the -ing ) a gerund + a noun (dancing-sho ‘must be underlined that, ¥! 4.2. TYPES OF NOUNS Proper: England; Jolin - in a boy: a book (pene ‘bread; milk ‘uncountable : zi abstract: hate; advice 1.2.1, Proper Nouns ymames: Smith, jackson ; Miss Brown ; Mrs. Sappleton ; Dr. Johnson ; Queen Victoria ‘Sir Christopher Wren; Sergent Longfield ; Professor Finocchiaro ; Sunday ; January; Christmas ; 4) geographical ‘SCountries: Albania ; Britain; Romania; | Continents: Africa; Australia; Europe; | re Sears, vers, seas: Lake Ontario; The Pacific Ocean; The Danube; €) titles of books, new United Nations Or 1.2.2, Common Nouns “They are all those nouns which do not designate a particular person, ing ‘Such nouns may be either countable or uncountable. in order to make it must be show th jw many books have you got? ; Your nd has a few oranges) : ‘an be preceded ty numbers (one penell wree pencils);is uncountable if it has not a plural form it cannot be preceded by itcam be preceded by How much o friend has liule luggage) it cannot be preceded by imbers, ‘that matter they ate incoum I drink a coffee every morning. Grandfather ne te Thave corrected al Paper is made ‘The most frequent unco accomodation advice tuner ame anger dat oe tonlnae dir tdcation evidence ft food fan clothing coal information conduct Jealousy cookery | Jewelery countryside knowledge Partitives ‘They are those nouns which refer to specifi ns or amounts 8 bar of chocolate/soap/metal 2 blade of grass & block of marble/ice/wood a box of matches RAMMAR, there are some nouns that can be bot they refer to single items they are countable and wh en they re fable nouns in English are ‘machinery meat ‘money mud susie patience book of stamps a breath of air a bar/cake of soap a cloud of dust 'EORY AND PRACTICE th countable and unc: (How much sugar do you want? Your seaside shopping smoking soap spelling steam strength stuff thunder timber toast (= bread) traffic transport underwear violence vocabulary ‘THE NOUN a crust of bread a piece of woody a cube of ice ¢glassichalk/cotton/bread/advice/ fa dash of soda information/gossip/scandal/ 2 drop of oil/rain/water ‘wisdom/Inowledge 1 flash of light a pile of earth a grain of corn/dirt/rice! a pinch of salt 1 head of hair/eattleleabbage! ‘a portion of food lettuce a puff of smoke/wind a heap of coal/dirt/rubbish a roll of paper an item/a piece of news/information a sip of tea a jar of jam a scrap of paper a jet of water a speck of dust a loaf of bread a slice of bread/cake/meat a lump of coal/sugar a sheet of paper a splash of soda a clap of thunder a stick of chalk strand of ) containers 1 barrel of beer a jug of water 1 basket of frui a mug of cocoa a bottle of milk/wine a tin of soup a tube of paste a vase of flowers a glass of water ©) games: a game of billiards/bridge/cards/chess/cricket/darts/tennis/volleyball 4) measures: a gallon of petrol; a length of cloth ; a pint of beer/ ©) types/species: a brand of soap; a kind of bi drug; a variety of pasta; a make of car 4) abstract nouns: a bit/piece of advice ; a bit of knowledge; a grain of truth ; a fit ‘of anger ; a piece of research ; a shred of evidence ; a period of calm; a spot of trouble ; a spell of work ; a wink of sleep; 8) pairs: a pair of boots/braces/glasses/ glove sclssors/shears/shoes/shorts/skates/skis' trousers, 4. Collective Nouns are sed for a group of people, ani 4) people: an army ‘an assembly audienceENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE a choir (of a clas (of pi 1 company (of actor a covey (of grouse) a bouquet/bunch (of flowers) a bunch (of grapes) a crate (of fruit) things a bale (of cotton) a batch (of bread) a budget (of papers) a clutch (of eggs) collection (of pictures) 2 fleet/Motlla/squadtron (of ships) 4 Might (of aeroplanes/steps) folk government a host (of angels) a jury a mob (in @ riot) 1 team (of horses/oxen) a tribe (of goats) 2 troup (of lions/monkeys) a library (of books) 1a pack (of cards) 1 peal (of bells) a sheaf (of arrows) a set (of china) ring (of pearls/beads) ‘THE NOUN a 1.3. GENDER ‘There are four genders in English : masculine, feminine, neuter and common (dual) two ones, we must eraphasize that there is a close connection feategory of “sex” and the grammatical category of “gender ‘Thus, masculine nouns will be all those nouns of masculine sex (bachelor ; father ; ‘uncle) and feminine nouns will be those nouns of fet “The distinction between masculine and feminine can be made by ‘gander ~ goose — husband - wife y king - queen ~ brave - squaw Ind ~ lass — brother - sister — lord - lady — buck - doe male - female ull ~ cow — man - woman cob - swan — nephew ~ niece ~ ‘cock (rooster) ~ hen ~ papa - mam(m)a colt - filly coster - donah dad/daddy - mum/mummy dog - bitch ~ ‘drake - duck — drone - bee ~ earl - countess father ~ mother ~ fox ~ vixen ~ friar - num (monk) 2. Adding suffixes to the masculine form a) ess abbot - abbess actor ~ actress ~ ‘manager - manageress adventurer - adventuress mister ~ mistress ambassador - ambassadress ~ ‘mayor ~ mayoress ~ ‘author ~ authoress — millionaire - millionairess baron - baroness ‘murder - murde benefactor ~ benefuctress Negro - Negress (usually offensive in god ~ goddess~ ‘meaning) heir - heiress ‘ogre - ogress host ~ hostess patron — patroness hhunter - untress— peer ~ peeress instructor - instructress poet ~ poetess Jew - Jewess: priest ~ priestess“ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE prince ~ princess prior prioress steward ~ stewardess tailor ~ tailoress fier ~ tiers nr ~ traitress| pie warder ~ wardress protector ~ protectress shepherd ~ sheperdess sorcerer ~ sorceress by ~ine hero - heroine Joseph - Josephine landgrave - landgravine executor ~ executrix (executress) prosecutor ~ prosecutrix, testator ~ testatrix 0-4 ton ~ denon 6) -ehoenne confidant ~ confidante comedian ~ comedienne flaneé ~ fiancée protégé ~ protégée tragedian ~ tragedienne 2 ~ettel-use usher ~ usherette chaffeur - chauffeuse Adding the suffix -er to the feminine widow ~ widower Adding the suffix -groom to the feminine bride ~ bridegroom ‘The use of compounds in which the first element specifies gender ) nouns denoting persons boy friend ~ girl friend ‘male child - female child male pacient ~ female patient man cashier ~ woman cashier ‘man friend ~ lady/woman friend sort ~ queen-consort ~ daughter-in-law ) nouns denoting hhe/male ape ~ st hhe-boar ~ she-boar hhe-bird ~ she-bird Dull-calf - cow-calf male camel ~ female camel ~ female/tabby-cat phant ~ cow/female hhe-/billy-goat ~ she-/nanny-goat THE NOUN, Is ick/buck-hare - female! doe-hare hhe-leopard - she-leopard dog otter - bitch otter cock-pheasant ~ hen-pheasant cock-pigeon ~ hen-pigeon (6. The use of compounds in which the second element specifies gender chairman - chairwoman grandfather - grandmother grandson ~ granddaughter juryman - jurywoman headmaster ~ ead mistress halforother — halfsister salesman ~ saleswo shopman ~ shopwor spaceman ~ spacewom: spokeman ~ spokewoman statesman - stateswoman turkey cock - turkey hen bulldog ~ bull Englishman - Englishwoman Frenchman - Frenchwoman baby, child, co doctor, enemy, fool, foreigner, friend, guardian, guest, infant, inhabit Neuter gender denotes things, ideas or beings whose sex we are not interested in book; house; horse; baby; thought. For s feminine. In this way such ‘nouns a5 the ) nouns denoting ps fury, love, murdé ty: death, grave, mountain, ocean, river, fe, winter, storm, stream, summer, sun, ‘On the other hand there may be those spoken of as feminine ') nouns that suggest beauty, gentleness: affection ; charity ; devotion ; faith ; hope ; Justice ; melancholy ; merey; modesty ; spring; virtue ; 1) mouns that denote negative traits of character: envy ; jealousy ; revenge; stubbornness ; vanity ; ©) nouns denoting elements from nature: darkness; earth; evening; moon; 4) names of arts and sciences: art; drama; painting ; poetry ; localities: country ; city; London; Romani boats, ships: balloon; boat; bus; ear: 2) names of universities: Cambridge University ; Oxford University ; California University[ENOLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE, 1.4. NUMBER In English, singular means one and is to add -s or to -le and then add -s: country - com wral means more than one. The general rule of ar form of the noun. The suffix -s = laughs ; fp/~ cups; /\! ~ pets: = pubs; /d/ ~ ~ dogs; es, pronounced /iz! is used afte .ges; lf! - benches; /3/ ~ garages: 2/ -0: heroes. ‘The following rules concerning the plural of nouns in English must be observed. Nouns ending in -y preceded by a vowel simply add -8 to the singular form: day ~ Gays; boy ~ boys, while those ending in -y preceded by a consonant change the -y { enemy - enemies. Mention must be made of the fact that -qu- is reckoned as so that such nouns as have the form colloquies and soliloquies, respective colloquy or soliloquy the plural Nouns ending in -0 get either -s or es when turned be added to 48) those nouns whose final -0 is preceded by a vowel ‘bamboo - bamboos kangaroo ~ kangaroos ‘cameo - cameos ‘nuncio - nuncios ‘euckoo - cuckoos ‘oratorio - oratorios curio ~ curios portfolio - portfolios ‘embryo - embryos radio ~ radios folio ~ folios scenario ~ scenarios studio - studios ') some nouns ending in -0, of foreign origin magneto - magnetos ‘merino - merinos rondo ~ rondos soprano - sopranos ‘dynamo ~ dynamos tango ~ tangos: ©) abbreviations: kilos (< photos (< photograph); pianos (< pianofo 4) proper names: Filipino ~ Filipinos; Eskimo ~ Eskimos; Hindoo - Hindoos Romeo ~ Romeos ‘THE NOUN 0 ‘When the final -o is preceded by a consonant, the suffix -es will be added domino ~ dominoes domino ~ dominoes echo ~ echoes echo — echoes. embargo - embargoes ‘embargo ~ embargoes hhero ~ heroes hero - heroes mosquito ~ mosquitoes mosquito ~ mosquitoes ‘There are some nouns ending in -o that may have both -s and -es for the plural archipelago - archipelagos/archipelagoes ; banjo ~ banjos/banjoes ; bravo ~ bravos/ bravoes; buffalo -buffalos/buffalos ; calico ~calicos/alicoes commando - jinoes ; flamingo 1 = mot oes; portico - port bacco ~ tobaccos/tobaccoes ; tornando ~ tornandos! 3, Most nouns ending in -f or -fe get -s in the plural: belief ~ beliefs; cliff elifs fife ~ fies; grief — griefs; gulf - gulfs; muff ~ muffs; proof - proofs; roof ~ roofs; safe ~ safes. ‘There are a few nouns that change -f or -fe into -ves when tumed calf - calves; elf - elves; half - halves; knife ~ knives Toa - loaves; self - selves; sheaf - sheaves; shelf - shelves wolf - wolves. But we say “still lifes” (= pictures repre ‘At the same time, some nouns with the same ending mi plural: beef ~ beefs (kinds of beef)/beeves (carcasses of oxen); dwarf — dwarfs! Gwarves; handkerchief - handkerchifs/handkerchieves; scarf - scarfs/scarves turf -turfs/turves; wharf ~ wharfs/wharves. 1g in -th get -s in the plural. The ending -ths is pronounced either /@s/ (h ~ deaths; faith - faiths ; heath ~ heaths; moth ~ Sloth ~ sloths; birth — births; hearth ~ hearths; length ~ lengt ‘months, or (82): bath - baths; mouth ~ mouths paths, There are some form houses /hauziz! in the plural. regular plurals aro: brother ~ brethren (members of children ; foot - feet; goose ~ geese ; louce ~ lice = teeth; woman ~ women ; ox ~ oxen, [A number of nouns 8 and plural 8) souns referring to hunting and fishing: carp; cod; game; grouse; hake plaice tue; salmon’ sheep; snipe. However, when the idea of "varieties" or “breeds “zero plural” that is they have the same form in both singular6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE ied such nouns can be used in the plural: deer ~ deer(s); buffalo ~ ; herring - herring(s) ; mackerel - mackerel) ; trout ~ trout(s). names: Ceylonese ~ Ceylonese; Chinese - Chinese; Japanese ~ + Portuguese ~ Portuguese ; Swiss ~ Swiss; Vietnamese - Vietnamese two dozen boxes; five hundred jousand people ; ten million books ; two gross of stamps; five ree hundred weight of coal; four joke of cattle; three brace of eral head of cattle; five gross the plural when they express an indefint number: jousand; million, these nouns can have either a zero plural or a regular form, But we must say: many thousand books or many thousands fof books. And, one must note the difference in meaning between Some hundreds of people (= several hundred) and ‘Some hundred people (= about a hundred) are part of compound adjectives denoting measure, noun: a two-hour © ‘The plural of compound nouns 4) the final element is made plural, especial is a one-word noun (armehair ~ armchairs; bedroom - bedrooms; goldfield - goldfields; horseman ~ horsemen ; hoursewife ~ hoursewives: pickpocket - pickpockets), but also when the elements ofthe compound are not themselves nouns (breakdown ~ breakdowns ; drawback ~ drawbacks ; dugout - dugouts ; forget-me-not ~ forget-me-nots; grown-up — grown-ups; good-for-1 ings; ne ‘er-do ‘well -ne ‘er-do-wells; merry-go-round - merry-go-rounds ; outbreak - outbreaks ; compound is a noun fol is the noun that takes red by a prepositional plural form: brother- is made up of a noun and an adj though in everyday speech plurals with - are often met = poet-laureates ; sergent first element of a compound is one of the words : man, woman, lord, gentleman, knight, yeoman, both clements of the compound are made plural: 00. THE NOUN “Templar ~ Knights-Templars ; yeoman-farmer - yeomen-f ‘A few nouns are used only in the singular being called Singularia Such examples of nouns are: advice ; barley ; bt ‘copper ; cotton ; flour; furniture ; happiness ; knowledge; luck; luggage; maize; meat nonsense; nylon; peace; pol jon; Europe. None of thes the Netherlands 4h). some nouns ending igs; savings; surroundings snings a ‘nouns by adding the suff necessaries; news; odds; Olympics dD mus: alms + auspicies; barracks; clothes; colow (= flag); contents; corps; customs; fireworks; funds; gallows headquarters; innings; manners; means; remains; sands; spirits thanks; works. Some of the for albsoried into English having a no plur ign plural, and others have both foreign plurals2» ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE The Origin Language 1 Foreign Plural ‘ThE NOUN 2 The Origin Langu T net 8 | Singular Noun | English Plural | Foreign Plural a) isis ~ esl eal analysis analyses |asis bases diagnoses ellipses hypotheses paranthesis parantheses, thesis theses b)-on --a demons automatons automata ert phenom phenomena French ‘Singular Noun | English Plural_| Foreign Plural 9) eau ~ -eaux/-feu — jeux plateau plateaus plateaux portmanteau | portmanteaus _| portmanteaux. bureau bureaus bureaux tableaus tableaux, adiewx “s~ zero plural Gn writing) and regular plural in speech chamois / Jemwai/ - Jfeemvacz/ ; chasss corps /ko:! ~ ko Tealian English Plural Foreign Plural “0-1 sopranos virtuosos ibrettos solos tempos BS Singular Noun | English Prat ery bons bonuses campus campuses circus cireses ens pentoes fects fected focus focuses fungus fenguses mucus clases rads radius slabs abuses terminus terminses sens pects stimu b)-a—-ae ae dilemma Giernmas ea eas sonata sonatas antenna ntennas antennae larva larvae vertebra rertebras vertebrae album tums nt ‘arian fguariums aquaria eaeacitsm —_euriculume _feuricoa foram forums (tora medium mediums media Memorandum — |memorandums |memoranda stad stadiums stadia addendum tddenda acter Bacteria erratum errata ova ova stratum strata ee = ees | index indexes indices sppendix npendines ——|appendices mate matrixes aries 13, Sometimes, the two plural forms of nouns have different meanings 5 (e (= metal stamps for making money) ze dice (= small cubes of bone or wood used in games of chane) { formulas (= forms of words) formula. formulae (= mathematical term) gent (Cages persons of unusually great me enti (= good or e2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE, ae (Ges indeces (= a f ‘mediums (= algebrical signs) = tables of contents) people claiming communication with s media (= means; penny pence (= 0 stant —_f stalls (= a bod ick, poles) staves (= a set of five horizontal Lines used in music) a fone (= different kinds of cloth) clothes (= nouns whose plural form has dif 14, There ate 5 exstom, habit) damagy (Gnjury or narm that = contents ( 2 of dress) ings = The Middle Ages = airs (= affected manners : to give oneself airs) >) regimental flag ist of chapters) a) habits = exstoms 2) impor duties; also the body of = damages (compensation for injury or loss) impairs value of usefulness) draugh; (arteny of air) fo ana partments = drawers: lower part of the body n for each leg effect (result, consequence) (Ca man of lewers") (vay) » 2) spaces minute = minutes 4b) secretary's record of proceedings (space of time) pain ~ pains (suffering) premise = premises am agreement {a proposition from Which a conclusion is drawn) quarter = quarters on, especially {one fourth { e nd = sands (beach) particles of erushed rock) 2) public shows spectacle ~ spectacles {Senses {public show) spirit = spirits rinks 1; God) nd, temper 15. Letters, figures and abbrevi made plural by adding the You must cross Her d’s are too jons as well as other substantivized parts of speech areENGLISH GRAMMAR THEORY AND PRACTICE of VALRs (= very important pe I your pros and cons. She knows I have had many ups and downs in my lie. rs make the plurals by doubli on the plane But the abbreviations made up of isolated that leer e( P.( chapter) ~ ee age) ~ PP 1.4.1, Concord between Subject and Predicate 1 ‘The general rule is that a singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb ‘This girl speaks Ex ‘These girls speak takes a plural verb jive nouns as: cattle, clergy, people, police, public are always followed by a plural verb. ‘The cattle were grazing in the field. ‘The police are Investigating this case. sular subjects connected by either ... or; nelther ... nor; not only ... but ‘and not are followed by a singular verb: Il knows the answer. singular and the other one plural, the “rule of proxi ‘But when one subj must be observed: [Neither the teacher nor the pupil the [Neither the pupils nor the teacher is in the clas ‘Two or more subjects connected by and take a plural verb ‘The cat and the dog are under the table. However, when the two subjects are regarded as a whole, a “single idea”, they are followed by a singular verb ish and chips is a traditional English food. Whisky and soda is Tim's favourite drink My neighbour and friend comes here every day. (one person) My neighbour and my friend come here every day. (two different persons) ‘The same thing-happens to nouns denoting units of measurement which take a singular verb when they are preceded by a numeral THE NOUN 2s 5. A singular noun preceded by each, either. every or neither takes a Each boy tells us a joke When a plural noun is preceded by neither of, or a plural verb n be followed either by a singular 6. The nouns body, heart, to more than one person ‘May people lost their lives in World War I , mind, soul are used in the plural whenever they refer 9, When the “formal subject” of a sentence is there, “real subject” ‘There Is a book on the table. ‘There are many trees in the garden, 10. The noun number takes a singular verb when itis preceded by the definite article the and a plural verb when it is preceded by a "The number of mistakes Acnumber of people were When the pronoun by a singular verb: Its these boys who broke my window. ber and person as the wor ‘books that have ever been predicate must agree with the 18 for me. jing or emphatic constructions, itis Kerry's luggage was very heavy, 14,Pluralia Tantum nouns Ibe followed either by plural verbs when they name things26 ENGLI GRAMMAR. THEORY at trousers are very st ‘The acousties 1.5. CASE yuns that are in a funny fellow, w 4. the subjes verb, as part of the Abso Mother being very tired, I gave up asking her to ‘The Nominative of Address, also called The Vo« being or a thing to which we are addressing ourselves Boy, come here! Mother, look at me! composition, measure. The Synthetical/Saxon/'s Genitive ris formed as follows by plural noun +" ‘The boys? ball was new, “The parents’ bedroom, THE NOUN a ©) irregular plural noun + *s ‘Tae women's society ‘The children’s Proper names ending in -s usually get only the apostrophe, although ’s may also be ‘used, in either case the ending of the noun being normally pronounced /iz/ Dickens’ novels Dickens's now ‘Thé Synthetic Genitive is used with 1. Proper names Deborah's native town, 2. Names of persons My sister's doll ‘Your neighbour's car “When the “possessor” is represented by several words, the possessive ending is added after the last one only ‘The boy and the gi toys) If each “possessor” is followed by ’s, this means that the possessed objects di ‘The boy’s and the girl's toys (the boy has sor Iso be added to a whole phrase: My br ‘The woman next door’s husband 3. Collective nouns ‘The government's decisions Our company's success 4. Names denoting other beings than persons. Pussy’s kittens A spider's web 5. Personifications 1) abstract nouns Liberty's defence ) names of countries, towns 16. Names of vessels, boats, ships ‘Our ship's crew 7. Names of chronological ments, distance, weight, worth, etc,=e a ae Se oe 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, TI AND PRACTICE ‘She came back after a year's absence, ‘We have got week's holiday. ‘The patient needs They had a ten mi two dollars? worth within arm's reach 8. Idiomatic expressions for God's sake for goodness’ sake for heaven’s sake ‘out of harm’s way to get one’s money’s worth, a needle's eye content in my mind's eye at one’s finger’s end ‘on a razor's edge the journey's end ‘Sometimes the Genitive is used ly, that is without the “possessed object” ‘possessed object” has already been mentioned and we want to avoid y's blouse is more beautiful than your fhurch, department store, hotel, shop, theatre, ‘understood She is going I will stay at my aunt's the grocer's/butcher’s/baker’s, 1.5.2.2, The Analytical/Prepositional/Periphrastic Genitive ‘made up with the help of the preposition of and it is used 1. When the “possessor” is a thing ‘The roof of the house ‘The garden of the school 2. In some geographical names ‘The Isle of Man ‘The city of London Before substantivized adjectives 2 a i the importance of a proper name We discussed about the wars of Napoleon ‘THE NOUN 2» 6. When the “possessor” is a small. animal Synthetical Genitive is used : ‘The wings of the fly ‘Tae egg of a robin insect, etc. With bigger animals, the but ‘The elephant’s trunk When the “possessed object" is preceded by @ demonstrative adjective or by the indefinite article in place of in sight of er of fact by means of a drunkard of a father 1 devil of a child in place of 1 mountain of a wave beyound reach of ‘a monster of a wave a devil of a sea Although the Analytical Genitive is generally regarded as an alternative to the ‘no longer possible when the later is a “Classifying Genitive”, it has an adjectival value John is ship's doctor. (not: “a doct ‘She is a lady’s maid. (not: “a maid of a lady") ‘You have a doctor's degree. (not: “a degree of a doctor") This is a man’s work. (not: “a work of a man") ‘or with the nouns Aunt, Father, Grandmother, Mother, Nurse, regarded as proper ‘names, when they are not preceded by a possessive adjective ‘Aunt Martha's present Father's free day for when it denotes proper names of localities, squares, St. Albans (= St. Alban’s town) Lincoln's Inn Hall Hollywood's Studios St. James’ Palace or when the noun in Genitive is followed by a Gerund Jane's going there was very surprising. T count on Kerry's arriving here on time. 1.5.2.3. The Double Possessive It consists of the combined Analytical and Synthetical Genitives, usually having a parttive meaning. Notice the difference A portrait of Turner (one portraying him) A portrait of Turner's (one painted by him or belonging to him) tutions, shops, etc.20 [ENGLISH GRAMMAR THEORY AND PRACTICE indicated, in this type of construction, only by word order, ive markers of the Sun) ‘The Organization of the United Nations) dents) the Union) ‘The Union Square (= 1.5.3. The Dative Case in fact the case of the or by word order. ave Kerry a is on “a good book") ‘other person) to get; to leave something ; to beg something an to take ; to tear, etc. to procure, etc., the preposition of - by to ask preposition from - by to require; to snatch ; used. ) after such intransitive verbs as: to happen, to occur, to propose, to submit, |. followed by the preposition to It happened to my friend to be there b) after such transitive verbs as: to deny ; to give; to hand; to lend; to offer; to pay; to read ; to tell; to show lowed by avdirect object and the prepos make; toorder; to save; preceded by the pre T chose a hat for my father. 4) after such adjectives as: adequate; corresponding; cruel; kind; superior, etc followed by the prepos She was very kind ‘THE NOUN, Case is the case that denotes the object “affected” by the verb. A. ive may be 4) a direct object 1.6. EXERCISES 1. Underline the syllable that you would stress when speaking: We permit you to st ‘They need a permit the camp, You must accent every syllable, his conduct. ‘They executed her orders without any protest. . I think you have made go . She is ready 10 progress next chapter, I, Combine a word from box A with a word from box B to form a compound nout ‘Then use the nouns to complete the sentences below, making the noun plural whet necessary :u ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE 1X, Write after each word one of the letters M, F, C, N which stand for masculine, feminine, common, neuter : school 16, cook Inusband 17. vixen adult 18. eve son 19, gander fox 20, child ball 21. bull witeh 22. aunt ‘enemy 23. tiger nephew 24. bird ‘mun 25. novelist drake 26. queen basket 27. tree had 28, neighbour student 29. mare 5. book 30, sultan X. The nouns which denote the following beings belong to the masculine gender. ‘What are they ? 1. aman whose wife is dead; 2. an unmarried man; 3. a man to whom a woman is vested, 4. the son of a king; 5. the male of a deer; 6. 2 fully-grown male horse; Tia person who cuts and make suits, overcoats; 8. aman who, by law, receives wealth, Troperty when somebody dies; 9. the writer of a book, play, 6; 10. a man who vrenges to the enemy's side of gives away information t0 the enemy; I. a man who Trobe after sheep ; 12. aman who writes poems 13. a person who hunts 14. a person ‘a man who seeks adve (6. a man who serves people with table in a restaurant s, a frightening, cruel and ugly ‘a performer who tells jokes, ‘comedies; 19. a man who shows thele seats in a theatre ; 20. aman who works in (an) administration XI. Change the fe 1. Mother got up early yesterday morning. 2, The doe-rabbit started to eat a carrot. +3. The poetess read some nice poems. 4. My niece bas passed a very difficult exam. 5. The goose looked at us. 6. The wife isnot at home. 7. The gir wanted to talk to me. 3 That nxen was very sly. 9. The lady smiled at us. 10. The waitress served us some food wine. IL. My alu sent me a nice present. 12. The bide arrived at the church, wehbe young widow decided to marry again. 14. The old duck ted the procession down ioe pond, 15, The cow was grazing onthe bank ofthe river. 16. Your grandmother the masculine gender: ‘entered the school. XI1, The nouns which denote the following beings belong to the feminine gender. ‘What are they? 1. a woman who has never been married; 2. a female horse; 3. the daugh brother or a sister; 4. an actress of tragic roles; 5. the femate of the dog/ ofa fox, THE NOUN 5 46. apassenger’s female attendant on a ship or an airoplane ; 7. a woman who is about to ‘be martied; 8, a female deer; 9. a woman who teaches female person who entertains someone else as her gut honey ; 12. the sister of one’s father or mother, or the wife sheep: 14. young female horse; 15. a woman who is supposed to have magic power 7. a large, white water-bird of the duck family; 18. a member ous community. it home; sportsman won another medal pigless kept close tothe Boar. 14, The headmaster was very pleased with the examination results. 15. The postman brought me a letter. 16. The monk Spoke about that monastery. 17. My uncle is coming here tomorrow. 18. Her brother studies at Cambridge. 19. My friend is an adventurer. 20. The wizard entered the cave. XIV. Insert the word opposite in gender to 1. The St. Bernard dog is larger than the ... 3. They had three sons and «wo ... 4, John and Mary became 5. When I looked out of the window I saw two deer ...: a stag and a spending her winter holidays with her uncle and throne room, 8. We saw a ... and a sawn on the sheep... a ram and a ... 10. With the Red Indian chi XY. The nouns which denote the following persons belong to the common gender. ‘What are they? 1. a child whose parents are dead; 2. a person who is being treated by » doctor 3a person from another country ; 4. a fully-grown human being ; 5. a person studying inital : 2, There were flowers for ladies and cigars for and wife 6. Dorothy is a particular thing; 6. a person who lives near another; 7. a person who teaches ; 8. a very young child; 9. @ son or a daughter of one's uncle or aunt; 10. a person who is hired IL. a person who accompanies another person; 12. a person ‘person who is received and entertained at another's house : 114. a person who is employed in a library ; 15. a young human being ; 16. a person who facts ina friendly and generous ‘a person who plays, dances, sings, et a solo 18. a person who travels in any vehicle; 19. a person who shares the ownership of a business, ete. with one or more people ; 20. a person who is good at running, jumping. XVI. What are the following neuter nouns ? irament for cutting; 3. a bul for writing in ink; 5. a ki garmer of the body, usually with a collar, sleeves and ‘buttons ; 6. a hinged barrier, usually of wood, which closes the entrance of a room 7. amechanism for fastening doors 8. a part ofa plant growing from the side of asters,GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE bag; bird; board; coat; down; fly; lord; note; pan; + paste ring; room; side; tray; weight ; writer class; cup; ear; fhand; head; heavy; land; ‘note; out; rain; sauce; sea; 1. never read a paper in detail. [just glance at ... 2. Some ... resemble moths. 3, The roduced by this ... are legible. 4. There are many pupils in this ... 5. She was counting a pile of the in the summer, 7, Come and sit in this ..., please. 8. Could you pass me that... T want to smoke a cigarette, 9, She has a strange 10, In most parts of Britain you can ‘grow peach 12. The ... of the “Swan” is ley. 13. We boiled the food in a stand all the stress and ly had a nervous ... 15. Have you seen today’s...” The Prime Minister has gone to China, 16. 1 always write down the new words ina... 17. Why don't you take your ...? Ws going to rain. 18. Put the food in the ..., please. 19. IF you pass me my... I'll give you the money now. 20. The woman was wearing gold ... 21. Now, you've got your razor and your shaving cream, haven’t you ...? What about your ...? 22. These two boxers are I. Give the nouns derived from verbs, adj age; ~al; -ation; -ency; ‘They tried the murderer. fe was at... 2. Everybody wants to be happy, so we all seek ... 3. They decided this thing yesterday, so it's their ... 4. You shouldn't be 50 anxious ...? Why don't you control your T refused their help and my... is final explain her in his... 8. You by my brother. 11. The scientists have discovered a new type of fuel. Their .. is ly valuable. 12. They 13. You must try and be I be better paid. 14. They agreed be all in ... 1S. This man is ake to lend him so ing to us, but her ... was naive. 19. She was very happy, but long. 20. I want to iron your shirt because itis full of creases after being in your suitcase. Now I want {0 give it an IV, Make up compound nouns with the help of suffixes from the following verbs, adjectives o nouns: fo depart; democrat; THE NOUN fo choose; mouth; to defy; farm; happy; to produce; m to pronounce; friend; to resolve; philosophy; t0 act; piano; to advertise; to resemble; spoon, 'V. What are the compound nouns indicated by the meanings below: 1. A man who sells milk. 2. A place where roads cross. 3. A man 4. A shelf on which books are kept, 5. A house in which coal is stored. the head of a newspaper. 7. A man who keeps 9. A man who repairs watches, 10, A man who lay le-word compound nouns adding the prefixes ant 10m over; super- structure; course ; dependence; ski View ; comfort; dose; charge; tax: inclinatior laste; carriage; advantage ; cle ise. 13, There were a lot of people ring you up from the phone in the office. compound nouns npotriva sal curind,(9) Dipl co repr masina de spt 10, Zbrutl de oape su 2 prods depresie tervoast, 17. Pe cimp erau fost foarte impresinat de ciel. 19. Nu credeam ed potpul de sef mea rugat su folosese masa de sers ari, 22, Elevul a ene 23, Haiduel se ut la cmaga di orn, 24. Cand mergeam la mare ant vit o mule de merle, 25. Este 0 faptcle tle, 26. Comportarea t Beate ff considera o lips de respec fa denoi,@3 In copie fi plicen sles dup arr. 28. Am observatucme de pas pe pra36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE sreen, flat and thin; 9. any of the hard, bone-like objects that graw in the mouth ; 10. astructure carrying a road or rail-way over a river; Il. the part of the body with which one sees; 12. a building for public 3. a place where goods are sold; 14. a type of jar or jug used for holding cut flowers; 15. a piece of furniture to sleep on; 16. a bent piece of metal used for catching fish; 17, faith or trust: 18. atender feeling ; 19. any ofthe bodies which move round the sun; 20. anything said or done to cause Iaughter, XVII, Translate into Engli 1. Lupoaica avea trei pui, 2. Cumnata mea este casiera. 3 viticd, dowd capre, un fazan, tri iepuroaice, 0 oaie, dowd teste cu doi ani mai mare decat courte erau 0 seroaft, 0 situn ginsac. 4. Ne meu. 5. Mirele dansa cu mireasa, in timp ce H. Vaduva devenise mostenitoarea unei av ‘XIX. Complete each sentence below by using the plural form of a noun ending in FA or Ul: 1A man who has 1wo = Ido not share your ‘of a new type of grass to make our lawn, in the blanks with the plural form of a noun ending in -y: 1. There are thirty-one ... in January. 2. Poland, Denmark, S\ European eats related to wetland are three consisted of collecting. 9 THE NOUN ” the plural form of a noun ending in -0: 1. There are a lot of legends about the ... of ancient Greece. 2. Chips are fried slices of ...3. Malaria is transmited by... 4. .. lay their eges in the nest of other birds. 5. The Jong, cylindrical missiles fired at ships are called ... 6. ... are South American dances. 17. The ... made a raid on the terrorists. 8. A very long poem may be divided into 9. Large cities, like New York, have many ... in which certain groups of people, especially ive. 10. The anvique shops are full of .. 1, The film was made at Ran XXII, Insert the correct ural in each space below: bacillus ~ a ot of penny ~ five one loaf ~ three fone cloth ~ a lat of ‘one editor-in-chief ~ two fone sheep — two one attorney-gene fone henius — & cone compass - cone bedroom ~ one grief ~ two cone tomato ~ four ‘one criterion ~ five ‘one passer-by ~ many one chimney ~ three h of 15. one man-servant ~ thre XXII. Change the nouns i 1. The leaf fell from the tree. 2. The boy has a knife. 3. The pol 4. The foot ofthe deer crushed the flower. 5. The woman was carrying a baby. 6, The ld saw a sheep in the fields. 7. Our cat has just caught a mouse. 8, The man looked the book on the shelf. 9, The thief stole a watch and a radio. 10, The wolf killed the donkey. ‘The old man sold the ox and the goose. 12, The boy made an entry in his diary. 13. A dark cloud hangs over the valley. 14. The housewife feeds the baby. 15. The Eng ‘solo that evening. 16, There is a chimney on the roof of this house. loaf on the shelf. 18. The ox vas grazing near that bush. 19. The icano. 20. The woman put a potato, a tomato, a fish and a head |. This Chinese has a dozen boxes of matches. 22. The foot Use alan or some to finish he sentence J want .. 1. meat; 2. picture; 3. chair; 4. water; 5. newspaper; 6. knife; 7. bottle of 10. glass of wine 2. cups of coffee cheese; 19. apples; neil; 25. fork; 26. egg; 27. orange; 23. whisky ; 24. 28. tea; 29. handkerchief ; 30. icecream, XXV. Put in a/an or some if necessary : house can be built of... stone, 2. Her room is quite empty. She needs ... furniture shoe is made of ... leather. 4. ... rose is... flower. 5. We get... milk from ... cow:38 ENGL 6. She has to do ... homework. 7. Thi We have .. uggag struck by ... lightening. Il. There is bread. 14. Have they got ... camera’ Boing shopping. She is going to buy ... clothes. 16. Kerry would like to 17. What... beautiful house | 18, What yuntries. 20. Would you like extra for thet description of it... 13, I need need ... informa garden, 24. John has received ... 28. ... loaf is made from ... 10 ‘wood. 31. She woul 33. Let me give you GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE kind people! 19. She needs ... visa to visit coffee? 21. There was ... ubbi . please! 23, He was going to plant tr from his parents, 25, I hi 26. You need ... money if you are going shopping, 27. . 29, There's under that record-player plays... music slice of bread left, 30... chairs are ‘music. 32. Thave been in... good health advice. 34. Our iment. 35. She needs ... luck to win this comy hours since she runs ... business of her own. 37. I'd ‘milkman. 38. That play was ... comedy. 39. 30u ... orange juice when I can find XXVI. Insert a suitable 1. a... of players 2 3. 4 3. 6. 7. 8. 9, 10. 0. 2 13, 14, 15. a... of clothes To ead below add another word whi the name of the group. Work on the model: found ends are doing ... interesting mn. 36, Jane works very long. order... extra milk from the coin in the garden. 40, I'll pour each of the spaces: a Boa 29 30. a. of flowers, of savages of directors ofthieves of rascals + of worshipers of dancers of books of magistrates of actors of herring of sheep of ducks = of oxen of ships ich belongs to the same group. Then duck; goose; chicken; [duck ; goose; chicken; turkey; poultry 1. apple; plum; cherry; ...; 2. Spain; Turkey ; Romania; 3. green: 4. bread; 5. barley plate ; cup cow; ox; bull; ...: school; shop; church; beef pork; mutton; tomato; onion; carrot chair; table; sofa; ...; father; daughter; is generally accepted that bad news d late becay roubles this job because she hasn’t got experiencelexperiences is rather difficult to find work/works at this moment. 6 jad no furnituretfurnitures in that room, 7. As 1 didn't know whe se peal advices. 8. The teacher is correcting the pupils” paperipaper im’s Et proved. He has made progressiprogresses. 10. Put that > the previous meeting. a plass/glasses of milk. the danage/damages. 18. We ate on good inute/minutes ia an hour. 20. We witnessed a the pay spite of all her airlairs and graces she has lute the colourlcolours when on parade. XXIX, Choose the correct form of the verb: 1. The class (was/were) warned not to talk during the test. 2. Maths ject. 3. Health and happiness (is/are) prit ver paper. 5. One of the girls (have/has) lost as/were) (was/were) ‘o receive their medals increasing. 15. A number of cars (was/we (is/are) ce (was/were) unable to agree. 18. The contents is/are) often played in our house. 20. Her thletics we watched yesterday (was/were) t fashion. 21. The at0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE exciting. 22. The acou! interesting subject. 24 inthis room (is/are) very good. 23. Acoustics (is/are) a very is/are) a branch of economics. 25. This species: Romania (have/has) won xp enough. 33. Five days company headquarters (has/have) x family live? 36. The public re) trying to decide today. XXX, Change the following sentences according to the model : His holiday lasted wo months Twas a two-month holida He was a .., 2. I walked for three miles. I "sa... 4, This book has three hundred page 3 series bas eight f grapes we Itwas a... 9. Her drive to London lasted three hours. It was a ... 10. We found a note of five pounds. It was a at building had e ioreys. Iimprejurimile sunt incntitoare, 3. Uzina este lingd o intersectie aglomerata. 4 nu este prea departe. 5. Stirile sunt cu adevarat interesante. 6, Tocmai am apere pe salariai. ternicl a cauzat ‘Aveam nevoie de un compas ca si desenez cere yedeam ce este scris pe portativ. 21. Simjeam 0 durere acutt in piept. 22, Era un spectacol minonat si admiri de pe stinci risritul soarelyi. 23, Patru sferturi fac un intreg. 24. Inainte de a intra in mare, am nisip in min, 25. Ca istori paranteze in compunerea ta? 27. Ni 28, Asemenea fenomene sunt greu de explicat 30. Se spune cA ruinele acestui castel erau bit fore am ajuns la destinatie. 32. Am cumpérat 33. Duplo grevi de toate revend lurmat un curs de francez# de patru luni si Laplace au studiat axele pl jpotezele lor s-au dovedit a fi co ‘de duhuri, 31. Dup8 un 2bo ng de cartofi de patra kilograme astre au fost saisficute. 34. Jane a ‘THE NOUN a XXXII St ifferent types of Genitive used below : 1. The United ganization; 2. The Merry Wives of Windsor ; 3. Your brother's ball; 4. A picture of minutes’ walk; 8. XXXII apostroy 1. the coatTimmy ; 2. the newspa ¥ parents 7 the dressithe girl we met yesterday; 9. the policy/gove bboy and the gir XXXIV, Rewrite these phrases so as to introduce the apostrophe: }. a club for boys; 4. The League + 6, overcoats for men; 7. a canteen for workers ; 8, a cloakroom for ladies; 9. whistles for policemen; 10. football boots for men. XXXV. Choose the correct version (a, b or ¢) to complete the sentences below: 'S. The walls of the room; 6. A day's trip; 7. A five 9, Today's news ; 10, Mother went to the baker's two nouns, Sometimes you by Jerry o Jerrys place, b) Mike ) Mike's keys anywhere, b) car ) cars’ husband, ) teachers" ©) teacher's 5. Deborah is borrowing her ... car today a) parent ) parents’ ©) parent's 6, My brother has been invited t0 @ this evening. a) children's ) childrens’ ¢) children 7. My father went to the ... room to talk to my form teacher. ) teacher teachers? ©) teacher's 8. This is my ... new dress, a) daughter by daughters ©) daughter's XXXVI. Insert the apostrophe where required in the sentences below : ‘wears his fathers shoes. 2. Henrys parents left home at 7 o'clock, inspected the natives hus. 4. The orphans went on an interesting trip, 5. The orphans home was a really beautiful building. 6. The children admired the soldiers smart uniform. 7. Most of us have read Alices Adventures in Wonderland. 8, We have a five days holiday. 9. There was an interesting article in yesterdays newspaper. 10. The child needs two hours sleep every afternoon. XXXVIL. Work on the model: No, it's my sister's [Is this Mr. Black’s house? (Mr. Brown) 2. Is the needle the carpente: 43. Is this your father’s hat? (brother) 4. Is this your neighbour's car?2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE 11? (Tom) 6, Is this Lucy's skirt? (Jane) 7, 1s today John’s bi boy's pen? (the girl) 9. Was that the man’s opinion ? (1 Jack's watch? (George) XXXVI. Write out the following sentenci ‘boun given in the brackets at the end of ead 1. The ... concert was most amusing. (babi (policeman) 3. She stayed five days on her always come first. (country) 5. The clinic has large stocks of... foods. (babies) 6. The Jeg was broken in that accident. (ourist) 7. The ... meeting was held in the staff room (eachers) 8. The ... face was wet with tears. (child) XXXIX. What could we use in place of the words in brackets ? 1. Her mother has gone to (the shop owned by the hairdresser). 2. I must buy some ‘medicine at (the shop owned by the chemi They bought jam and sugar at (the shop by the grocer). 4. We can buy bread ‘owned by the baker). 5. Father bbuys tabacco at (the shop owned by the tabacconist). 6, We can have the workshop owned by ‘owned by the shoemaker {greengrocer). 9. They bay meat at (dhe shop owned by the possessive form of the 2. They did not see the ... signal rm. (friends) 4. Our ... welfare should ns share ; 4. adog's death; 5. at arm’s distance ; worth; 8. tohis heart's content; 9, a stone’s throw | 6. for goodness’ sake; 7. five dollars’ 10. a foot's distance. |. Translate into English : 1. Casa prietenei surorii lui Nick este foarte frumoas3. 2. sunt interesante. 3. Citeva dintre juctri cumpirate. 4. Caietele colegului lui Nick sunt foarte ordonate. 5, Din avion, am avut 0 vedere de ansamblu a intregului oras. 6. Acestea sunt rezultatele exam 7. Doamna Craig este profesoara de muzic8 a fiicei mele. 8. Dupi o odi -am continuat eilatoria. 9. Membrii comitetului se vo 10. Sunt sigur e& dupa o vacani de dou siptimani te vei si It mai bine, XLIL. Translate the following sentences into English using the two forms of the Dative whetever possible 1. Lam trimis fiului mew niste bani. 2, Tu icai dat ft secretarei numele dumneavoastr®. 4, Doctorul 5. fn fiecare dimineata copi ‘cumpara un ghiozdan n¢ 4 scris 0 serisoare mamei lui. 9. Veei sil prez 10. am ofert tandrului absolvent o slujba foarte bund Chapter 2 THE ARTICLE ‘There are three articles in English : The Definite Article, The Indefinite Article and ‘The Zero Article 2.1, THE DEFINITE ARTICLE ‘The Definite Article the has the same form for singular and ph , and for genders ‘The boy is not at home; ‘The windows are open. The is pronounced /0s/ before or consonant sounds the book; the hat; the train, ‘mute hi the apple; the eye; the honour; the h before vowel sounds or before ‘Sometimes, attention to the noun that follows, the is pronounced /6i:/ even before consonants Is he the singer you were telling me about’? ‘The Definite Article is used ‘When the noun has already been m the sky; the s Before a noun that is particularized by a relative clause ‘This is the boy who broke my window. lowed by a prepositional phrase ital of France ‘The house with large windows ‘This is the road to Swansea, lar noun used as a representative of a class ‘The elephant is a big animal When such nouns are turned into the plural, the definite article is no longer used Elephants are big enimals Before a common noun followed by a proper noun which identifies it: the novelist Hemingway, the play Macbeth, But, nouns expressing professions usually follow4 15, 16. 0. 18. 19, 20, ;RAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE the proper names and are preceded by the : Brown, the lawyer ; Fanny the: Jackson, the singer. yesterday entities or which has a plural form ‘The United Kingdom ; The Netherlands. In a few cases the common hames of rivers, seas, oceans, chains of mountains, geoup of islands nds in of-phrase: ‘The Thames, ‘The Black Sea; The Pacific (Ocean); ‘The Carpathians ; The Rocky Mountains; The Hebrides; The Isle of Man. Before names of ships, trains, aeroplanes : The ‘The Flying Scotsman, Before names of shops, ms: The Ritz Hot ‘The University of Flori Before names of persons to partic ‘The John I'm tal Before plural names to The Tudors (= the dynast Before adjectives, Past Participles or Gerunds used to represen therich; the poor; the dead; the accused; the grayhi (= the ones that are Before names of nationalities to refer to a group as a whole ‘The French, Before super the first; the second; the tent Before names of music the piano/violin/gutar. Before names of publications : The Guardian ; The Times ; The Long Beach Press Telegram. Before names of days, months, seasons, when the reference is made to a special day, ‘month, season, or when these names are preceded by the prepositions in or during remember the Sunday we left London. ‘The winter of 1954 lasted five months «certain person: i about is not your friend, to.a group as a whole: The Browns (= the family) whole class ‘The En: Dest; the longest; the most interesting ; . ‘She visited us several times during the spring of that year. Before historical epochs or documents : The Stone Age; The Middle Ages; The French Revolution; The Magna Carta In a mumber of phrases: by the way ; on the one handion the other hand ; in the ‘the mountains ; at the seaside ; for the time being ; in the meanwhile in the morning ; in the afternoon; in the evening ; the the truth, the merrier THE ARTICLE 4s 2.2. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE ‘The Indefinite Article a/an is, historically, an adjective, be pronounced /a/ in fluent speech and is used before consoas 4 forgotten story. Somet pronounced /ei/, with or without a pause car? ple; an words beginning with h may be preceded speaker: a habit; a hotel; a historian, such words are preceded by an, ‘The Indefinite Article can be used or their gender: a boy; a girl; an egg. A few by a/an A barracks was seen in the distance A gallows was erected in the centre of the town, A headquarters was established near th AA steel-works has just been closed ‘The Inds 1, When a countable noun is mentioned for the first time Hooked out of the window and I saw a big dog. 2. Before a singular countable noun used as a representative of a whole class te Article is used She is am American, b) their occupation Lam a doctor. ‘You are a teacher, But, if the noun denotes a ttle or office that can only be held by one person at the Indefinite Article is no longer used Jack was elected captain of the team. (not: “a ea ‘As chairman of the society, he took the floor firs a chairman”) the verb to turm when it means to ned singer. ‘Catholic, ‘an OrthodoxENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE blican, With the meaning “one”, “no matter which” ‘Mother, can I have an apple? ‘Aceube is a solid body having six equal square faces, ‘Although a/an and one are interchangeable when referring to: ) whole numbers: a/one hundred/thousand/million ; b) fractions: a/one quarter/third/halt; ©) money: a/one dollar/pound ; 4) weightimeasure : a/one kilo; a/one foot/metre, they are not interchangeable when 8) We count and we want to oppose one to two or more The old man has only one leg, ') we want to denote any one. In this case a/an and not one must be used Can you lend me a pen, please? Before Miss/Mr./Mrs. + surname, to denote a person known only as a name AMrs. In expressions of measurements, when we refer to one unit of measurement in terms of another. In this case, when we want to emphasize each, we use per instead of alan 4) price in relation to weight: 90 p a/per kilo; ») distance in relation to speed: 80 km an/per hour ; Before a noun in apposition, when the person or thing is considered to be unfamiliar John, a friend of mine, abv this film. With little and few: ‘She has spare ‘We have a few friends ‘In exclamatory sentences beginning with what, such or so What a difficult problem! What a dey! My boss is such an ass! ‘The news gave me such a shock. Mention must be made of the fact when used with such and He was such a good workt He was so good a worker! he Indefinite Article precedes the adjective 1 adjective when used with so a (BE ARTICLE ” is uncountable, the Indefinite Article is not used is ecorrect to say what U1 Before & noun spreceded by as: js pirate He came to the ball dressed resent. She give me a camera as af 12, Ina number off phrases. arule to have an opportunity/a chance to have a fancy for yunt/ipremium to have a right to at a bargain to have a talent for ime to have a headache/a painia cough/ (but: to have toothache/earache/ fon an average on an equal footing of a size ire to make a fool of oneself ‘to make a fortune to make a noise to make a fuss to take an interest in Ws a pity it’s a shame to take a pride in to keep a secret to take a di to keep an eye on to take a seat to be in a hurry 2.3, THE ZERO ARTICLE It is used 1. Before abstract nouns used in a love; hate etc.) Most people fear death. rtain abstract nouns, they ate preceded by the But, ifthe reference is made to chened us very much ‘The death ofthis child sadd general sense (milk; bread ; butter; coffee; 2. Before names of materials used id ee.) sold: iron; snow; cotton; woo! Coffee is rather expensive general sense (life; death; freedom; liberty;“ ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE 4 nes of meals used We have breakfast at ‘The breakfast we had yesterday morning was delicious '. Before names es (made up of a single word) Robert; Bucharest; Romania, But ‘The Hague; The Congo; The Gambia; The Yemen; The Sudan 6. Before the nouns Cape, Lake, Mount: Cape Cod; Lake Windermere; M Everest 7. Before nous a possessive adjective: Jane’s blouse ; ‘my hat. 8, Before names of the possessive case oF ages Mike speaks English 9. Before tiles followed by a proper noun: Queen Elizabeth ; King Richard ; Doctor Brown; Lord Byron; President Bush. 10, Before such nouns as cook, nurse, teacher, gardener, milkman, etc. when they have the meaning “our cook/tache Teacher is going 0 give today. 11, Before words like church, school, prison, hospital, market, bed, etc. when they are used for thei primary purpose to go to prison to-go to hospital 12.Before names of days, months, seasons, holidays ‘Monday is the first day of the week in Romania February is the shortest month ofthe year. Children always look forward to Christmas. 13.Before names of subjects, sciences: Physics; Chemistry, etc My sister studies Muse. 14.Before means of transport: by ai; by bi by coach; by land; by plane; by sea; by le; by boat; by bus; by car; by tube; on foot. a number arm ; fac 3m top to bottom ; hhand in hand; ‘mind; to make fun of; to make in the face of danger; at anchor ; THE ARTICLE | place of in sight of; in order of ; hhope; to shake hands with ; in case of ; under cover by way of; in place of ; in front of ; in order of ; to'set foot on; to stay at home from time to time; by means of; at random; on sale; to live from hand to mouth. 2.4, EXERCISES 1, Add the before the following words and read them aloud: 1. shop; 2. open door; 3. uniform; 4. aspirin; 5. cup; 6, Indian be 8. holiday; 9. record; '10. house ; 1 12, umbrella 15. exam; 16, BBC. 17, heir; 18. comed) 22. engineer. HL. Turn the following sentences into the singular. Use the according to the model: [Roses are flowers The rose is a flower, 1, Carrots are vegetables. 2. Women are more careful dr 4, Locusts are harmful. 5. Rabbi 7. Elephants never forget. 8, very sweet. Work on the model: Thave a leter and some postcards. (rom my family [The leter is from my family ‘You have a dictionary and a bag. (useful . We have a eat and two dog Thave a house and a flat Father has an umbrella and a hat Thave a Your friend has a brother and two sisters. (younger) TY, Work on the mod ing. (of ABBA) Roads can be dangerous, People can be diffic Architecture may be impressive. (of the Houses of Parliament) ‘Money may be helpful, (you give me)© ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE Stamps may be valu Houses can be expensive, Ideas can be ridiculous. (of this boy) Bread may be very fresh. (we have eaten) Pudding can be delicious. (mother has made) V. Complete the following sentences by putting the into the spaces only where ‘me where .., thee honesty is not 3. “Do you know who put Russia?” rst man into ... space? on ... moon. 4, “What is on ... TV this evening ?” 's a comedy and I don’ comedies very much.” jovernment has done up to now is that it has made ... rich richer over thete talking t0 uns. He's one of last.” re that ... womet 1. Some of ... worst drives VI. Complete the sentences below using the with these adjecti blind; dead; deaf; disabled; greyhaired; injured; old; po jccused ; aged ; rich; sick; their Fingers. shoud be held in great respect by everyone. ‘They say one should never speak ill of The numbers of ... are still increasing. 2. 3 4 5. Only ... can buy such expensive cars. 6. He gave away a lot of his money to 1 to make their 8 9. 3 wishes, The British 1. Ireland; 2. China; 3. Engl ‘THE ARTICLE 1 VIII. Use the following phrases containing the in sentences of your own: evening; on the ot the truth; in the middle of; on the contrary; many happy returns of the day; behind the scenes; the day after tomorrow ; in the seventh heaven, IX. Translate the following sentences into English using the where necessary : siricia pe care am ‘mor de foame gi de bolile cauzate de imente $i medicamente gine c 5 Ik; 28. country ; 29. he + 32. ox; 33. information ; 34, picture; 35. rice; 36. child; 37. window ; 38. airport; 39. blood; 40. question - Onions are vegetables. Cakes are sweet Wives are women, Singers sing songs. Boxes have lids. Birds can fly. Cows give milk. Writers write books. have tails Girls wear skirts Doctors are men or women, Leaves are Foxes are sly Lions can be dangerous Butchers sell meat2 [ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE THE ARTICLE 3 re domestic animals. XY, Join the sentence pairs below using such (alan). Work on the models: 19. Big cites are fas He made a noise. She woke us up. 20. Quartz watches d He made such a noise that she woke us up. XIT. Use alan with the abbreviations of the following words, Work on the model : She plays tems with much skill. She beats everybody. ‘She plays tenis with such skill that she beats e - The box was heavy. She coulda’ ja Member of Parliament fan MP 1 L. an Automobile Association 2. Mary was a bus 2, a Bachelor of Arts 3. 3. a Bachelor of Law : 4 inal Investigation Department : stig 8 6 ile exercise. John asks for something more dificul . 7. Chris has known Deborah for a long time. He has got used to her. 7 8. This is interesting information. They will thank you. . 9. any meetings there. : 10. All the rivers have frozen over. 10. a Public Relations Officer XVI. Use such stead of so. Work on the model: 1 Royal Automobile Club [ie ing vats iporanthat ren ny cams ——] ‘nesting was so important at evenpbody cane Twas such an important meeting tat everybody cane] ‘The TV programme is so good that we enjoy it, 1 2. The joke was so fanny : 3. His accent wat sof owing i necessary: 2 Her necklace was coffee? 2. You have ... hour and ... half for your i. be 4, She wil tavel by plane : child. 6. Father always smokes, i that has forgotten wha wih cup of... coffe inte morning. 7. Tate paid. tof money for Rembrandt 8. The film was so boring that many people fll cep, toa. 8. Does your sister need notebook? 9. oh cn hardly speak because he has = 3 Marys a arin that many peopl ara a ecole wee. IL My wi old Ue 10, The magazine was so inexpensive that everybody coud nd and. san = plying fo studying. 13. Tv foo Hem of news that you might be itteted in. 14-1 tink she has made big XVIL. Using the information inthe shopping list, complete the sentences below. mistake. 15. They heard. sudden ose. 16. The old woman was Knocked down by car Work on the model: 17, Jane has ge. pan inher 8. You need. visa. 19. My fie 5 Klos of potatoes 8 for. job 20. Mother sn is morning when 3 loaves of bread 50 p a 2 pins of mi 6p XIV. Complete the exclamations with a/an only where necessary: Fee a ice ee 1. What 3 cans of teer L120 2. What ' 1/2 dozen ges Sip 3. What ... interesting idea! 500 grams of butter E110 4, What. well-behaved kids! 25 lies of wine L730 5. What 8 What The potas were Top Hi 7. What “The beer was 8. What ‘The bread was ‘The eggs were 9. What ! ‘The milk was The butter was 10. What ... heavy luggag ‘The orange juice was The wine wasss ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACT XVIII. Supply a/an or one inthe sentences. Note where you can use either alan or one: ‘Your brother is going to be ... famous painter... day. 2, My daughter saw ... silent day. 3. Does our neighbour have ... car or two? 4, My cousin George in ... first-class carriage with ... American. S. I's pleasant to read ... good book on ... rainy day. 6. They were hungry so they looked for .. restaurant where they could eat something. 7. Grandfather fell downstairs last week and he broke ... leg. 8. We were walking in the park ... evening when we saw .,, little git! crying under ... tree. 9. *.. man went to mow, went 10 mow ... meadow” (Song), 10. ... window was open, but the others were ing alan in sentences of your ow + to keep an eye on; not to take a seat; to make a 3; as.arule; at a distance once ina blue moon ; all of a sudden; on an average ; aview to. XX, Translate the fo 1. Amavut o vacant care a straw; t0 have tune 10 have a headache ; ona large scale ; for a it’s a shame; a devenit pictort. 10 tun Picasso. 12. Desi spui a. 13. In sala de ceva asemanitor cu inghie. 16, Cind 7. De regulk noi termini orele la ora douisprezece. 18. Tata fumeaz4, in medie, 20° tigAri pe aridinar. 29. Asteaptt un mir ‘man pe cea din par. (proverb) XXI. Supply a/an or the if they are necessary: 1. .., Lake Ontario is one of ... five Great Lakes in .,, North America, 2. Andrew and Alice went to ... school yesterday and then studi ring home. 3. There are only left for tonight’s musi When you 80 10 ... supermarket, please buy ... bottle of and ... dozen oranges. 5. Your ... car is five years old and 6. No one in ... German class knew... correct answer to ... Mr. Grut question. 7... red books on .. table are for our Geography class. 8, Please give me ... cup of coffee with ... eream and ... sugar. ‘ying ... Physics and Statue of Liberty was a gift of friendship from ... France Peter's father bought him hospital so we last night. in. 15. On our wip to Brazil, ska, he visited ... Eskimo 776. 18. ... armchair she United States between 1861 and hhouse. 21. George can’t ists hope to send 'o... School of Medicine versity. 24, Emma plays ... guitar and her brother plays Supply a/an or the before the folowing abbreviations where necessary : 1. We hope that our country will belong to ... NATO (= North Organization) George has g 14... Queen Elizabeth wwe crossed cinema tonight because he has to (0 ... Mars during... 1990s, 23. Jo at... Cambridge 2. «.. BSc (= Bachelor of Science) from Cambrid 3. My son has finaly learned ... BASIC (= Beginners" 4. My sister has bought ... LP (= Lor 5. Thave heard this news on ... BBC (= 6. My neighbour pretends she saw ... UFO (= Unider 7 8 9. 0. ‘We are happy that our cousin has become ... MP EC (= European Community) has helped a 1 found .... DM (= Deutsche Ma PM (= Prime Minister) de A doll is a toy, 1 2. A church is a tall building. 3. A house has a roof. 4. A tulip is a flower, 14, A shirt has a collar, 5 is a big town, 15. A nightingale is a bird 6. A dog is a good friend to man. 16. A policeman wears a cap. 7. A soldier is a brave man, 17, A monkey is an animal 8. An orange is good to eat 18. An apple grows on a tree, 9. A carrot is a vegetable. 19. A room has a door. 10. A chair is a piece of furniture 20. A bee is an insect. XXIV. Use the following phrases containing the zero article in sentences of your own: at random ; at dawn; at lasvlength ; at night; hand in hand; for good; on end; by train! pusplane ; bag and baggage; by ear; by word of mouth ; in keeping with; side by by mistake ; midnight at sunrise ; at dusk ; by day ; by night; by sea; by land56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE XXV. Supply with the or rove tbe sees fo hth. 8 Sine des ave bought today 9. You ae very ted sou should goo is youre under cars have become very expensive. 12. Most of cars have been made in Japan, [3 Alter graduating from school, she wl idge, U met.» Brows. ron. 16. We start foes. church every Sinday morning church we vised lst wee i very od topita andy few votes i more expens 22. hi great pease XXVI. Certain nouns may be both count the use of articles. Work on the model 4) George committed ©) was premeditated 8) Crime is on the increase /d) George committed a crime. Je) The crime was premeditated. ike good should never be overlooked ©) that mother buys is the best ) cheese is 2. art a) ballet is @ form of ») ©) in spite of all her... she couldn't convince us 6) and manufacture 1. food warviage THE ARTICLE : 5. time a) is money b) are bad ) has come to leave 4) [repeated the question three 6. success 4) of our scheme is assured ing succeeds like XXVIL. Translate the following sentences : {. Batrdnii ar trebui si fie consultafi mai des in probleme de viag8, 2. Cartoful a fost adus Europa din America. 3. Musafiri mi-au urat la multi ani iar apoi ne-am distrat de {oat noaptea. 4. Nu stu ce rspuns si-qi dau pe de 0 de excursie este foarte scump&, iar pe de alt& parte m-as si pice acum. 5. Ce pacat c& mu vrei si-ti asumi riscul de a afla adevirul despre un astfel de om. 6, Nu stu ct cAstigi tu pe lund, dar acum ai avea prilejul si devii bogat. 7. Ce limbi vorbesc elvetienii? 8. Soarele straluceste astii cain zlele de var’. 9. ONU este 0 organizajieinternafionala ce cuprinde mai mult de o sutd de state. 10. Ghepardul este cel mai rapid © oarecare doamn’ Jones vrea si discute ceva cu tine. 12, Oreionul este 0 boald molipsitoare. 13. E rusine s& spui minciuni. 14, Angela este pianists, dar a deveni saul d hisoare pentru c& a lovit un pol si ajung Ia casa lunchiului meu. 19, Stirea tocmai a fos smele oceanului intre Europa si America? 21. Dunirea este fluviul eare curge si prin Viena, si prin Budapesta (0 English using alan, the or * XXVIII. Translate into English: amenii ji ziceau Ton al Cel de-al patrulea dintre ‘Tudor Viadimirescu.” (Camil Petrescu, Un om tnire oamer b) gfntr-un coly al od edteva merte de fasole © movil de mere domnesti si pere de Radi lea din copilari ©) »Astaci fata mosneagului cea cuminte (© veche cunostinti a Viorieai, din cel di i ispunse mos Costache, ficdnd aluzie la basm al noptilor copi (M. Sadoveanu, Dimineti de iulie) torului se opreste visitor, cind pe © frunzai de mesteacdn tremuratoare, cind pe potirul rumén al unei fl rmolatee sub ming (C. Hogas, Pe drumuri de munte)Chapter 3 THE ADJECTIVE 3.1. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES 3.1.1. Formation of Adjectives There are affixes (pre 3.1.1.1. Derivation ‘The commonest prefixes used to form adjectives in English are asleep abnormal inct; contrarotating correlative; cordate disadvantageous ; discourteous effluent; effuse exanimate;; exchangeable extraordinary ; extra-terestrial supersonic surpassing ‘ranslucid; transparent t suffixes employed in building up adjectives are the following agreeable; remarkable sensib guished ; learned golden; earthen eastern western careful ; useful handsome; quarrelsome backward; inward muddy Of the suffixes mentioned above, charmed ~ charming alarmed confused ~ confusing annoyed ~ a deafened — deafening astonished - astonishing depressed ~ depressingTHE ADIECTIVE, a o ISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE — i merey ~ merciful region ~ regional pleased ~ ples method ~ methodical response ~ respor relaxed ~ relaxing } miracle ~ miraculous satisfied ~ satisfying | mischief - mischievous shocked - shocking YY ~ miserable surprised ~ surprising { ‘mountainous vified ~ terrifying | ‘muscle ~ muscular service ~ serviceable ed - tiring ~ musical shower - showery worried ~ worrying mystery ~ mysterious nation ~ national nature ~ natural noise ~ noisy noiseless sympathy ~ sympathetic accident - accidental nonsense ~ nonsensical tempest ~ tempestuous advantage - advantageous ‘occasion ~ occasional terror ~ stricken affection - affectionate { ‘ocean ~ oceanic ingle ~ triangular ancestor ~ ancestral | ornament - ornamental tribe ~ tribal angel ~ angelic fashion ~ fashionable peril ~ perilous value ~ valuable fault ~ fau favour - person ~ personal picture ~ picturesque fire - fiery voleano ~ voleanie fool foolish water — watery foolhardy winter ~ wintry bible ~ biblical fortune ~ fortunate poison ~ poisonous woo! - wollen ay bere trad -fandent { rebellion ~ rebellious ‘wretch — wretched capacity ~ capactous friend ~ friendly | wtlon ~ cautious friendless 3.11.2. Conversion centre - central fur ~ furry | 1. Nouns changed into adjectives: a stone wall; a winter coat. Some nouns can ~ charitable tary ~ furious become adjectives by adding the sufix ed: a whiskered man: sh ~ childish ant - ganic A few “material” nouns may also be turned into adjectives with the choir ~ choral = lish ven: flax ~ flaxen ; gold - golden; wood - wooden. Such adject ciel realar, Bold ple i considered obsolete, usually have the meaning “made of Compa colony ~ colonial raietasels ! These people are working in a gold mine comfort = comfortable piel gee i Alice has got a golden watch as a birthday present. (Nowadays, most English courage = courageous hero - heroic : People would say, however, “a gold watch") courage - courageous ee | 2. Verbs changed into adjectives ‘This was a make-and-break situation, craft ~ craft ft - crafty | 3. Adverbs changed into adj industrious Remember the above rule Sma casas inftuence - infential She was my ony fend danger ~ dangerous injury ~ injurious 4. On the other hand, some preceded by the definite article an be used as deceit ~ deceitful bour~ laborious nouns when they denote ct notions disaster ~ deastrous Tewury ~Torurious ie scanomy - economical a class: the blind; the brave; the dead; the ol; the poor the rich; effect ~ effective tnarvel - marvellous Brae creo expense ~ expensive ielody - melodious expression ~ expressive ‘metal ~ metalli ‘The rich ought to help the poor.o ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE THE ADIECTIVE One can also include in this group the adjectives designating nat Sweden vedes: @ Swede Swedish*® sd as nouns: Eng Switzerland a Swiss Swi Chinese ~ the Chinese, others have different forms: Germs Hl Turkey a Turk Tu Russian ~ the Russians. That is why a list with the names of countries, of their The USA Americans an American. = American inhabitants and their language will be useful? Russia Russians a Russi Russian’ Country People Tina: VietNam Vietuamese Vietnamese ‘an Albanian Sometimes, adjectives may also serve as adverbs modifying an Argentinian a) verbs : to hold tight; to break loose b) adverbs : far ahead ;’straight ahead ; the Belgians the Brazilians ther adjectives: dead drunk; dark blue; 4) prepositional phrases : deep in the heart; long before midnight. 3.1.1.3. Composition Compound adjectives may generally be made up of: the Cubans Cuban ae Grocasovakia the Grey 8 Gah Denmark the Danes 3 Dane adjective + Past Pl Eoet Fegan Epa gang the Bagi an Englishman — Finland oe ead Uli conditioned room cea pis cae ee heart-broken ; moon-lit pete l cuir Ga ae far-fetched ; well-meant Ani ae a cre colour-blind ; cryst a Severd + adetve Sovnright evergreen, wide-open Hones Hungarian ret Sandesh Han Hang foun Present Da cancerrodingssances a er [ blotting ene re came fete | fe Sone in | the Japanese a Japanese Japanese* } eet acrert a runaway Negro the enn ‘rear i 2 pond man the Mexicans Mexican | a sound-proof room } the Norwegians Norwegian* t overground ; underage the Peruvians Perwvisn 1 a ten-year-old boy the Fue rate | 3 orace fm the Portuguese a Portuguese ——_—Portuguese* | up adjectives is composition by partial conversion | the Romantins a Romanian —_-Romanian* is adjective + noun + ~(e. In this case the noun and the -(e)d te Sn 2 Sem Seon te (0d refer to the Spaniards ) people: a black-eyed chi b) clothes: a long-sleeved ©) other examples: a doubl yearted man; 2n old-fashioned hat; gun; a three-wheeled car 1 ef a, Manual de co ‘may lsd be used fr6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE 2, The Comparison of Adjectives ‘There are three degrees of comparison of adjectives in English : The Posi speaking of or describing an object or a set of objs difficult; The Comparative ~ when comparing one object another cbject or set of object Superlative ~ when one obj eg. the longest; the smal ‘Acconting o the way in which they are divided into regular an Within the regular adje the comparative and the super Positive Comparative Superlative Cel (the= noun | xy be a matter of personal preference Tong-lasting, nice flower. Sometimes, ermines the order; usually the shorter teresting story. nouns, there are some instances He never had opinions different from his wife's. Past Participles that are verbal in meaning. people injured were taken to hospital lowed by Infinitives ‘a person difficult to please, When adjectives are accompanied by a phrase expres : 1 expressing measurement flats eight-storeys high ; a ditch five feet wide; a river three hundred ‘a. woman seventy years old, Ina few expressions : The Theatre Royal ; attorney \e a; general; by all means possible from time immemorial; The Poet Laureate; notary public; block of les ong; Winer receded by the and modify proper names: Alfred the Grea ‘Terrible; William the Conqueror. re ee Wal he words ending wi body, one: ‘as smebouy important ‘She told me something interesting. men [ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE 3.2. LIMITING ADJECTIVES Jn articles, cardinaliordinal numbers, possessive/ 1 deals only . relative, adjectives co terrogative/ adjectives (possessive, demonstrati ives) Indefinite adj 3.2.1, Possessive Adjectives ‘plural our ‘It must be emphasized that the possessive adjectives change according to the gender and number of the possessor, and not according to the person or thing possessed ‘The boy has eaten his cake ‘The gil has eaten her cake. ‘The children have eaten their cakes. ‘We have eaten our cakes. ‘All possessive adjectives may refer to countable nouns - singular and plural - and to ‘uncountable nouns: my book ; my books; my luggage. lo contrast, own or very own can be added after the hha finally managed to have my own house, sed to find herself in her very own garden. the first noun "Tom spent his holidays with his aunt, uncle and cousins. i Compare: | T went to the cinema with my neighbour and friend. (the same person) ‘went tothe cinema with my nelghbour and my friend. (two different persons) Possessive adjectives often occur with parts of the body yen the boy showed us his hands, we saw how dirty they were. It When there is an enumeration of nouns, the possessive adjective is used only before when speaking about injuries, the and “THE ADJECTIVE a 3.2.2. Demonstrative Adjectives THIS - THESE/THAT - THOSE Jjectves that agree in number withthe noun to which they are attached 10se twenty dollars. to the speaker or fo the more distant past or future ‘This boy is my br ‘These years (near past) were very bat 12) have been very good for us, while those years ‘This/These can be intensified with the help of here, right here, over here, right over here. These words are placed after the nouns modi ‘This boy over here is my cousin. ‘These trees adj by the demonstrat ht here we planted two years ago. help of there, right there, over there, right the head nouns ‘That woman over there is our aunt ‘Those books right over there are in English ) anaphoric use (when they refer to something known in the context or already hat excercise proved to be too difficult for bbe mentioned later): in the conversation share thea [ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND FRACTICE ‘THE ADIECTIVE os oy difference between what and which is that what is used when we make a ae 7 selection from a more or less unlimited number, ile which is said to have a “selective” 1 igo't know the that the moment (at tat momen. | festing, he Spear tavingin sind ited group of wheter the following navn i denotes. Thus, if we say ‘subjects are taught in your school? ‘question, we are interested in learning the number of subjects and le SUCH/SUCH A “They can be used as determiners, having the meaning “this kind of” or “that kind of Such a is used with singular count noun, while such is used with plural count nouns and they are, ‘uncount owns Which subjects do you like best? Hie was such a man, ii ; {implies that the number of subjects is limited to a small group. Where have you beard such words ‘What may also be used to express sdmiration or disappointment ‘We can’t leave in such weather. ‘We often. use such to express our admiration or disappointment. She had not seen such a film befice! He shut the window with such f ‘You can never rely on such people We felt hurt by such ingratitude, We offer use such to express our admiration or disappointment : ke was such & man! Such ... as are used in sj ‘What times those were! How much is used with uncountable nouns, while how many is used with plural countable nouns : atthe glass broke ructures: ‘Such results as theirs are unexpeed THE OTHER Tt can refex both to singular and plural nouns 3.2.5, Indefinite Adjectives ‘Se sn ae i a ene other ehibfchitdren remsined in Me THe most frequent indefinite adjectives i another, other, much, many: certain, enough, whole, most, sundry (= di ‘and (a) few have already been dealt with inthe chapter on iscuss only about the other indefinite adjectives in the above list. ‘The otter day usally means “afew days ago" “Tough anew camera the othe day THE SAME ‘We both had the same SOME/ANY/NO ‘Some and any have the meaning of an indefinite quantity or number. They can be used before singular anid plural nouns. Some is used nsabout that film, VERY She asked me to the sty from the very beginning. 1) in affirmative sentences: SShe gave me some information about the accident. nd how Toffered mother some flowers. 3.2.3. [nterrogative Adje ‘The inzerogative adjectives in English ze: wat, which, whose, how much a many. 1) in iterrogative sentences that express an offer, an inv “Winatt, which and whose can be usel both for persons (masculine or feminine) and Would yourlike some coffee? aga, ¢) in interrogative sentences when we expect an affirmative answer ‘What book did you read? ‘Yesterday I met Tom in front of the bookshop and he had several ‘books in his hand. id you do? Tasked him: “Have you bought some books?” What boys came here yesterdy? ‘Which painting do you like tst? ‘Whose house is that one?” 4) in interrogative sentences when the question does not refer to some ‘Why have you used wrong tenses in some sentences”% [ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE £2) in negative sentences when the meaning is affiemative : Grannie never visits us without bringing us some pies. 1, with the meaning of “certain” Some people believe they are always right. 2) sometimes to suggest an emotional appraisal meaning, “extraordinary”, either positive ‘oF negative. It is only the context that can show which meaning we intend “Have you seen my sister's lat Yes, Uhave. That's some pai John will never be a real nove ‘ue painting) ‘Now he is weiting some novel! Any is used 4) in negative sentences as a substitute for some, when the noun phrase follows the negative verb ‘We haven't any bread. ») after hardly, searcely and barely (which are almost negatives) ‘She has hardly any money. ©) in interrogative sentences when we have no idea what the answer will be Is there any butter on the table? 4) in affirmative sentences with the meaning “no matter what” : ‘Any suggestion will be weleome. ©) after “if” If find any books on English history, I will buy them. 4) in expressions of doubt don’t think there is any coffee in the house. [No is used with affirmative verbs to express a negative, as an alternative of negative verb + any, She drank no coffee. (Ghe didn't drink any coffee.) EACH/EVERY Both each and every are followed by a singular noun, except every, when the following ‘noun is preceded by a cardinal number. Thus, we say ach boy told us his name. ‘We get up at 7 o'clock every day. Planes take off here every ten minutes, ‘Each refers to all members of a group, making us chink of them as one by one. It can be used for two or more persons or things: “Two pupils entered the classroom ; each pupil was carrying a schoolbag, noticed, each focuses attention on the two pupils indi ending {0 unity, mes, each cen follow a plural count noun, emphasizing thatthe action, although performed by mote than one, was performed separately “The patients each had to take some medicine before going to bed. ‘THE ADJECTIVE. . Every {in meaning to then we think of people or things together, in a group, Every is closer t can only be used to refer to more than two people or ‘My daughter sent me three letters and every lester stresses how much she misses us ifference between each and every is not always very great and so they are le uses of each and every each other: “Do you and Tom know each other?” every bit: *M 5 every inch cevery-other ( every right: “She has every right to bel every now and then (= fro mother looked at us every every so often (= at regul “Every so often a man com you never know which day of the week" ALL ~ WHOLE Allis used to indicate the entire quantity. When it occurs di shows that the entire group is being spoken about, while wher refers only 10 a ‘AIL pupils stat schoo! in September. All the ‘ur class go on a trp tomorrow. All can also be followed by a possessive or a demonstrative adjective All my friends are coming to this party Al these books have been translated into English by my uncle ‘Whole means “complete”, used with uncountable nouns or with plural countable nouns: xy money on books. lldren were present. whole is used with singular nouns ‘She read the whole lesson and then she answered the questions. ‘Whole is considered to be stronger than all and can also combine hhour and century. So, we say: a/the whole hour (not: all the how century (not: all the century). ‘Some nouns combine with all and whole, but the word order is different with us inne spent the whole winter reference: all day a/the whole day ; I week a/the whole week etc% ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE EITHER - NEITHER Either refers to singular count nouns only, meaning one or other of the two ‘You may take either book, it doesn’t matter which. Neither is used with singular countable nouns only, meaning “not one and not the other of the two” 1 gave her two solutions, but she accepted neither (solution). In fact, neither + affirmative verb has the same meaning as either + negative verb: ‘She did neither exercise. She didn’t do either exercise. BOTH (THE) but Both these churches are very old, SEVERAL It is used with plural countable nouns I remember we spent several days OTHER Itis used with plural countable nouns to indicate something more or something different ‘Can you give some other examples of adjectives’? ‘This time I asked them other questions, ‘Other may also be used with a singular countable noun, when it is preceded by no. Tin this case, the verb must be affirmative [No other person could have done more ANOTHER 1 does not refer to anything in particular, and its meaning is a) “different” ‘0 there another day”. (= any other day) ) “one more”, “additional” Can I have another drink? Its always followed by singular countable nouns. ENOUGH It is a rather unusual determiner, since it can occur either before or after a plural ‘countable noun or a uncountable noun, although its usage after the noun is considered to be very literary. So, we can say ‘We have enough money/money enough. ‘There are enough chalrs/chairs enough in the room. | I i THE ADJECTIVE » But, when used with a singular countable noun, the position of enough is only after that noun, 1 think Jack is man enough to understand this. MosT indicates “almost all of a quantity or a number”, It can be followed either by uncountable nouns or by plural countable nouns ‘Most information proved to be true. ‘Most pupils in our class speak two foreign languages. 3.3. EXERCISES I. Complete these sentences with adjectives from the box: ‘busy; clever; cold; favourite; fierce; interesting ; kind; large; new 1, Wolves are .. animals. 2. John has bought a .. car. 3. Tlent him a ... sum of money. 4, Her aunt was a ... woman, 5, Father comes home late he isa .. man. 6. Last ‘evening Grannie told me two ... stories. 7. This brother's... ty. 8 My som is fourteen, so he isa ... boy now. 9. Maggi difficult exercises. 10. In his country he has very ... Wit IL, Work on the model: ‘and so she can do the very "The bicycle is expensive. Yes, it’s an expensive bicycle 1. The woman was pretty. 2. The lesson was long. 3. The weather is bad. 4. The answer is wrong. 5. The hotel is expensive. 6. The food is good. 7. The car is fast. 8. The coat is large. 9. The coffee is hot. 10. The dog is intelligent. 11, The girl is busy. 12. The story is boring. 13. The problem is difficult. 14. The flower is red. MIL, Work. [Did that man look old? No, he didn’t. He looked young, 1, Does her blouse look new? 2. Did Jack feel guilty? 3. Did the suitcase seem light? 4. Did your brothers become noisy’? 5. Did the stranger look weak? 6. Does the exercise© [ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PR) seem easy? 7. Did the story sound interesting ? 8. Does the medicine taste good? 9. Did his remark sound wise? 10. Does this ring look valuable’? '¥, Emphasize the following adjectives by inserting the words given in brackets at the proper place: 1. John was a good foot ip you. (awfully) ‘pensive. (somewhat) 9. Our house is small (awfully) VI. Supply the right adj Work on the model: wal forms. Use prefixes to make up these adjectives. “This event took place before the war. 1. You don't behave in a responsible manner. You are an ing lies. He is ... of doing it. 3. The equipm nice to work with person, 2. John is not VIL. Disagree with the following, as shown: This verb is regular No, it's irregular, 1. The story is believable. 2. The set was complete. 3. Jane is honest. 4. Her plan is His measures were adequare, 6, This substance is organic. 7. His writing is legible. 8. Mary is mature, 9. This document is worthy. 10. The dinner was satisfying. IL. His plan is perfect. 12. The piano is movable. 13. Alice is certain legal, 15. These people are experienced. 16. The signs were favourable, 17. Mark is competent, 18. This requirement is essen VI. Supply the ri ‘Work on the mo vajectival forms, Use-suffixes to make up these adjectives. His proposal atracted me, Ic-was an attractive proposal 1. That important decisions. He was a ... person. 3, All our guests enjoyed the party. It was fan... party, 4. Mark Twain's works are full of humour. Most of them are ... writings. ise almost deafened me. It was a... noise. 2, Jack always hesitated in taking | ‘THE ADIECTIVE 8 5, Your brother behaves like a child. He has... behaviour. 6. My neighbours went west ‘They are visiting some of the ... countries. 7. His teacher of English is full of energy She is an ... woman. 8, Kerry has never lost her courage. She is a very .... woman, 9, In very ancient times many vessels were made of earth. Some of these ... vessels have ‘een preserved up to now. 10. This chair was made during the reign of Queen Victoria I's a fine ... piece of furniture. IX. Use an adj ive ending in -ing or -ed to complete each senten (annoy-). She must be r Tn fact, losing your luggage. 4, Mother wants to g0 to bed. (exhaust-) She is ... Looking after my baby brother is an ... job. 5. The three men have stopped for a rest, (lir-) They are very ... because their work is extremely .., 6, When we turned the corner, we heard another explosion. (deafen-) We by it, We could no longer stand such by the Dutch paintings. ‘They stopped in f earthquake started. ( My friends looked X. Work on the model: ithe Did she accept the invitation? (delighted) Yes, she was delighted to accept id you tell mother where you had been? (afta No, Lwas afraid to tell her 1. Did you hear she wanted to meet you? (flattered) 2. Did you see Tom and Lucy? (amused) 3. Did you look under the bed? (seared) 4. Did you let William use your car’? leased) 5. Did he hear that she was very ill? (shocked) 6. Did you know that Peter had fot won the game? (disappointed) 7. Did you hear Pam had got married” (astonished) 8. Did she finally catch the train? (relieved) 9. Did Alec write to the manager? (determined) XI. Work on the model: "That girl was well dressed. Yes, she's a well-dressed girl 1. This room is comfortably furnished. 2. This monument is well preserved. 3. This informed. jon was totaly inadequate. 7. That boy was well behaved. 8. This bridge zned. 9, This lonf of bread is freshly baked. 10. That actress was greatly | This party is well organised. 12. That woman was dearly loved. 13. This building is badly positioned. 14. That engineer was fully qualified.@ ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE XIL. Rewrite the following sentences using compound adjectives. Work on the model : The journey takes three days, 1's a three-day trip, s. 2. There was a note often pounds. 3. The dress cost twenty dollars. 4. The meeting lasted three hours. 5. The giel is twenty years old. 6. January is thirty-one days long. 7. The tunnel was twenty kilometres. 8. His engine is four lit 9. Her suitcase weighted ten kilos. 10. My ruler centimetres long. XIIL. Form adjectives from the following nouns : 1, accident; 2. winter; 3. faith; 4. grace; 5, influence; 6, economy ; 7. autumn; occasion; 9. poison; 10. sympathy; i. comfort; 12, expression; 13. fire '4. man; 15. charity ; 16. method ; 17. hero; 18. danger; 19. custom ; 20. affection: 21, skill; 22. ocean ; 23. suspicion ; 24, melody ; 25. volcano ; 26. fear; 27. person, 28. boy ; 29. nature; 30. mania, XIV. Complete each sentence by inserting the adjective formed from the noun given in bracket 1. She studied the ... sky through a big (angel) 3. Our schoo! is situated in a 5. The new ship had the most... cabins, (luxury) 6, Jane feels quite in the mountains. (energy) 7. This man was a very ... pe {trampled on the flower-beds. (mischief) 9. This writer wrote many 10. The runner was aman of ... build, (athlete) XY. Make up adjectives from the following proper names: 1. Britain; 2. Turkey; 3. Europe; 4. Japan; 5. Portugal; 6. Si 8. Naples; 9. Czechoslovakia; 10. Poland; 1. Ame 14. Denmark; 15. Cyprus; 16. Sparta; 17, Finland; 20. London ; 21. France; 22. Ireland; 23. Isle of Man; 26, iceland ; 27. Pakistan 28, Palestine ; face. metal. (value) after her holiday XVI. Rewrite these sentences, using the concret proper adjective: 1. The names of many ... places are difficult to pronounce. (Wales) 2. Large quantities of... butter are imported into Europe every year. (Denmark) 3. The ... Riviera is famous for its warm climate (France) 4. During our trip, we visited several 5. George spent a few days on the ... ¢ We listened (Mexico) 7. The ship laden with ... timbe Dover on Friday. lunched ata... restaurant. (China) 9. The team is famous al 10. These pictures are from a and) if XVIII. Work on the model English food is good, (Romanian) h food is good, 1 igent. (Lucy) 2. Nick is lucky. (Paul) 3. London is big. (Tokyo) 4. George is young (John) 5. Her driving is bad. (your) 6. The Moon is far away, (Mars) 7. Our car is slow. (their) 8, Maggi Books are expens (watches) 10. The water here is ble. (cars) 12. The bag is heavy. (over there) suitease) XIX. Use the comparative form of the adjectives given in brackets: 1, My shoulder is... today than it was yesterday (painful) 2, The weather is .. this week than it was last week. (bad) 3. Hi than all the riches in the world, (import 4. This problem is... than you expected. (simple) 5. Our aur (young) 6. Next week he’s having his... daught is ... than the chair. (comfortable) + beter; elders older; laters tate {ess farth worse. Use than where necessary : 1. think I need some information if you want me to help you. 2. The weather is 0 bad for en, he is three years 4. My brother is very tired so he can’t go ... 5. My ... daughter hhas just graduated from the university. 6. I know that Jack and George are brothers, but I don't know which of them is the ... 7. Since you are working harder S are ... they were last year. 8. Iam sure that she has ... money I have. 9 two solutions he preferred the former tothe ... 10. This novel was written in a... of this author's literary creation, XXI. Use: a lor; lots; a bit; a little; a good deal; a hell of a lot; a heck of a l ‘far; much to emphasize the comparative of the adjectives given in brackets, Work on the model : 'S today than it was last Friday. (alle; cold) ' a little colder today than it was last Friday, Iness proved to beos ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE XXII. Work on the model at) 9. Her watch ie accurate, (hs) 10. Hers XXII, Fl in the blanks ane sity. Nek i ify, 00. ld ] th just as accor Fane Jane is just as old as Nick, 1. The English book costs 20 dollars. The French book ‘The English book is... 2. Annis five fe Ann is... 3. Lave XXIV, Complete the follow 1. as... as a bat; 2. as a mouse; 6. a8... a8 ara sass; 10. as ... as a peacock, asa wolf; 4. as as crystal; 5. as... as way; 8. as... as ABC; 9. as ... as XXV. Complete the following : Lasold as ...; 2.8 fitas...; 3. as happy as ...; 4. as drunk as ..; 5. as dry as 6, as cold as ...; 7. as dead as ..; 8. as black as ..; 9. as busy as ...; 10. as wise as XXVI Translate the following poem into Romanian : “As wet as a fish ~ as dry as a as weak as a cat ‘as soft as a mole AAs plain as a staff ~ as rough as a bear As light as a drum ~ as free as air ry a5 lead ~ as light as a feather ly as time ~ as uncertain as weather ‘As hot as an oven ~ as cold as a frog As gay as a lark ~ as sick as a dog ‘THE ADJECTIVE 8s ‘As blind as a bat ~ as deaf as ‘As cool as a cucumber - as warm as {As flat as a flounder ~ as round as a ball ‘As blunt as a hammer - as sharp as an owk ‘As red as a rose ~ as square as a box ‘As bold as a thief ~ as sly as a fox” (Emily Dickenson, Comparisons) XXVIL. Fill in the blanks with he Comparatives of Inferiority. Work on the model ‘rinks much coffee, but she used to drink much more ink So/as much coffee as she used to rich, but he used to be much richer. He is ‘but they used t0 nervous, but he 6. Jack is 2 good player, but he used to be much ‘generous, but she used to be much more generous. Nicholas is not ‘Nicholas is less intelligent than Martin. 1. The problem isn’ as the exercise. 2. An old car is not so expensi new one. 3. My story is not so interesting as your story. 4. This ps valuable as the other one. 5. Your cousin is not so graceful as your si landscape is not so picturesq 8, His brothe 10, My uncle is not so suspicious as my aunt XXIX, Complete the sentences with a superlative and a preposition, if necessary. ‘Work on the model: (Our journey was a bad experience se. 2. George is very strong. He's ... all the boys, 3. Last week I saw an interesting film. It was ... Thave ever seen. 4. Mr. Brown is very rich, He's ... our town. 5. That was a very difficult exercise. It was ... we had6 [ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE ever done, 6. His story is very funny. In fact it’s ... I've ever heard, 7. Tom is very gent, He's . his class. 8. Yesterday was very cold, Tt was ... day this winter ‘These are very valuable paintings. They are ... museum. 10. This book is expensive. Its... this bookshop, XXX, Work on the modi 1); 2. landscape ~ picturesque (0 see); 3. ear ~ fast (to drive) 6. aciress ~ ‘bed - uncomfor see); 12, woman = he shop. 2. This was a lucky day for her. It was year. 4. My aunt is very generous. ing, I's .. she told us, 6. This is a ‘This is a very nice room. It's ... in is... in the world. 9. London is a XXXII, Ask and answer questions using the words in brackets. Work on the model: ‘Whatihighimountain/Romania What is the highest mountain in Romania? "The Moldoveanu is the highest mountain in Romania 1 woreda payefRomanin; 2. Whatappyeener ie: 3. Whoardweckng! | ere whole ool gon 6, Who rape our cou aoe eees holllpersone fami: 10. Whenever Cf all means of transport you know 4 Whi 2. the most comfort 10. the most modern. | 13. is the largest; 4, grows the most coffee; 6. has the largest sea-coast; 7. has the longest river ; 8. has the hhighest mountains ; 10. has the tallest buildings. THE ADIECTIVE st XXXY, Work on the mode |. Mr, Smith ~ generous ; 2. this book ~ interesting ; 3. problem ~ dif hard-working; 5. picture ~ nice; 6. car ~ expensive; 7. trip - © friendly ; 9. woman - modest; 10, John ~ respect XXXVI. Put the adjectives in brackets in the correct for school nowadays. (expensive) 13. My 14, She was very kind and gave ) schools in our town, that man, 15. Lucy and TV. 16. Alice was ‘we had ever met. than the Statue of Liberty. 26 Nobody is so (happy) as Rose. 28. A new house is much XXXVIL. Fill in the blanks with much and many: 1 We have ... friends here. 2. She didn’t spend ... money on her holiday. 3. As we didn't have time, we had to take a taxi, 4, There are... pupils in the schoolyard. 5. Thave tuggage now. 6. The farmer trees in the garden, 7. This book has... pages in it. We had very .». work to do that morning. 9. The children asked me ... questions about space flights. 10. We must pay ... attention to tis problem. XXXVITL. Make up questions with How much or How many and answer them using the words in brackets. Work on the model: bread ~ dinner (a lo) How much bread have you got for dinner’? Thave got a lot of bread for dinner. books - om the shelf (several) [How many books are there on the shelf? There are several[ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE A thatthe story is becoming ... (exciting) 10, That morning the children became .. (noisy) XLI, Choose a half-sentence from Box A to go with a half-sentence from Box B: B 1, The sooner the merrier 2. The warmer the weather 5 we can afford to buy 3. The bigger the children ©) the longer the days 4. The harder our work is i) the greedier he became 5. The richer he was fe) the sooner you will get there 6. The more she has 7. The shorter the nights 10, The higher the XLIL. Correct the following sentences : sntest person I had ever met. 2. You can’t find a more THE ADJECTIVE » was yesterday. 8. Ihave much more friends than you have. 9. Pamela has fewer money than her brother. 10. George is three years elder than his sister. 11 jou read my have too fe oot ‘Germany are wider than Romania. 17. Swimming in the sea is ‘is more cheaper to travel by road. ‘was the worse interesante decét turcii sf vorbeasc? fied decdt ei c& preurile vor deveni tot mai mari. 12. $t detalii suplimentare despr profesor de englez& o ilustratt. tea intruchipatS, era foarte muljumit pate ajuta pe siraci vel cele din urma ... ri fiul lor cel mai mic, Atunci imparatul, Suparat, chemi pe fe ei mai mari si intreb& pe Praslea cum si-i pedepseasca”.* ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE Pe cit inima fi clocotea de pofti de viagl niprasnic8, pe atft mintea lui se zbuciuma eu rebar tain (Liviu Rebreanu, Padurea spinzura ‘rin zadar striga-mpiratul ca si leul in turbare, Umbra mor (nde tot mai mare i mai mare.” (M. Eminescu, Scrisoarea 111) le semfinate de Domanul pe pimant? Care ‘mai frumoase, cu zne mai bogate? vile spinzurate de coastele deal cerul tu; muni trufagiin vizduh ; réurile, ca brie pest ocolese cimpurile. Pentru ce zambetul tiu e asa de amar, mindra mea jar?” (Alecu Russo, Céntarea Romdniel) Care © mai mindra d se impodobeste in Ochi rotunzi i ms ‘erau plini de o totals uimire, dar in acelasi timp Iuceau in ei igenti provocatoare. Tigneau pe galerii ca dovd veverite negre, bbucuroase de alunele pe care | de carabus. Acolo, fi ‘enea zgomotul acesta agreat (Geo Bogza, Oameni si carbunt din Valea Jiuluiy XLY. Fill in the blanks with the corresponding possessive adjectives: John are playing in the park with .. frends. 2. 1 always forget... spectacles garden. 3. Mary is driving ... brother's car today. 4. You will not improve English unless you work hard. 5. We ng in .. room. 6. Mr. and Mrs Brown don’t spend ... money carefully write ... letters on Saturday. 9, We wi 10, Has the dog been given XLVI. Work on the model: Tam wearing «.. best suit today. 8. You always spend ... winter holidays in the mountains. food this morning? ‘Are these your keys? Yes, they are. They're my keys. this your house ? 2. Are these my records? 3. Are these her blouses? 4. Is this our garden? 5, Are these their books? 6. Are these your stamps? 7. Is this his dog? 8. Is, is my letter? 9. Is this their car? 10, Are these your friends? XLVI. Complete the fol 1. Jack clothes, ing sentences using my ownlyour own ete: ery happy ; he has got... cassette-recorder now. 2. Jane doesn't often buy 12 usually makes ... clothes. 3. Each country has got... customs. 4. We are THE ADJECTIVE 1 very proud; we have got .. car now. 5. Why are you always borrowing my bieycle? Can't you use ... bieycle? 6, The restaurants are so expensive that I have to cook meals. 7. We have just moved to a new house. Now, my sons have ... room. 8. Tom never buys vegetables, He always grows ... vegetables. 9. In our country most people have never go to the hairdresser because J always cut ... bai. ‘Touch (for thisithese) or point to (for that; those) the items named : a book. 2. That is a door. 3. These are pencils. 4. Those are windows. 5, This is a page. 6. These are desks. 7. Those are pictures. 8. That is a blackboard, XLIX. Turn into the plural: cat; 2. that window ; 3 7 this dog: 8 hat oy 9 L. Turn into the singular : 1. these old women ; 2. those big boys 3. those blue flowers; 4. these cars 5. those 8; 7. these maps, LL. Fill in with this or these: 1... book is very interesting. 2. hard, 4, Are ... pencils yours? 5. Is ‘boy know you? 8. Is 5. this man; 6. that schoot armchair is comfortable. 3. exercise difficult? 6. Do girl your sister? 9. Do students work very ‘women work here? stamps belong to her?” 7. Does the appropriate form of other : 1. There are twenty students in our class; eight students are from our town and students are from ... towns. 2. This glass of milk is sour. ... glass of milk is sour, too. 3. If you are st sive you ... glass of water. 4. Please, give me ... books ; 1 don’t like these ones. 5. The first story was interesting, but ... stories were boring. 6. Some girls were talking while ... girls were watching TV. 7. Your answer is very good. Give me ... example. 8. Rain, rain, go away ; come again ... day. 9. One flower ‘was white while ... flowers were red. 10. [could find ... mistakes in his paper, too LIL. Combine the two sentences into one, using such or such a as shown in the [John had a terrible dream. He began to ery John had such a terrible dream that he began to cry. "The teacher gave us difficult exercises. Nobody could do them. The teacher gave us such di xereises that nobody could do them. ‘was hot tea. burnt my mouth. 2. My aunt is a rich woman, She doesn’t care how money. 3. Our-guests had fun here. They want to come again. 4. They are . They have many friends. 5. I was a strong wind,2 ENGLIS GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE LAY. Use such(a) instead of so. Work on the model: ‘The film was s0 good that we saw it twice. 1. The weather was so lovely that we went for a walkin the park. 2. The woman was so Old that she could hardly walk. 3. The film isso exciting that nobody wants to go to bed. 4. The night was so dark that the children couldn't se the path, 5. The cake is so good that I want another piece. 6. The man was so poor that he had nothing to eat. 7. The gi ‘was so friendly that everybody wanted to play with her. 8, The princess was so pretty th ‘he prince fel in love with her. 9. The story was so boring that the child gave up reading 10. The suitcases were so heavy that we had to help her to carry them LY. Read the two sentences. Then make up one sentence using the construction the same + noun + (as). Work on the model: 1. My house is two miles from school, Your house is also two istance) 2. My brother is six feet tall. My friend is also six feet is studying French, June is also studying French, (language) 4. Out students. Her class has twenty-five students, plays the piano, too. (instrument) 6. You are reading a story book. You reading 2 story book. (kind of book). 7. Alec is twenty. William is al 8. My flower is white. Her flower also likes cheese, (kind of food) 10, LVL. Fill in the blanks with the appropri 1. ... time is it now? 2. ... dress do you 4. «colour are your eyes? 5... price is that car? 6, ass? 7. ... tun is it to clean the blackboard today ? 8, ... day is today ? yesterday? 10, ... house is that over there? LVIL, Make up eight sentences of your own using exclamatory adjectives: what; what a, such; such a. ‘Translate into Romanian the following sentences containing relative adjectives: asked him what path to choose. 2. You may take whichever book seems interesting to you, 3. Tdon't know which umbrella is mine. 4. She wonders whose watch this one look up in the dictionary whatever new word you find in this text ing sentences (a) negative, (b) interro the garden. 2. She gave me some coffee. 3. You want some 4. The children ate some cakes. 5. He will see some flowers. 6. There is some in the cup. 7, They found Is us some jokes. 9. I have ‘THE ADIECTIVE a the blanks with some, any or no: ive us ... specific instructions. 2. There are .. paintings on the to me yesterday because she had ... time. 4. Are there e? 5. 1can't help you since Ihave ... money on me. 6. His secretary sages for you. 7. Would you like ... more wine? 8. ... sugges so happy we have ... classes today. 10. My son didn't have .. trouble his homework last night. 11, I'm learning ... new words, 12. We can’t have lunch because there's... bread in the house. 13. My litle brother doesn't want... more juice, but ‘more cake. 14. She wants... stamps ; do you have .. new stamps inthis shop ? wve you seen ... good film lately’? 16. The poor T has... shoes side ofthe steet. 7, Although occas om has its [Fie Opi Gas epee The Olympic Games take place every four years 1. A plane takes off. (en minut 3. We ought to see our den 5. The patient has to take this met years) 7, Seasons change bbuses run ... (fifteen minut Did the two boys come? Yes, both boys came wi the three girls go om the trip? the girls will go on the trip. 1¢ two children leave? 2. Have the four women arrived? 3. Can the three sisters dance? 4. Did the eight teams play ? 5, Can the two men drive? 6. Did the two shops open? 7. Were the four books expensive? 8. Have the two cars been sold? 9. Did the three girls help you? 10. Did the two teams win? 1. ... people are 4. cars are ve German. 7. ... ty ‘classmates will go to the cinema. 10.oo ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE LXY. Complete these sentences with most or most of: hhad a busy day yesterday ... the time I helped my parents. 2. ... boys like playing tall. 3. ... my friends ‘my birthday party. 4, My neighbour is poorer . people in our vi 3k you have read ... my books. 6. My daughter “1 Pop music. 7, ... drivers break the speed limit. 8. ... customers who come in ‘our shop are local people. LXVI. Complete the following sentences with a/the whole. Work on the model: Teas weitble. The fire destroyed .. building. | ‘The fire destroyed the whole building. 1. He liked the story so much that he read ... book week in London. 3. We're so tired. We have worked ... day to repair our car. 4. [ heard... story once again. 5. You must tell her ... truth. 6. Although she was very tired, she saw... film. 7. He was so hungry that he ate ... loaf. 8. We had so many things to tell each other that we talked ... morning. 9. The baby cried ... time I was in the garden, the sentences below and say what kind ight. 2. Last year, we spent the pronominal adject of adjective each one is, Work on model ‘Whose brother gave my son this ball ‘whose - interrogative adjective my ~ possessive adjective this ~ demonstrative adjective 1. What question did that man ask you? 2. No student managed to read the whole novel 3. Some children come here every day. 4. Both girls had enough money for thei 5. Llaugh every time I think of such a joke. 6. Some pages in s0 please, give me another one, 7, John had such a strong foreign accent that no classmate could understand him. 8. What trees grow in that part of your country ? 9. This boy studied in the same school as his father had done. 10, How many exercises has each student done? XVIII. Translate the following sentences into English using pronominal adjectives : proprile lor afaceri, 4. Erau destui oameni ca si i att de frumoase despre locul acela fncdt ne-am hotirit sl revizitim. 6. Verisorul meu studiazX aceeasi limba str&ink ca gi tine. 7. Unii ‘cameni condue masina cu multé aten conduc necugetat, 8. Cat whisky ai baut? 9. Fiecare-biat avea un steag in min, 10. Tata a scris aceste cuvinte cu propria lui ‘mand. 11. Noi mergem la munte din dou in dowd sfptémani, 12, Mary mi-a impromutat doul crf, dar nici o carte nu este interesants, 13, Ela avut dest de cap cu noua lj magind, 14, Ambele tale rispunsuri davedesc c& nu ai invaat lecfia. 15. Orice sportiv trebuie sf se antreneze serios. 16. Ce lucru ciudat! 17. Ea si-a cheltuit tori banii in cAteva zile, 18. Sora ta este o adeviratt artises! Chapter 4 THE PRONOUN A pronoun is a word that can be used in place of a noun or a noun phrase. There are several different types of pronouns 1. personal pronouns 5. indefinite pronouns 2. possessive pronouns 6. reciprocal pronouns 3. demonstrative pronouns pronouns 4. reflexive pronouns 8. interrogative pronouns 4.1, THE PERSONAL PRONOUN 4.1.1. The Number of the Personal Pronoun, TF person parson 3 person Singular Subject 1 you he, she, it Ob me you him, her, «| Plural Subject they Object them You refer to you ce, and me in the Dative and Accusative. The form 1 beginning of a sentence or not: T must see her now As the boy couldn't open the door I helped him. always written with a capit They ws In polite usage itis usual friend and 1 wert So, we say and my friend went tothe cinema yesterday.% [ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE ‘Buc we usually say 1 and my In colloquial broke that window. ‘often dropped, although itis easily understood 'm sorty to disturb you) beg your pardon) , We, must not be regarded as the plural 1, ete.), in the same way as books represt cut di 0 must be mad ‘you and T includes the hearer (= ‘We shall visit London tomorrow and “exclusive we, where it excludes the hearer: ‘We don’t understand what you mean by that Besides these meanings, we may also be used ‘you, one or people a ith a generic value, being synonymous wi 4) in formal Royal Proclamations, also called “Royal we" = We, Elizabeth IT, Queen of England You, the second person form of the personal pronoun, refers to the person or people thas the same form for the singular and plural in spoke to the persons you are talking ‘You never know wi (0 refer to people in general, In this case one may also be used, but ‘One shouldn't believe everything th ‘You is used in both the formal and informal addresses You, gentlemen, are invited to tell us your opinions on this matter. vant to play with me now?" ‘The archaic forms of you are as fol Singular Subject thou thee Object Subj tat one | 7 the third person singular are he (referring to (o animal, objects, ec.) Hee and she may also be used refer (0 nouns denoting passions is personifi love), names of (envy, Jealousy, revenge, stubbornness nts of nature (darkness, earth, evening, moon), names of ‘names of ships, aeroplanes. though ths is not advisable inthe presence of the refer to a baby Wi baby's parents. ‘The pronoun it refers, as shown above, to nouns which imply no sex-objects, abstract nouns, etc. But, it can also be used 1, Torefer to animals, insects, etc. when their gender is not known or it is not considered to be important ‘The dog is not in the garden; rust be in the street. ») to denote weather conditions : It's warm/eold/ windy, ‘aining/snowing ©) to denote 3. In introductory-antcipatory because it introduces the sentence, and logical subject or object verbs in the Infinitive easy 10 be brave from a safe distance. J's important for them to arrive here before noon, led “introductory Infinitive or by a ths doubtful, essen 4 lucky, natural, obvious, odd, plain, possible, probable, queer, sad, strange, surprising, true, unlikely, wonderful8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE ‘That-ctauses may be replaced by clauses beginning with how after adjectives like funny, odd, strange, wonderful the poem, ‘most of the above-mentioned adjectives. smazing what they are saying. It's obvious whar she is thinking about. tyyciauses beginning wth why after such adjectives as clear, evident, obvios, strange, ce atl fives doubtful and irrelevant avel by plane. ‘constructions. These constructions lend emphasis to certain 4, Inimtroductory-emphat paris of the sentence ‘my friend who gave me this book. Te was then 5. With such verbs as toastound; to bewi to grieve; to horrify ; to toworry, followed by direct obj It surprises me that you «6. With a few verbs inthe Passive Voice: to believe; to consider; to expect ; to fee} to find (out); to hear; to imagine; to know ; to notice; to perceive; to report; lowed by a that-lause feved that he will buy a new car. she isa good singer. 7. With the verbs to appear ; to chance ; to happen ; to prove; to seem, in the Active Voice, followed by a that-clause happened that nobody was at home. 8. Sometimes, to stand for a whole sentence = ‘She helped me a lot to astonish ; to. distres ‘knw the truth yet. totell, to try: "The cone: “Yes, T know.” (not xs at 7 o'clock.” “Tknow it.”) ‘used to stand for an affirmative statement after such verbs vt believe ; to expect; to fear ; to hope; to imagine ; to suppose ; “Maggie must be at home now." ‘The negative response may contain only not used direct “Has Sally passed the exam?" “Tam afraid not.” after the verb But this construction is not used afer the verbs to forget, to know, fo remember, ‘THE PRONOUN a ‘Open the window, have just done so. “The third person plural, they, can stand for two or more persons, animal already mentioned ‘The girls got out of the house; they were smiling ‘These books are not mine, they are hers. ‘They can also be used in general statements meaning “people” “They say/People say we'll have rainy weather this month, ings, ete 4.1.2, The Case of the Personal Pronoun ‘The Nomi s (1, you, he, she, It, we, they) are used: 4) as the subject of the sentence: You are very tire. ‘They go to work by tube 'p) as the complement of the verb to be in formal English a)"Who is there ?™ However, the object pronouns are usually preferred in everyday speech no is there?” 5 me/him/her/us/them.” ©) after as and than, when as and than function as conjunctions, that is when they are igent than she is. ‘pronouns are used when as and than function as prepositions as old as me. ‘more intelligent than her. Object pronouns (me; you; him; her; it; us; them) replace nouns in object positions. They can be 2) direct obj saw bm here yesterday. ») indirect objects He offered her some nice flowers. ©) objects of prepositions Looked at them. ‘We ate just explaining to him. 4) used by themselves in short answers, usual “Will you go tothe cinema, 1007" “Me? /Not me!" with not