Heterogeneous catalysis (I)

Francisco Jos
Jos Maldonado Hdar
Dpt. of Inorganic Chemistry
University of Granada. Spain.
Email: fjmaldon@ugr.es
Phone: +34 958240444

Advanced Catalysis and Organometallic Chemistry

Intensive Programs (IP)
Lifelong Learning Program Erasmus
Camerino (Italy) 16-28 August 2009

Contents
1. Introduction: the importance of catalysis and some historical data.
2. Concepts:
- Catalyst
- Activation energy
- The catalytic cycle
3. The catalyst selection
4. Heterogeneous catalysis and surface science
- Structural consideration
- Surface and adsorption

Contents
5. About the active sites of surfaces
- Relationships of crystal defects and catalytic activity
- The nature of the crystallographic layer
- The geometric factor
- Bi - functional catalysts
- Acid sites in zeolites
- Electronic properties
6. Catalysts preparation:
- Bulk catalysts
- Supported catalyst
7. The catalysts deactivation / regeneration
3

Introduction
4

The importance of catalysis

Raw materials

Catalyzed processes

Valuable products

More than 90% of the industrial processes are

catalyzed
(chemical,
pharmaceutics,
materials,
polymers, energy, etc)
5

The importance of catalysis

Environmental
Catalysis
6

What to know ?
There is no a single theory of heterogeneous catalysis, but only a
series of principles to interpret and predict the processes that
occur, mainly in the gas solid interface.

Catalysis is an inter-disciplinal science!!!

Some historical data

Fermentation is the oldest type of catalytic processes. Several thousand years BC

beer, bread and winemaking were typical fermentation processes. Today,
thousands of different catalysts (enzymes) are available to perform these
transformations, which has been classified by six major groups of reactions:
Oxidation and reduction
Transfer of functional groups
Hydrolysis
Addition and elimination
Isomerisation
Carbon bond formation

Oxidoreductases
Transferases
Hydrolases
Lyases
Isomerases
Ligases

Industrial catalyzed processes

Among the first industrial catalytic processes are a few inorganic oxidation processes,
as the Deacon process (HCl into Cl2) and the production of sulfuric acid. The
production of sulfuric acid was commercialized in the mid-18th century. In the socalled lead chamber process the oxidation of SO2 into SO3 was catalyzed by NO.
9

Many reasons underlie the development of the science and technology

of catalysis.
One of the main driving forces is the availability of the raw materials.
As an example, in the energy field:
Biomass was originally predominant.
Later coal became the most important industrial feedstock.
Coke oven gas components played the role of base chemicals.
Subsequently, oil took over the place of coal and the technological scene
changed profoundly (petrochemical industry)
More recently, natural gas resources appear to have become much more
important and a lot of research in catalysis is aimed at processes based on
natural gas.
It is also clear that biomass is experiencing a revival as an environmental
care alternative to oil (biodiesel, syngas and Fischer Tropsch synthesis,
etc.
In recent years environmental considerations have been also the major
driving force for novel catalytic processes.
10

Concepts
11

What is a catalyst?
The name 'catalysis' was coined by Berzelius in 1836. He concluded that besides
'affinity' a new force is operative, the 'Catalytic Force'. With this, try to focus the
behavior of some substances that permit initiate reaction of decomposition or
synthesis. At that time no understanding existed, on a molecular level, of
reaction rates.

Definition of catalyst
According to the IUPAC (1976) a catalyst is a substance that, being present in
small proportions, increases the rate of attainment of chemical equilibrium,
without itself undergoing chemical change.

Comments
- This means that catalyst is not a reactant (is not consumed by the reaction)
- In fact, catalyst undergoes transitory changes to catalyze the reaction, and
permanent changes which typically leads to the catalyst deactivation
12

Types of catalysts:
Catalytic processes can be divided in three main types: heterogeneous
homogeneous and enzymatic processes.
In a heterogeneous reaction, the catalyst is in a different phase from
the reactants. Normally, the catalyst is a solid and reactants are fluids (liquids or
gases). It is characterized by the presence of active sites on the catalyst surface.
In a homogeneous reaction, the catalyst is in the same phase as the
reactants (as the hydrolysis of esters by acid catalysts, all reactants and catalyst
are dissolved in water:
H+
CH3CO2CH3(aq) + H2O(l)
CH3CO2H(aq) + CH3OH(aq)
The enzymatic catalysis (biocatalysis) have an intermediate character
between homogeneous and heterogeneous processes, because although the
enzymes and reactants are in the same phase (solution), they have active sites
in their structures.

13

Kinetic Vs. Thermodynamic:

the necessity of catalysts
A reaction may have negative G, but the reaction rate
may be so slow that there is no evidence of it is occurring.

Conversion of diamond to graphite is a

thermodynamic favor process (G<0).

C (graphite) ' C (diamond)

Kinetics makes this reaction nearly impossible
(Fortunately, one diamond is forever)
14

Thus, for a given reaction:

(R = reactant, P = Product)

where the reaction rate is null or negligible, the use of a catalyst (C)
provide a new reaction pathway trough the formation of an
intermediate specie on the catalyst surface

R
R+C

RC

RC

P+C

RC
P

A catalyzed reaction is therefore a sequence of elemental steps,

continuously repeated, where the catalyst is regenerated after each
reaction cycle.
15

Activation Energy
Activation Energy : The energy required to overcome the reaction
barrier. Usually given a symbol Ea or G

The Activation Energy (Ea) determines how fast a reaction occurs.

The lower the Activation barrier, the faster the reaction

16

Activation Energy

G0

Nevertheless, taking into account that

the initial and final states are the
same by both un-catalyzed and
catalyzed process, the overall free
Gibbs energy, G0 is therefore
identical.

c o n v e rs io n

This
means
that
all
the
thermodynamic parameters, including
the equilibrium constant
K = exp (- G0 /RT)
equilibrium
without catalyst
with catalyst

were not affected and catalysts only

permit to attain the equilibrium more
quickly.

Time
17

Desorption of reaction
products (v)

diffusion of the reactants

to the catalyst (i)

adsorption (ii)

Diffusion and reaction (iii, iv)

The progress of a heterogeneous catalytic reactions can be resolved into at least
five distinct steps:
(i) Diffusion of the reactants to the catalyst
(ii) Adsorption of reactants (reactant-surface)
(iii) The chemical changes on the surface, formation of the adsorbed complex
(iv) Decomposition of the adsorbed complex (product-surface)
(v) Desorption and diffusion of the reaction products from the catalyst
18

Each step of the heterogeneous catalytic cycle involves a

characteristic energy.

19

Steps of reaction
(i, ii) diffusion and adsorption
If no diffusion restriction occurs, one or more of the reactants are
adsorbed on to the surface of the catalyst
Be careful!
Adsorption is where something sticks to a surface. It isn't the same as
Absorption where one substance is taken up within the structure of
another.
Differences between physisorption and chemisorption will be analyzed
before.

Heterogeneous Catalysis Must Always

be Preceded by Adsorption!!!
20

10

How adsorption is produced on the catalyst surface

determine the reaction mechanism:
Example: The Reaction

A2 + 2 B = 2AB

Eley-Rideal mechanism:

Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanisms

A2 + * = A2*
A2* + * = 2A*
A* + B = AB + *

A2 + * = A2*
A2* + * = 2A*
B + * = B*
A* + B* = AB* + *
AB* = AB + *

21

Eley-Rideal or Langmuir-Hinshelwood?
For the Eley-Rideal mechanism:
the rate will increase with increasing coverage until the
surface is completely covered by A*.
For the Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism:
the rate will go through a maximum and end up at zero,
when the surface is completely covered by A*.
This happens because the step

B + * = B*

cannot proceed when A* blocks all sites.

The trick is that the step

B + * = B*
requires a free site.
22

11

(iii, iv) The adsorbed species can move, interacting between them and
with the catalyst surface and reaction happens through the formation and
decomposition of an intermediate adsorbed specie.
At this stage, both of the reactant molecules might be attached to the surface,
or one might be attached and hit by the other one moving freely in the gas or
liquid.
The mobility of chemical species on the catalyst surface is also noticeable,
phenomena such the spillover of hydrogen atoms play an important role in
hydrogenation reactions.
The apparition of bonds or interactions with the catalyst surface debilitates or
destroys the intra-molecular bonds, inducing the reactions.

(v) The product from the decomposition of the intermediate specie should
be desorbed and diffuse in the flow.
Desorption simply means that the product molecules break away. This leaves
the active site available for a new set of molecules to attach to and react. 23

Example:
The hydrogenation of a carbon-carbon double bond

CH2 = CH2 + H2

CH3-CH3
Ni

The simplest example of this is the reaction between ethene and

hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst.
In practice, this is a pointless reaction, because you are converting the
extremely useful ethene into the relatively useless ethane.

Ethene hydrogenation is widely used as

reaction test of new hydrogenation catalysts

24

12

Ethene molecules are adsorbed on the surface of the nickel. The double
bond between the carbon atoms breaks and the electrons are used to bond it
to the nickel surface

Hydrogen molecules are also adsorbed on to the surface of the nickel. When
this happens, the hydrogen molecules are broken into atoms. These can move
around on the surface of the nickel.

25

If a hydrogen atom diffuses close to one of the bonded carbons, the

bond between the carbon and the nickel is replaced by one between
the carbon and hydrogen

As before, one of the hydrogen atoms forms a bond with the carbon, and that end
also breaks free. There is now space on the surface of the nickel for new reactant
molecules to go through the whole process again.

26

13

The catalyst selection

27

Criteria for a good catalyst

Chemical related aspect

Non-chemical

Activity

Morphology

Selectivity

Mechanical strength

Stability (thermal properties)

Cost

28

14

About the catalyst selection

Example: Transformations of syngas obtained by gasification on steam of

coal or biomass, or by partial oxidation of natural gas. Depending on the
catalyst used, a wide diversity of products can be generated.
29

Definitions of conversion and selectivity

Ri

T, P, flow

Rf + P1 + P2

Conversion is defined as the fraction of reactant transformed:

Conversion (%) = XT = [Ri] [Rf] / [Ri] * 100
While selectivity is defined for each product on the basis of it formation:
Selectivity (% Px) = [Px] / [P] = [P1] / [Ri] [Rf] *100
The reaction yield (or partial conversion) for a given product is therefore:
Y (% i) = XT Si = [P1] / [Ri]

30

15

Be careful with the meaning of the curves X vs time!!

Ri

Conversion (%)

Continuous flow reactors

Rf + P1 + P2

T, P,
flow

T1
T2

Time on stream

Curves of conversion vs reaction times are often used to

determine the catalyst stability. In continuous flow reactors
conversion tends to decrease until reaching the stationary
state at each experimental conditions. The longer time at
constant conversion values, the more stable catalysts.
31

Be careful with the meaning of the curves X vs time!!

Semicontinuous reactors
R2

Conversion (%)

R1

T1

T2

Time on stream
Product
s

In semicontinous reactors where reactants are loaded initially,

conversion vs time curves indicates the conversion of this charge
until the equilibrium is reached, then, the reactor is discharged.
Obviously, catalysts are not activated during reaction.
32

16

The catalytic activity

In general, the rate of any gas-solid or liquid-solid-catalyzed reaction can be
expressed as the product of the apparent rate coefficient
concentration-) dependent term:
r = K Pi

and a pressure- (or

K, apparent rate coefficient

Pi, Partial pressure of reactant i

this rate coefficient (K) will change as the prevailing conditions of the reaction
vary, and it is convenient to use the Arrhenius equation:

where A' is a temperature-independent pre-exponential factor and E' is the

apparent activation energy of the catalytic reaction. E' cannot be expected to
be the true activation energy because the concentration of reactant at the
catalyst surface will be temperature-dependent.
Thus, the catalytic activity can not be defined
in terms of apparent activation energy.

33

Turnover frequency
Far more convenient is the use of the concept of turnover frequency or turnover
number. The turnover frequency (often designated TOF) is simply the number
of times n that the overall catalytic reaction in question takes place per catalytic
site per unit time for a fixed set of reaction conditions (temperature, pressure or
concentration, reactant ratio, extent of reaction).
It is sometimes difficult to
determine the number of active
sites. For such situations, S is
often replaced by the total,
readily measurable, area A of
the exposed catalyst.

where S is the number of active sites.

Note that TOF is a rate, not a rate coefficient, so that it is necessary to specify
all the prevailing conditions of the catalytic reaction.

34

17

About the catalyst selection

Ri

T, P, flow

Rf + P1 + P2

A good catalyst must possess both high activity and long-term

stability. But its single more important attribute is selectivity.

Selectivity is more important than activity:

The unconverted reactant can be re-circulated.
It is not interesting the transformations of reactants in valueless products.
The selective transformation of reactants facilitate the final separation process.
35

Heterogeneous catalysis
and Surface Science

36

18

Heterogeneous Catalysts is a
Surface Science!!!
The catalytic processes develops ONLY on the catalyst surface.
Therefore, the catalyst surface should be as large as possible,
but moreover, surface must be accessible to the reactants.

37

Surface heterogeneity

Reactants will be chemisorbed preferentially in the more energetic sites

38

19

Surface energy of solids

The coordination number is 12 for fcc and hcp and 8 for bcc, but, it is clear the
smaller coordination of surface atoms (in the plane 4 for bcc and 6 for fcc and hcp).
The resulting force unbalance at the surface is responsible of the interactions of the
solid with the environment (adsorption).

Schematic representation of the

surface energy of solids.

A surface site Bj has j nearest neighbors.

Three distinct sites at the surface of a bcc
metals are showed here.
39

The adsorption process

Adsorption is brought about by the interactions between the solid and the
molecules in the fluid phase. Two kinds of forces are involved, which give rise to
either physisorption or chemisorption.
Physisorption forces are mainly dispersion and van der Waals attractive forces,
which do not depend on the polar nature of the adsorbent or adsorptive and are
therefore regarded as non-specific, whereas chemisorption interactions are
essentially responsible for the formation of chemical compounds.
40

20

The adsorption process

Adsorption is an spontaneous process, G < 0
G = H T S
Because S decrease with adsorption (the adsorbed molecules moves on the
catalysts surface, but not freely as in gas phase) S < 0 and consequently H < 0,
adsorption is an exothermic process, and the adsorption capacity therefore
decrease when the temperature increase ( Le Chatelier-vant Hoff Principle)
Ep
Energy of X2
dissociation

Physisorption

Ea for
chemisorption

Chemisorption

distance
Heat of physisorption
Heat of chemisorption

The Ea for chemisorption leads, in

general,
to
small
and
slow
chemisorption at low temperature
41

Comparison between physical and chemical adsorption

Parameter

Physisorption

Chemisorption

Adsorbent

All solids

Some solids

Adsorbate

All vapors

Some gases

Temperature

Low

High

Amount adsorbed

High

Low

Amount (%) adsorbed at low

pressure

Low

High

Influence of P o the amount

adsorbed (high P)

High

Low

Specificity

None (all the

surface)

High (only on some

specific sites)

Reversibility

Reversible

irreversible

Heat of adsorption

Low (0.5(0.5-5
Kcal/mol)

High (5 100 Kcal/mol)

Surface coverage

multilayer

monolayer
42

21

Nevertheless, the strongest adsorption

sites are not necessary the best
catalytic sites. A good catalyst needs
to adsorb the reactant molecules
strongly enough for them to react, but
not so strongly that the product
molecules stick more or less
permanently to the surface.

The Sabatier principle

Gold, isn't a good catalyst because it

doesn't form strong enough attachments
with reactant molecules.
Tungsten, isn't a good catalyst because it
adsorbs too strongly.

Volcano plot for the decomposition

of formic acid on transition metals.

Metals like platinum or iridium make good

catalysts because they adsorb strongly
enough to hold and activate the reactants,
but not so strongly that the products can't
break away.

T corresponds to the T needed to

obtain a lg r = -0.8, and Hf is the
heat of formation of the metal
formate salt (intermediate Metal-acid
formic), that is to say, the strength of
the M-reactant interaction.
43

The catalytic surface: Structural considerations

On the basis of their chemical nature, heterogeneous catalyst can be classified as:
Catalyst type

Reactions

Catalytic phases

Metals

Hydrogenation
/dehydrogenation,
oxidations, hydrogenolysis

Fe, Ni, Pd, Pt, Ag,

Au, Cu

Non - stoichiometric Oxidations, desulfurations

oxides and sulphurs

NiO,
NiO, ZnO,
ZnO, MnO2,
WS2, MoS2

Stoichiometric
oxides

SiO2, Al2O3, zeolites

Polymerization,
Isomerization, cracking,
alkylation

The crystalline structure of the catalyst will define the catalytic active surface

44

22

Structure of metals

Metal present only three main structures. Most of them (71%) adopt a packing
arrangement which maximizes the occupation of space: ccp or hcp.
Alternatively, alkali metals and some transitions metals present bcc structure.
45

Structure of metals
The compact layers are packed with a
sequence ABAB leading to the
hexagonal
(hcp)
structure,
or
ABCABC, leading to the cubic (ccp or
fcc) structure.

hcp

ccp

The coordination number is in

both cases 12 and the fraction
of occupied volume of 74%
46

23

Hole distributions in close packed structures

Two distinct types of interstices appears: tetrahedral and octahedral.
N atoms = N oct holes = 2N td holes

D = 0.414r

D = 0.225r

47

Hole distribution
The interstices also form layers between the atom layers, located at d
Td+ d Oct and d Td-. The occupation of these holes will
determine the structure of metal compounds.

Analysis of the FCC structure: a) primitive sites b) octahedral

holes c) tetrahedral T+ and T- holes
48

24

Structure of metals
BCC structure
hcp, C.N =12

ccp, C.N =12

bcc, C.N = 8
BCC

The BCC structure is not a close

packing structure, the coordination
number decrease from 12 to 8 and
the fraction of the occupied volume
from 74 to 68%.
Metal atoms are in contact only
along the diagonals of the cube.
49

Some oxides of interest in heterogeneous catalysis

Many oxides are of interest in catalysis, they are widely used in oxidations or
hydrogenation / dehydrogenation processes.
In contrast to the simplicity of the structural characteristics of metals, metal
oxides and sulfurs present a wide variety of structures, and most of them present
polymorphism.

50

25

Structural consideration of metal oxides

By simple we mean oxides formed from a single metallic element and
where the degree of departure from exact stoichiometry (MO, MO2) may
be quite small.

51

Structural consideration of metal oxides

Alumina (Al2O3) have considerable prominence in heterogeneous catalysis.

Thermal dehydration process in air of Al(OH)3

All the crystallographic forms are based on close packed O2- ions with Al+3 in O
and T sites, the differences arise when O2- layers are superposed in different
sequences: - Al2O3 (corindon) ABAB, -series (- phases) ABACABAC, Al2O3 ABCABC.
52

26

Structural consideration of metal oxides

It is noteworthy that designed catalysts, possessing desired diameters of

tunnels and requisite composition of their inner walls can be obtained. The
catalyst characteristic can be tailored knowing the structure transformations.
53

Structural effects
Schematic diagram of product shape selectivity: Para-xylene
diffuses preferentially out of the zeolite channels

54

27

Structural consideration of metal oxides

In some oxide, the degree of non-stoichoimetry may be gross. For example, ferrous
oxide retains the rock salt structure over the composition range Fe0.82 O to Fe0.96O

Careful
thermodynamic
measurements leave no
doubt about the existence
of
numerous
nonstoichoimetric materials of
general formula TinO2n-1
and VnO2n-1

55

Miller indices

Planes in a crystallographic
structure are labeled using
Miller indices
Calculations:
i)

Measure the interception of

the plane with the axis
(abc, xyz)

ii) Take reciprocal of the

indices
iii) Rationalize the dividends
iv) Place the rationalized
dividend in parenthesis

The higher the value of (hkl) indices,

the smaller the inter-planar distance
between the planes in that direction.

Example: for a plane with

intercepts (3a, 2b, c), the
reciprocal are (1/3, , 1/ )
and clearing the fractions yield
(2,3,0)
56

28

Planes with different Miller

indices in cubic crystals

Dense crystallographic planes

57

Classification of crystal imperfections

1. point defects, which are places where an atom is missing or

irregularly placed in the lattice structure. Point defects include
lattice vacancies, self-interstitial atoms, substitution impurity
atoms, and interstitial impurity atoms
2. linear defects, which are groups of atoms in irregular positions.
Linear defects are commonly called dislocations.
3. planar defects, which are interfaces between homogeneous
regions of the material. Planar defects include grain boundaries,
stacking faults and external surfaces.

58

29

Point defect: Frenkel and Schottky defects

The number of vacancies

present in a material
increases exponentially as
the temperature increases

A Schottky defect is simply an unoccupied lattice site. In ionic solids defects in

the cation lattice balances out the number in the anion lattice. The Frenkel
defect also implies the combination of a vacancy with interstitial defects. Point
defects may combined or associated, forming clusters.

59

Substitutional defects

Substitutional defects are produced when one

atom is replaced by a different type of atom.
If the substitutional atom is smaller than the
original atom then the lattice is in tension.
If the substitutional atom is larger than the
original atom then the lattice is in compression.

60

30

Substitutional defects
But substitional defect also produce strong changes in the conductivity of the solids:

P+e

When Ge structure is doped with P or As, which have five valence electrons,
four of them are shared with germanium atoms forming covalent bonds,
while the fifth becomes quasi-free. This type of impurities is known as a
donor impurity and it confers n-type semiconductivity.
On the contrary, when Ge is doped with B, Ga or In, each trivalent impurity
atom accommodated, there would be one positive hole formed into the
valence band. This type of impurity is known as an acceptor impurity and it
confers p-type semiconductivity.

61

linear defects
Screw dislocations
Edge dislocations
Edge dislocations are caused by the termination
of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal

The screw dislocation is more difficult to visualize, but basically comprises a

structure in which a helical path is traced around the linear defect (dislocation
line) by the atomic planes of atoms in the crystal lattice
62

31

Polycrystalline catalysts: Grain Boundaries

The crystalline structure of each grain is
identical but there orientations are not
The grain boundaries is a narrow zone where
the atoms are not properly spaced
The misorientation angle is generally < 10.

Boundaries are regions of high energy, and consequently, with strong interactions
with the environment.

63

Relationship of crystal defects and catalytic activity

The overall decomposition of nitrous oxide is:

2N2O

== 2N2 + O2

Followed by

2 O- == O2 + 2 e (to catalyst)
Or by

And the reaction mechanism may be written:

O- (ads) + N2O == N2 + O2 + e

N2O + e (from catalyst surface) == N2 + O- (ads)

64

32

Relationship of crystal defects and catalytic activity

p type semiconductor

insulator

n type semiconductor

Activity

The activity of different metal oxide in this reaction can be divided into three
group: p-type semiconductor, insulator, n type semiconductor. The most
active catalyst are p-type semiconductor.
It is assumed that the slow step is:
2 O- == O2 + 2 e (to catalyst)
If this transfer of electrons is the slow step, the
higher activity of p-semiconductors is related
with their lower lying energy levels.
65

Relationship of crystal defects and catalytic activity

Oxidation of CO on NiO: the doping of NiO catalyst with Li+ results in an
increase of positive holes enhancing the electrical conductivity, this favour
the catalytic activity because the Ea for the CO oxidation simultaneously
decreases . The contrary effect is obtained by doping with Cr+3.

66

33

Now a break before.

Looking for the active site nature

67

The active sites and chemisorption

The catalyst surface is heterogeneous. Not all the surface will participate on the
reactions, but reactions will be developed on the active sites or active
centers
These terms are widely used, but with wider meanings related to the activation
/ deactivation of the catalysts.

catalytic activity

The crystal defects are the genesis of the active sites concept, associated to
chemisorption sites, but remember that strong chemisorption avoid the
reactions and deactivates the catalysts by blocking the active sites.

weak
adsorption

strong
adsorption

Hf (Kcal/mol)

Volcano plots

68

34

The active sites: unsaturation

Taylor attributed special activity to those atoms which,
because of the uneven geometry of the surface (Fig. 9), have
low coordination to other catalyst atoms (unsaturation), and
these are the atoms that were attributed to provide the seat
of most catalytic conversions.

This view focused attention on

the heterogeneity of the
surface of almost all catalysts,
and the fact that the total
surface would not be equally
active in effecting chemical
reactions.
69

The active sites: crystallographic layer

The nature and characteristics of the catalyst surface, and consequently the
nature and strength of the interactions with the environment, strongly
depends on the crystallographic plane where reactions will occurs

Boudart divides the catalytic reaction in two classes: Structure sensitive

and structure insensitive, if reaction rate changes markedly or not as the
particle size of the catalyst is changed, or as the crystallographic face of
the catalyst surface is altered.

70

35

The active sites: Geometric factor

The catalytic activity depends on the presence on surface of correctly spaced
groups of atoms to accommodate the reactant molecules.
Balandin in the mid-1940s predict that metals with interatomic distances
ranging from 2.48-2.77 should exhibit catalytic activity for the hydrogenation
of benzene an the dehydrogenation of cyclohexane, since, for these
reactions, the metal spacing match the interatomic distances in the cyclic
molecules.

Schematic illustration of the Balandin

concept of multiplets involved in the
molecular bonding. Sextet complex

71

The active sites: the oxide surface

Numerous surface entities may be present on reacting catalysts but this entities
mustnt to be always the active sites for different reactions.
Certain oxidations catalyzed by oxides occurs in two steps, according to the socalled Mars-van Krevelen mechanism: first, a reaction between the oxide
catalysts and the hydrocarbon, in which the later is oxidized and the former
reduced, followed by the reaction of the reduced oxide with O2 to restore the
initial state.
Mars-van Krevelen mechanism:
Conversion of propylene to acroleine
by bismuth molybdate catalyst

The redox cycle undergoes by the catalyst

surface determine the activity and selectivity
of the reaction. Easily reducible oxides are
quite active, but poorly selective, if reduction
is not facile enough, catalyst is poorly
active, if reduction is too easy, the activity
increase but probably with formation of
undesired compounds, and if re-oxidation is
not appropriate, catalyst is quickly
deactivated. The catalytic behavior depends
on the mobility of ions and electrons.
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36

The active sites: acidity in zeolites

The acid-base character of the catalyst surface must be also take into account.
The catalytic behavior of many solids is associated to this character.

There is one acid hydrogen for every tetrahedrally bonded aluminium. These
active sites are distributed uniformly throughout the bulk and are bridging hydroxyl
groups. These are the classic Bronsted acid sites, the intrinsic strength of which is
a function both of the particular local environment and also the Si/Al ratio.
73

The active sites:

sites acidity in zeolites
Some acid catalyzed reactions

Acidity can be introduced in four ways:

i)

Ion exchange with NH4+ followed by

thermal decomposition.

ii)

Hydrolysis of ion-exchanged
polivalent cations followed by partial
dehydration

iii) Direct proton exchange

iv) Reduction of exchanged metal ions
to a lower valence state:
Mn+Z- + H2

M (n-1)+Z- + H+Z74

37

The active sites: conductivity

The idea that catalytic activity could be related to the bulk electronic
properties of the catalyst (electronic band structure) leads to divide the
catalyst into metals, semiconductors and insulators (Dowden, 1950s)

Donor (n-semiconductors) or acceptor levels (p-semiconductors) can be

generated by doping catalysts, as previously showed. This means that the
75
electronic properties of the catalyst can be also tailored.

The active sites: electronic properties

When chemisorption occurs on a semiconductor surface, the resulting change
in electrical conductance of the solid yields unambiguous information
concerning the type of electronic rearrangement, or the direction of the charge
transfer at the surface.
A fall in the conductivity of n-type semiconductor as a result of chemisorption,
signifies an electron transfer from the conduction band of the catalyst to the
adsorbed species (the concentration of electrons from the donor levels
decreases and anionic species are formed on surface).

76

38

The active sites: electronic properties

A fall in conductivity of a p-type semiconductor signifies an electron transfer
from the chemisorbed gas to the solid leading to a fall in the surface
concentration of positive holes in the full band due to the entry of electrons
from the adsorbate.
In both cases, chemisorption leads to a depletion of carriers in
semiconductors, and both are examples of deplective chemisorption. The
reverse process, namely cumulative adsorption, distinguished by a rise in
conductivity because the surface concentration of carriers has increased.

77

The active sites

The concept of active site is therefore very wid. Some examples of adsorbed
surface complex are showed, you can observe how reactants interacts with the
catalysts surface depending on the nature and distribution of the active sites.

A. NH3 (Lewis base) coordinately linked to Al+3 ions (Lewis acid) on Al2O3 surface. B and
C. Linear and bridge adsorption of CO on Pt. D and E. Dissociative adsorption on Pt of H2
or alkanes. F. Dissociative adsorption of N2 on Fe. G. Heterolitic dissociative adsorption of
H2 on the ZnO surface. H. Adsorbed complex with charge transference. I. Adsorption of isobutene on silica alumina where the acid surface proton (-OH) was transferred to the
isobutene. J and K. Possibilities of ethylene adsorption on Pt. L. Adsorption of O2 on metal
oxides with charge transference. M. Dissociative adsorption of O2. N. Heterolitic dissociative
78
adsorption of propylene on ZnO.

39

The active sites: bifunctional catalysts

Another question is the notion of bifunctional or multifunctional catalysts,
namely in the case of supported catalyst.
Example: the Al2O3/Pt catalysts used in the hydroprocessing of
petrochemicals, the metal serves to dissociate H2, while the acid support
serves to catalyse the build-up of vital carbonium ion intermediates.

In this case catalyst, electron transfers between both phases can

also modify the overall reaction.
79

Preparation of catalysts
Types of solid catalysts

80

40

Preparation of solids catalysts

The development of a solid catalyst requires knowledge of the parameters
which have the greatest influence on catalyst performance.

The main objective of catalyst development is optimization of the various

different catalyst properties, an essential precondition for achieving such an
objective is a close cooperation between experts working in very different fields
of scientific research.

81

Preparation of solids catalysts

Currently, two principal routes exist for the production of technical catalysts:
The first route, yielding bulk
catalysts, starts with the
precipitation of a catalyst
precursor, which is filtered,
dried, and shaped. Calcination
steps may be included after
drying or after shaping.

Bulk catalysts

Supported catalysts

The second route starts with a

carrier material, which can be
impregnated with salt solutions
or coated with powders. Drying
and calcination give the final
supported catalyst.
82

41

Preparation of solids catalysts

Preparation of bulk catalysts

Bulk catalysts can be prepared from two routes, precipitation is the most
common but a small number of heterogeneous catalysts is prepared by the
fusion of mixtures of oxidic or metallic precursors.
83

Bulk Catalysts and Supports

Fused Catalysts
Among the thermochemical methods, the fusion processes are rarely applied
as they require extensive special equipment which is generally unavailable to
research groups, and difficult to use in industry.
Metallic Glasses
Amorphous metals can be prepared in a wide variety of stable and metastable
compositions, with all catalytically relevant elements.
The function of the fused amorphous alloys
is to serve as a precursor material for the
formation of a metastable active phase
characterized by an intimate mixture of
phases with different functions (synergism).

84

42

Precipitation and Co-precipitation

Precipitation is the process in which a phase-separated solid is formed from
homogeneous solution, after super-saturation.
The main advantage of precipitation is the possibility of creating very pure
materials.

85

Precipitation and Co-precipitation

Precipitation is and probably will remain one of the most important methods
for the synthesis of solid catalysts.
For the industrial preparation of catalysts by precipitation, the ease and cost of
the operation must always be balanced against the catalyst performance.
Advanced precipitation methods, such as microemulsion synthesis, in most
cases do not yield catalysts of sufficiently superior quality to compensate for
the higher efforts required in the synthesis. Moreover, the more complex a
synthetic process is, the less robust it is usually, and this represents a major
obstacle for industrial implementation.
Hence, conventional precipitation and coprecipitation from aqueous solution
will most likely continue to be the workhorse of catalyst synthesis for
many years.

86

43

Precipitation and Co-precipitation

Simplified scheme for the formation of a solid product

from solution.

The final particle size is determined by the

interplay between nucleation and growth.
The more particles nucleate, the smaller
the resulting particles will be.

87

Precipitation and Co-precipitation

Usually, precipitates with specific

properties are desired.
These properties includes chemical
composition, purity, morphology,
homogeneity, particle size, pore sizes
and pore volume, crystallinity,
surface area, separability from the
mother liquor,
To obtain this properties, many
parameters
such
as
solvent,
saturation, precipitating agent,mixing
sequence, pH, aging, calcination
temperature, etc, must be optimized.
88

44

Sol gel Process

Solgel processing is one of the routes for the preparation of porous materials
by solidification (without precipitation) from a solution phase.

The reaction proceed in two steps:

-M-O-R + H2O == -M-OH + ROH (hydrolysis)
-M-OH + XO-M == M-O-M + XOH (condensation)

Ex. Synthesis de Silica gel

Precuror: tetraethylortosilicate (Si(OC2H5)4 (TEOS)

The characteristics of the gel depend

on the balance between both
hydrolysis and condensation rates

Si-OR + H2O == Si-OH + ROH (hydrolysis)

Si-OH + OH-Si == Si-O-Si + H2O (condensation)
89

Sol gel Process

Si-OR + H2O == Si-OH + ROH

Si-OH + OH-Si == Si-O-Si + H2O

First appear a clear colloidal solution due to primary condensation of dissolved

molecular precursors. These colloidal particles, during gelation, forms polymeric
chains by chemical bonding between local reactive groups at their surface. This
prevents flocculation, that is a result of isotropic micelle aggregation.
The porous solids (xero- or aerogels) are produced in the next step
desolvation depending on the drying mode.
90

45

Sol gel Process

One of the advantages of the sol-gel process is the flexibility of the process, that
permits to obtain catalysts in different configurations by templating or coating methods.

91

Supported Catalysts
Many industrial catalysts consist of metals or metal compounds finely dispersed
on an appropriate supports.
The role of the support is not merely that of a carrier; it may actually contribute
catalytic activity. Further, the interaction between the active phase and the
support phase can affect the catalytic activity.
Ni supported on SiO2

The advantage of spreading the active phase on a support is to disperse it

throughout the pore system, to obtain a large active surface per unit weight used.
92

46

The selection of the support is based on a series of

desirable characteristics:

stability under reaction and regeneration conditions

appropriate physical form for the given reactor
adequate mechanical properties
high surface area and porosity
inertness
chemical nature

93

Porous solids are used as bulk

catalysts or as catalyst supports.

94

47

The surface area of the solids is located inside the pores

Concepts

95

Some typical porous solids

Zeolites

Zeolites are microporous crystalline solids with well-defined structures. Generally

they contain silicon, aluminum and oxygen in their framework and cations, water
and/or other molecules within their pores
Framework Structure
A defining feature of zeolites is that their
frameworks are made up of 4-connected
networks of atoms.
One way of thinking about this is in terms of
tetrahedra, with a silicon atom in the middle and
oxygen atoms at the corners. These tetrahedra
can then link together by their corners to from a
rich variety of beautiful structures.
The framework structure may contain linked
cages, cavities or channels, which are of the
right size to allow small molecules to enter
In all, over 130 different framework structures
are now known.
96
LTA: Structure and Framework Figures

48

Zeolite A was the first zeolite to be

synthesized on a large scale. Zeolite A
is synthesized in the sodium form to
give a pore opening of 0.38 nm. A
simple ion exchange with potassium salt
after the filtration and washing steps
reduces the pore size to 0.30 nm.

97

Figure. Standard zeolites and their pore

diameters.

98

49

Some typical porous solids

Carbon materials
Activated carbons are the microporous carbonaceous
adsorbents whose history can be traced back to 1600
B.C. when wood chars were used for medicinal
purposes in Egypt.
Commercially available activated carbons are
prepared from carbon containing source materials
such as coal (anthracite or brown coal), lignite, wood,
nut shell, petroleum and sometimes synthetic high
polymers.
There are many types of carbon materials
with different origins, thermal
resistance, morphology,
porosity, etc and in different
configuration such as nanonubes,
nanoparticles, foams, powders,
pellets, etc
99

Some typical porous solids

Carbon materials

100

50

Characterization of porous texture

There are different techniques to evaluate the type and pore volume:
ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS
Adsorption isotherms describe the relation between the amount of
molecules adsorbed on a unit mass of the solid and the adsorbate
equilibrium pressure (or relative pressure) at a given temperature (VSTP
vs P/P0).
Intuitively, it is straightforward to see that the amount of adsorbed
molecules forming a dense monolayer on the surface of a solid can be
used to calculate its specific surface area, A. The monolayer capacity it is
related to the specific surface area A (m 2/g) by the simple equation:
A = nm am L
Where nm, the monolayer capacity (molsorbate / gsolid), am is the average
area occupied by a molecule of adsorbate in the completed
monolayer and L is the Avogadro constant
101

Types of adsorption isotherms

Monolayer adsorbed molecules

Isotherm I is typical of adsorption in micropores

Isotherm II represents multilayer physisorption on a flat surface (valid for many
nonporous substances).
Isotherms III and V are characteristics of weak gas-solid interactions
Isotherm IV is frequently observed in the study of practical heterogeneous
catalysts. It is characteristic of multilayer adsorption accompanied by capillary
condensation in mesopores.
Isotherm VI is obtained when the surface of a nonporous adsorbent is
energetically uniform, the isotherm may have a step-like shape associated to
102
multilayer formation.

51

MERCURY POROSIMETRY
Mercury porosimetry is used for the determination of the pore volume and
the size distribution of meso- and macropores.
The technique uses progressive increase of the external pressure to force
mercury into the pores of the sample studied. An inverse relationship exists
between the pressure applied P and the pore radius rp. For cylindrical pores
this is the Washburn equation:

where is the surface tension

and the contact angle

103

Why supported Catalysts?

The activity of solid catalysts is usually
proportional to the active surface area
per unit volume of catalyst, provided that
transport limitations are not present.
Remember the idea that one isolated
atom can be an active site.
A high activity per unit volume calls for
small particles.
As most active species sinter rapidly at
the temperatures at which the thermal
pretreatment and the catalytic reaction
proceed, small particles of the active
species alone generally do not provide
thermostable, highly active catalysts.

104

52

Supported Catalysts
The concept of dispersion
The degree of dispersion, defined
by the ratio of the number of
surface atoms to the total number
of atoms in the polyhedron under
consideration, NS/NT.
Dispersion needs to be as close as
possible to unity so as to maximize
the utilization of a catalyst.
For very small clusters it is not
crystallographically sensible to talk of
planes with Miller indices. Small particles
may not be favorable when the reaction is
structure-sensitive, and larger particles
may exhibit a higher activity and/or
selectivity per unit surface area.

For a crystallite of cubic shape NS/NT reaches

unity when the size approaches 10A
(assuming a unit cell spacing of 2.5A).
105

Supported Catalysts
The procedures used to prepare supported catalysts can be divided into two
main groups:
(i) the selective removal of one or more component of usually non-porous
bodies of a compound containing precursors of the support and the active
component(s);
(ii) the application of a precursor of the active component(s) onto a separately
produced support

Bulk catalysts

Supported catalysts
106

53

Supported Catalysts
The procedures used to load separately produced supports are:
-

Contacting with a solution of an active precursor and drying

Precipitation of an active precursor in the presence of a support
suspended in the solution
Decomposition of a gaseous active precursor on the support surface
There are also different techniques and the results depend also
of many factors such as porosity, interactions between both
phases, nature of precursors, thermal treatments, etc

Chemical Vapor Deposition

Incipient Impregnation

Solid-State Ion Exchange in Zeolites

Precipitation onto a Suspended Support

Grafting and Anchoring of Transition Metal Complexes to

Inorganic Oxides
DepositionPrecipitation within Pre-Shaped Support Bodies

107

Grafting and Anchoring of Transition Metal Complexes to

Inorganic Oxides

108

54

Supported Catalysts from Chemical Vapor Deposition

and Related Techniques
According to IUPAC, deposition which occurs by
adsorption or reaction from the gas phase is referred to
as chemical vapor deposition (CVD).
In CVD, the correct choice of reactants (the precursors) is very
important. These precursors fall into several general major
groups, which include the halides, carbonyls, alkoxides,
acetates, and organic complexes.
The choice of a precursor is governed by certain general
characteristics, including:
(i) stability at room temperature;
(ii) Sufficient volatility at low temperature so that it can be easily
transported to the reactor;
(iii) a capability of being produced at very high degrees of purity;
(iv) an ability to react cleanly on or with the support
(v) an ability to react without producing side reactions or parasitic
reactions
109

From the Precursor to the Final Catalyst

In general, the impregnated support are not jet actives. The catalyst precursor
deposited on the support must be transformed to a suitable compound (metal,
oxides, sulfurs) in order to acquire the desired activity.
These last stages, calcination, reduction and sulfidation, are usually called
Activation, and their effect strongly depends of experimental conditions and
interactions active phase and supports. (ex. Sintering is favored with long
calcinations and treatment temperature, stabilization of crystallographic
phases, different degrees or reduction / non stoichoimetry, or the formation of
solid solutions by diffusion of the active phase on the supports can occurs )

110

55

The catalytic converter

Exhaust gas
from motor

Steel Catalyst housing

Ceramic
Monolithic
Support

Purified
Exhaust gas

Wire mesh packing for

protection

Steel Catalyst housing

Ceramic
Monolithic
Support

111

The catalytic converter

Cordierite monolithic support

Alumina and ceria coating: provide surface
area and porosity
Active metals dispersion: Pt, Pd, Rh

The ceramic monolith provide low pressure

drop, short diffusion distance and the lack of
attrition by vibrations and thermal shock
resistance

The washcoat provide a high internal surface

(macro mesopores) to adequately disperse the
precious metal and to act as an adsorbent for the
catalyst poisining elements. The task of the CeO2
component is oxygen storage, because:
2CeO2 == Ce2O3 + O2
Depending of the O2 concentration in the exhaust
gas
112

56

The catalytic converter

Three-way
catalysts
contain Pt : Rh : Pd in
proportions that varies
with the properties of
fuels,
the
catalysts
operating conditions or the
emissions targets to be
reached.
Both Pt and Pd are
common
elements
in
oxidations catalysts, with
an increasing proportion
of Pd vs Pt because this
metal is cheaper. The Rh
enhance the selective
reduction of NO to N2.
Three-way catalysts: NO reduction and CO and
hydrocarbons (VOCs) oxidations

113

Catalyst deactivation
The activity and selectivity of heterogeneous catalysts may change during the
course of reaction. Usually activity decreases due to either chemical or physical
reasons, or a combination both factors.
However, sometimes the selectivity increases, and therefore, is not to be viewed
as an entirely negative effect.

Example: In zeolitic and other acid catalysts such as Al2O3, there

is a loss in their activity for the cracking of hydrocarbons, but an
improvement in their isomerisation facility, upon exposure to
nitrogeneous bases such as pyridine or quinoline.

114

57

Catalyst deactivation
Catalyst deactivation can be caused by:
(i) a decrease in the number of active sites
(ii) A decrease in the quality of the active sites
(iii) degradation of accessibility of the pore space
The main causes of deactivation can be classified as:

115

Catalyst deactivation
Poisoning:

The active sites of a catalyst may become inactive by the

adsorption of impurities in the feed stream

It is useful to distinguish between temporary and permanent poisoning.

In the case of temporary poisoning, adsorption of the poison is relatively weak and
reversible and removal of the poison from the fluid phase results in restoration of
the original catalytic activity.
If adsorption of the poison is strong and not readily reversed, the poisoning is
called permanent.
116

58

Catalyst deactivation
Formation of Deposits
The formation of deposits can be of a physical or a chemical
nature.
So-called catalyst fouling is a physical process, which covers all phenomena in
which material is deposited on the surface of the catalyst to block active sites
and/or pores.
In most cases, the catalyst causes the formation of
undesired by- products that lead to deposits. The most
commonly encountered is so-called coke, which is
formed by chemical reactions of hydrocarbons at
relatively high temperature.
When large amounts of coke are deposited, the
diffusion characteristics change as a result of narrowing
or even complete blocking of the catalyst pores.

117

Catalyst deactivation
Thermal Degradation
Thermal degradation is a physical process leading to
catalyst deactivation because of high-temperature-induced
sintering, chemical transformations, evaporation, etc.

Sintering

is the loss of catalyst active surface due to crystallite growth of

either the support material or the active phase.
Initially, the metal is supposed to be present as small clusters of atoms (or small
metal particles), termed monomer dispersion. Surface diffusion of the atoms
will lead to two-dimensional clusters and, upon further diffusion, threedimensional particles will be formed
118

59

Catalyst deactivation
Thermal Degradation
Sintering resembles crystallization: larger
particles grow at the expense of smaller
ones. Particles might move and coalesce
or atoms move from one particle to
another, either by volatilization or by
surface migration.
The position of the particle contributes to the ease of sintering. A valley position
is stable, whereas an on-top position is highly unstable.

Sintering is a function of time, temperature, atmosphere,

interaction metal support, porosity and morphology of the
support, etc
119

Catalyst deactivation
Thermal Degradation
Chemical transformations,

reactions in which the support is directly

involved can also take place. An example is alumina-supported cobalt oxide.
At high temperatures (>800 K), solid-state diffusion becomes noticeable and
Co ions diffuse into the support, generating a spinel. It is not surprising that
in this process catalytic activity is lost

Evaporation,

leads to a progressive loss of the active phase and of

course, is most important in high temperature processes, the major
examples being steam reforming and catalytic combustion. By a hightemperature treatment (up to 920 K) in an oxygen-containing gas, platinum is
slightly vaporized because of the formation of Pt oxides.

120

60

Catalyst deactivation
Mechanical Deactivation
Mechanical strength is important in giving the catalyst
resistance against crushing. In a fluidized-bed reactor,
attrition will always occur and the fines formed will be carried
away with the product flow.
The shape and porosity of the catalyst particles influence mechanical strength: a
spherical shape is most favorable, while the higher the porosity, the lower is the
mechanical strength. In particular, macropores will lead to reduced strength.
In washcoat monoliths, the adherence of the coating to the monolith is very
important. The washcoat may be fractured and/or separated from the monolith
because of thermal stresses.
This is particularly relevant in automotive applications, in which the catalyst is
subject to a wide range of temperatures that change very often and very rapidly
(engine on off).
121

Catalyst deactivation
Corrosion / Leaching
Particularly in liquid-phase catalysis, leaching of the active metal by
dissolution into the surrounding liquid reaction mixture is often a
concern.
In most cases, leaching is the result of solvolysis of metaloxygen
bonds through which the catalyst is attached to the support. This not
only causes loss of catalyst activity, but also results in contamination of
the product.
The support material itself may be also subjected to leaching. The
reaction medium can be corrosive. Consider alumina at high or low
pH. Above pH 12 it will dissolve.

122

61

Catalyst deactivation
Summary

Deactivation phenomena, their causes and effects

123

What can be done to eliminate or in any case

reduce the catalyst deactivation?

If the cause of deactivation is understood, logical

measures can be contrived:
- At the catalyst level
- In the reactor selection and process design
- In the optimization of the operating conditions.

124

62

What To Do?
When poisoning is the problem, a more robust active phase or support
might be selected. Example: Alumina forms a surface sulfate with sulfur
oxides, whereas titania is inert.
When fouling is the problem, the option is to optimize the catalyst texture
(wide / narrow pores). The coke deposition can be prevented by tuning the
reaction conditions or by alloying the metal particles.
Sintering is more easily prevented than cured, as it is often irreversible.
Sintering can be reduced by structural promoters or stabilizers. Example,
the addition of Re to the Pt/alumina catalyst leads to strongly improved
stability.
The crushing strengths and attrition resistances of catalysts can be
significantly improved, for example by using different preparation or
shaping methods
125

What To Do?
It will be clear that the time-scale of deactivation influences the choice
of reactor type, the mode of operation and regeneration.

With increasing the deactivation rate, the choice of the reactor type
changes from fixed bed to the riser with continuous regeneration.
The correct choice of the operating conditions strongly influences the
catalyst life, which vary from years to days.
126

63

PGM = Platinum group metals (noble metals)

127

In spite of the increasing price and demand of noble metals (platinum group,
PGM) the real recycling degree only reach about 30% of the potential

128

64

129

130

65

Some final remarks:

- Catalysis is essential to maintain our quality of life.
- The catalyst only increases the reaction rate
- Selectivity is most important than activity
- Catalysis is a surface phenomenon. The catalyst surface is
heterogeneous and active sites of variable strength are related to
geometric, electronic, acid-basic aspects, etc
- Different kinds of catalysts: bulk and supported, can be prepared
- The catalytic behavior can be tailored by fitting the catalyst
characteristics (porosity, electronic parameters, etc)
- The catalyst is finally deactivated and the recycling the spent catalyst
is necessary from an economic and environmental point of view.
131

132

66