Ecology

Chapters 50-54

Ecology:

the study of organisms, their interactions with each other and

the environment, and the human impact on both.
Species = a group of organisms that can breed and produce
fertile offspring.
Population = a group of individuals from the same species
living together in the same area.
Community = many populations living together and
interacting with each other.
Ecosystem = the interactions of a community and abiotic
factors non-living aspects of the environment (water,
rocks, air, etc.).
Biotic factors = living aspects of the environment.
Biosphere = all the regions of Earth that contain life
lithosphere (ground/earth), hydrosphere (bodies of water),
and atmosphere (air).
Geographical range = anywhere (on the map) an organism
CAN live.
Habitat = type of location where an organism DOES live
Niche = the behavior/daily routine of an organism in its
habitat. What does it do to survive, i.e., reproduce, eat, avoid

Population Ecology:

the study of population growth, abundance, and distribution.

Size = N = total number of individuals in the population
Density = number of individuals per unit area, e.g., 1
buffalo/m3.
Dispersion = how individuals in a population are distributed,
e.g., clumped (humans in cities), uniform (trees in an
orchard), or random (trees in the forest).
Age structure = number of individuals of each age shown
graphically as a histogram age structurediagram.
Rapidly growing
populations have
a larger
proportion of
young people
(more births than
deaths)
pyramid-shaped.
No growth =
tiers of equal
width, equal
numbers of
people of all

Interpreting growth via age distribution

histograms:

Survivorship Curves = describe the mortality of individuals

in a species. There are three types:
1. Type I (human) = most individuals survive to middle age
and then mortality increases (few offspring at once) Kselected species/strategists.
2. Type II (rodents) = the likelihood of death is the same at
any age; survivorship is random.
3. Type III (oysters/insects) = most individuals die young
with only a few surviving to reproductive maturity;
opportunistic (many offspring at once) r-selected
species/strategists.

Biotic Potential = the maximum growth rate of a population

under IDEAL conditions, e.g., bacteria reproduce once every
20 minutes, elephants can only reproduce once every 2
years.
Factors attributing to biotic potential are:
i. Age of reproductive maturity
ii. Number of offspring produced in one reproductive
cycle.
iii. Frequency of reproduction
iv. Reproductive lifetime
v. Survivorship of offspring to reproductive maturity, i.e.,
survivorship curve
Carrying Capacity (K)= the
maximum
number of growth
J- Curve
= exponential
individuals in a population that can
be sustained
by0 the
Reproductive
rate >
environment.
Reproductive rate = r = births deaths
N
Example: a population of 1000 has 60 births
and 10 deaths, what is the reproductive
rate?
r = 60-10 = 50 = .05 = 5%
1000 1000
In general, growth = N = rN = births deaths
t

S-curve = the size of the population

is restricted by the carrying capacity.

Growth = N = rN K-N
t
K
Remember that carrying capacity = K
At carrying capacity, N = K

( )

Growth = N = rN K-K = 0
t
K
Growth = 0
If growth = 0, then birth rate = death
rate, r = 0 and the population size is
constant =

ZPG

(if death rate > birth rate, r is negative

and population size decreases).
What is the growth rate of a population
of 400 individuals if the carrying capacity
of the environment is 1000 and they had
60 births and 20 deaths in a given year?

Limiting factors= those things that prevent a population

from reaching its biotic potential keeps it within the
carrying capacity. There are two types:
1. Density-dependent = factors that are determined by
the size of the population, e.g., disease, competition,
predation, toxicity of waste products, etc. (all of these
factors are directly linked to the size of the population
the greater the size of the population, the greater the
impact of these factors).
2. Density-independent= factors that are not directly
affected by the size of the population they limit growth
regardless of N, e.g., weather, temperature, natural
disasters, etc.
Population Cycles = fluctuations in population size in
response to limiting factors.
i.
Density-dependent factors have a greater effect on larger
populations.
ii.
Most limiting factors dont inhibit growth until K has been
reached.
iii.
When limiting factors do inhibit growth, population sizes
may decline below K or crash to extinction.
iv.
Once below K, limiting factors ease and population sizes
renew themselves.

Population size oscillating around K:

exceeding K, decline and renewal of growth.

Population crash: exceeding K, decline and

reestablishing a new K around which the population
will oscillate.

Predator, Prey Population Cycles = oscillating

relationships in which predation limits the size of the prey
population and food supply limits the size of the predator
population.

As
As
As
As

Nr increases Nl increases
Nl increases Nr decreases
Nr decreases Nl decreases
Nl decreases Nr increases and the cycle continues from

Community Ecology:
the study of the interactions of populations.
1. Interspecific Competition = competition between
DIFFERENT species. The following are ways in which
interspecific competition is resolved:
i.
Competitive Exclusion/Gauses Principle
when one population of species is eliminated as a
result of direct competition with another population
of species. The two species usually try to occupy
the same niche, however, the principle states that
NO TWO SPECIES CAN OCCUPY THE SAME NICHE, if
they do, ONE OF THE SPECIES WILL DIE OFF IN THE
HABITAT. Species prefer to come to a compromise:

Fundamental niche = the niche the species

WANTS to occupy and will in the absence of
competition.

Realized niche = the niche the species END UP

occupying in order to reduce competition.

Realized &
Fundamental
Niches of
Barnacles
In Order to
Reduce
Competitive
Exclusion.

ii.

Resource Partitioning the securing of resources

in slightly different ways so as to ensure that
populations minimize competition and maximize
success, e.g., five species of warblers all feed on
insects in the spruce tree, but they do so in different
regions of the tree.

iii.

Character Displacement (Niche Shift) the

natural selection of different characteristics among
species that enables resource partitioning to occur
more successfully, e.g., Darwins Finches.

2. Predation = another form of community interaction.

There are four types:
i.
True predators: kill and eat another animal.
ii.
Parasites: spend their lives living in/on another
organism (host) obtaining nutrients by feeding on

iii.

iv.

Parasitoids: insects that lay their eggs on a host so

that when the eggs hatch, the larvae can obtain
their nutrients from consuming the hosts tissues
the host dies.
Herbivores: animals that eat plants. Granivores =
seed eaters and eat the whole seed. Grazers =
grass eaters. Browsers = leaf eaters, eating only
part of the plant.
parasit
e

parasitoi
d

3. Symbiosis = when two species live close

together and have an established relationship.
There are four types:
i.
Mutualism: both species benefit from the
relationship, e.g., lichens.
ii. Commensalism: only one species benefits,
but the other is unharmed, e.g., egrets and
cattle.
iii. Parasitism: only one species benefits while
the other is harmed (not necessarily killed,
however), e.g., tapeworm and human.
iv. Predation: only one species benefits while
the other is killed, e.g., rabbit and lynx.

Coevolution:

1.
2.

3.
4.

the evolution of one species in response to new adaptations

that appear in another species with which they have an
established symbiotic relationship; one which they would like
to maintain. The following are SITUATIONS THAT WILL
FORCE SPECIES TO COEVOLVE:
Secondary Compounds = toxic chemicals produced in
plants that discourage would-be herbivores, e.g., tannins
common to oaks and tobacco.
Camouflage/Cryptic Coloration = color, pattern, shape, or
behavior enabling animals to blend in with their surroundings,
e.g., snowshoe hare is white in winter but brown in summer
and moth larvae look like bird droppings.
Aposematic Coloration/Warning Coloration = very
conspicuous pattern or coloration warning predators that they
will sting, bite, or taste bad, e.g., poison dart frogs.
Mimicry = when two or more species resemble one another
in appearance. There are two types:
i. Mullerian Mimicry: when several animals, all with special
defense mechanisms, share the same coloration as a
single warning to predators regardless of species, e.g.,
bees, wasps, yellow jackets are all black and yellow,

ii.

Batesian Mimicry: when an animal without any defense

mechanisms (not poisonous/dangerous to predators)
mimics the coloration of an animal that does possess a
defense, e.g., king and coral snakes.

Camoufla
ge:
Snowshoe
hare

Warning

Batesian Mimicry: king snake (non-venomous)

mimics coral snake (venomous).

Red on yellow, kill a fellow. Red on black,

friend of Jack.

Ecological
the change in the composition of species over time. One
communitySuccession:
with certain species is gradually replaced by

another community of different species due to a drastic

event (fire, deforestation, retreating glaciers).
Species diversity and biomass increase and succession
does not end until a CLIMAX COMMUNITY is reached a
community that does not undergo any further change.
Succession is NOT predictable as species establishment is
random and influenced by seasons, climate conditions, or
already existing species.
Changes in the environment that determine
whether or not a resident (previously existing)
species will persist are as follows:
1. Substrate texture = solid rock becomes sand which
becomes fertile soil, helping to decompose plants and
animals.
2. Soil pH = can drop, becoming more acidic, due to the
decomposition of plants and animals.
3. Soil Water Potential = changes as the soil texture
changes.

The plants and animals that are the first to colonize a newly
exposed habitat are PIONEER SPECIES. They are usually rselected species fast growing, easily dispersed, produce
many offspring, can survive harsh conditions (intense sunlight,
nutrient-poor soil, rocky substrates, and dry climates).
As soil, water, and light conditions change, r-selected species are
replaced by K-selected species (grasses, herbs, shrubs, small
trees, etc.) which slow the rate of succession.
Ultimately, a climax community is reached.
There are two types of succession:
1. Primary Succession = occurs in areas that have never
previously supported life, e.g., volcanic islands (Hawaii), lava
flows, rock left by retreating glaciers, or sand dunes.
Pioneer species are LICHEN secrete acid which breaks
rock into soil.
With soil comes fungi, moss, insects, arthropods, and
other r-selected species.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria help produce nutrient-rich soil.
Grasses, herbs, and weeds appear and depending on
climate conditions will give way to K-selected species
such as trees and shrubs.
(On sand dunes, pioneer species are grasses which take
root in sand ~ 6 years. These give rise to shrubs,
cottonwoods, pines, and black oaks ~50-100 years.
Climax communities are made-up of beach maple. The

2. Secondary Succession = occurs in habitats that DID

previously support life. Includes habitats destroyed by some
kind of damaging event e.g., fire, floods, insect devastations,
overgrazing, deforestation, etc.
Unlike primary succession, secondary succession begins
on substrates that ALREADY BEAR SOIL pioneer species
is NOT lichen.
r-selected species from seeds already exist in the soil
grasses and weeds grow.
From grasses and weeds tress will eventually grow.
Succession can also occur in lakes and ponds.

Ecosystems:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

.
.

the study of the production and utilization of energy in and

through plants and animals organized into TROPHIC
LEVELS showing the main energy source of the organism
(very similar to food chains).
Producers = autotrophs convert sunlight into chemical
energy, e.g., plants, photosynthetic protists, cyanobacteria,
chemosynthetic bacteria.
Primary Consumers = herbivores eat producers.
Secondary Consumers = primary carnivores eat primary
consumers.
Tertiary Consumers = secondary carnivores eat
secondary consumers.
Quaternary Consumers = tertiary carnivores eat tertiary
consumers.
Detritivores = consumers that obtain energy from
consuming dead plants and animals includes both
DECOMPOSERS and SCAVENGERS. They COMPLETE THE
FOOD CHAIN.
Omnivores eat both plants and animals.
Ecological Pyramids are used to show the relationships
between trophic levels. The size of the tiers represent the

Trophic Levels as an Ecological Pyramid

(Food Chain):

Ecological Pyramid of Energy and Numbers,

Respectively:

Ecological
Pyramid of
Biomass:

Ecological Efficiency = the proportion of energy at one

trophic level that is transferred to the next. Only 10% of the
productivity at one trophic level is transferred to the next
level. The other 90% is consumed by the individual metabolic
activities of each plant or animal (growth, reproduction,
cellular respiration, etc.), released as heat energy, or taken
with the individuals when they die.

Food Chains = linear flow charts of who is eaten by

whom. THE ARROWS INDICATE THE DIRECTION OF THE
ENERGY FLOW.

Food Webs = multiple food chains interconnected.

MORE REALISTIC because a vast majority of animals
have more than one food source (food chains show each
animal eating only one other thing).

Marine
Food
Web

1.
2.
3.
4.

Biogeochemical
describe the flow of essential compounds and
elements from Cycles:
the environment into living things

and back into the environment.

Each cycle describes storage of the
compound/element = RESERVOIRS, processes of
incorporating them into living things =
ASSIMILATION, and the process by which it
returns to the environment = RELEASE.
There are four biogeochemical cycles:
Hydrolytic (water) cycle
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Phosphorus cycle

Phosphorus Cycle

Biomes:

regions of the biosphere that exhibit common environmental

characteristics, each with unique communities of organisms
that share adaptations to promote survival.
There are seven biomes:
1. Deserts = hot and dry.
Limiting factor is rainfall (~10 cm/year)
Limits plants limits animals
No leaching (pavement)
Dramatic temperature changes
Plants are succulents
Store water in their tissues
Needles NOT leaves reduces surface area for
transpiration
Deep or shallow roots
Animals must adapt to heat and lack of water
Burrow
Nocturnal
Outer coverings (shells, scales, etc.)
Highly concentrated urine or no urine

2. Tundra = frozen ground PERMAFROST

Limiting factor is temperature (yearly average ~10 oC = 50 oF)
Precipitation falls as ice or snow
Permafrost
Fragile ecosystem not a lot of biodiversity
Bogs form in summer (cannot drain through the permafrost)
allowing insects to breed
Plants are small and close to the ground
Only a 60 day growing season
Roots cannot penetrate the permafrost
Animals are migratory
Bogs insects birds migratory predators
Thick coats
Wide hooves (function like snow shoes by increasing the
surface area of the foot and redistributing the animals
weight)

3. Grasslands = savannas, prairies, and steppes

Limiting factor is rainfall (25 cm 150 cm/year)
Steppe = 25 cm 50 cm (semiarid desert)
Prairies = 50 cm 75 cm (Great Plaines of the U.S.A.)
Savannas = 75 cm 150 cm (subtropical, African
safari)
Plants are grasses
Bulk of the plant grows underground
Grow near ponds, streams, springs
Aerated by burrowing animals
Blades are the leaves small surface area to decrease
transpiration
Animals are grazers
Migrate towards sources of water
Burrow
Run quickly
4. Deciduous Forests = temperate have 4 seasons
Limiting factor is temperature (growing season is 6
months)
Plants are deciduous tree
Shed leaves in the winter hibernating (not
photosynthesizing)
Nutrient-rich soil

5. Coniferous Forest = Taiga long, harsh, cold winters

Limiting factors are temperature and acidic soil
Nutrient-poor soil
Growing season is 2-5 months
Decreased biodiversity
Plants are conifer trees
Evergreens do not shed leaves, maintain them all
year
Seed cones
No leaves needles
Acidic needles
Animals are migratory or hibernating
Thick body coverings
Live under snow
6. Rainforest = high temperature, heavy rainfall, 12 month
growing season, located in tropical zone
Limiting factor = nutrient-poor soil (nutrients located in
first 5 cm only)
Plants are trees
Grow tall (canopy has 99% of sunlight)
Broad trunks to support tall growth
Broad leaves if short capture 1% of sunlight at floor
EPIPHYTES plants that live on other plants
(mosses)

7. Marine Biomes = oceans/seas, ponds, lakes, rivers/streams,

etc.
Limiting factors are DEPTH, SALINITY, and amount of
OXYGEN

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Human Impact on the

The effects of exponential growth on the destruction of
Biosphere
habitats, agriculture, mining, industry, transportation and

pollution.
Why is the human population growing exponentially?
K continues to increase: the value of the earths carrying
capacity is yet unknown.
Increases in food supply: we went from a hunter/gatherer
society, to relying on agriculture and the domestication of
animals and plants food output has since been increased
dramatically as a result of technological advancements.
Medicine: the reduction in disease and the perpetuation of
life has decreased the death rate while simultaneously
increasing the birth rate.
Plumbing and sanitation: water purification and sewage
systems have reduced health hazards by decreasing our
exposure to human wastes.
Expansion of habitat: due to better housing, warmer
clothing, and access to energy, we are occupying previously
uninhabitable land.


1.

2.

3.

4.

The exponential growth of the human population has

resulted in the following environmental problems:
Greenhouse Effect/Global Warming = by burning fossil
fuels, destroying forests, and raising cattle for meat, we
have unnaturally increased the concentration of CO 2 in the
atmosphere. CO2, a greenhouse gas (along with CH4 =
methane released by mammals), traps the heat that
reradiates off the earths surface increasing average
temperatures can affect sea levels, weather, migratory
patterns, insect locations, etc.
Acid Rain = the reaction of SO2 and NO2 with water vapor
in the air creates sulfuric acid and nitric acid (SO 2 and NO2
come from burning fossil fuels, industrial processes and air
pollutants) kills plants and animals in lakes, rivers, and
on land.
Desertification = the transformation of grasslands into
deserts as a result of agricultural overgrazing destroys
habitats of native species and decreases agricultural
output.
Deforestation = clear cutting forests causes erosion,
flooding, changes weather patterns, increases
concentrations of CO in the air leading to global warming,

DESERTIFICATION in China

5. Pollution = adding compounds to the air, water, and

land that contaminate materials essential to life.
Many pollutants do not easily degrade can cause
BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION = the movement of a
toxin up the food chain becoming more and more
concentrated as it does. Other pollution occurs from
fertilizer or sewage runoff creates ALGAL BLOOMS
which deplete oxygen from land and sea, suffocating
animals to death EUTROPHICATION = increased
biomass in lakes due to nutrient enrichment of the
carcasses of dead plants and animals. More death =
more anaerobic bacteria which produce foul-smelling
gas.
6. Ozone Depletion = the breakdown of O3 (ozone) by
releasing CFCs into the atmosphere can cause
damage to the DNA of plants and animals as ozone is
a thin layer in the upper atmosphere that absorbs UV
radiation and prevents it from reaching the earth.
Holes in the ozone occur over Antarctica, the Arctic,
and Northern Europe and Asia.

BIOLOGICAL
MAGNIFICATION
of DDT: from
water to Bald
Eagles; the near
extinction of a
species.

ALGAL BLOOMSexcuse me a moment whilst I vomit in