Page 60 Applied Diagnostics REVe 1. Steam Temperature When examining the effects of temperature changes, we again need to look at the relative mass of the rotor and the case, as well as the amount of surface area exposed to the steam. A rotor, being lighter and having more exposed surface area will change temperature much faster than the case. This means that any change in steam temperature will change the rotor length much more quickly than the case length; this is how differential expansion occurs. This situation could cause rubs or change the shaft position in the bearing and, therefore, the rotor's unbalance response. Anyone who has seen a decreased steam temperature used to cure a rotor long condition has witnessed this effect. Another effect of a steam temperature change is that the vibration probes (shaft observing) can observe a different axial location on the shaft than before and can, therefore, indicate a change in vibration. This is especially noticeable where there is a significant change in runout between the old target area and the new (This situation should be avoided through proper planning and maintenance). In this case, the balance state did not change, nor did the rotor's dynamic response. The probes are now observing a different part of the rotor. Usually there is good temperature indication in a power plant control room. Therefore, there is direct cause and effect information available, but the thought of an indicated vibration change being related to a steam temperature change has to 29278Steam Turbines Page 59 Process Effects on a Steam Turbine The objective of this section is to examine how changes in process. conditions can affect the steam turbine vibration. The "process" is defined as those flows and loads that affect the turbine, but are not part of the turbine or its auxiliaries. The reason for looking at process effects is because, very often when the measured turbine vibration changes, the first thought that comes to mind is, "What is wrong with the turbine." This thought is natural if the indication of a change is shown in the turbine monitoring and is not easily correlated to the process. A person has to get into the mind-set of asking himself, "What in the process could cause the turbine to do this." This is not always an obvious step, particularly if you have been led to believe that LX vibration is always unbalance, 2X is always misalignment, and so on. In this section, we are going to look at the effects of the steam processes, the effects of the condenser and effects of load changes. Effects coming from the lube oil or hydraulic control system are considered to be outside the process. A. Inlet Steam Changes There are only four parameters of steam that can change: temperature, pressure, chemistry and flow rate. As the operation of a steam turbine is a dynamic process, we also want to think of changes in the steam conditions and the rate of change in the steam conditions as factors in changing turbine vibration characteristics. REV no9278Page 58 Applied Diagnostics will have gone through 10,368,000 cycles of stress. In less than a month, the rotor will reach the high cycle fatigue limit. The low cycle fatigue limit will be reached even earlier. Usually, turbine rotors are designed to minimize both mechanical and thermal stress concentrations; keyways, pins and holes are avoided. Don't even think of adding one of these features yourself, and question the sanity of anyone who does. A cracked turbine rotor will, in almost all cases, show a change in the 1X (synchronous) vibration response with increasing crack size. The reason is, a rotor with a transverse crack will tend to bow because the crack makes the rotor less stiff in one direction. When the crack is oriented perpendicularly to the force of gravity, there is less metal to bend. Along with a change in synchronous amplitude, look for changing phase angle, changing slow roll vector, erratic responses to balancing, decreasing resonance speeds and sometimes strong 2X activity at near half any resonance speed. In about 75% of the shaft crack cases investigated, the 2X amplitude and phase angle did not indicate a shaft crack. REVC 19278Steam Turbines Page 57 severity of, the thermal cycles it is subjected to. It is obvious that thermal transients, particularly transients that cause temperature differentials within the rotor, are to be avoided. Any source of differential heating or cooling can be a potential factor in a shaft crack, Steam seal piping that has condensation in it can eject the water and quench a spot on the rotor. Seals sucking cold air in the turbine can quench the shaft in the area of the seal. If the seals are left on uncontrolled or there is a problem with the steam seal supply, the shaft can experience a temperature gradient great enough to initiate a crack. Most of these types of problems occur when the turbine is stopped or on turning gear. When a turbine is running, the amount of stray cold air or water coming through seals will be negligible. A major source of cool water that can enter a turbine comes from the extraction system. Most power plants are equipped with check or non-return valves to prevent water from entering the turbine from the extraction system These valves should be checked regularly, as a water induction incident of this type can cause major damage. Thermal effects can be a major factor in shaft crack initiation. Thermal shocks should be avoided; thermal cycles should be minimized, or at least well controlled. 1. Mechanical Stresses There are also mechanical factors that cause shaft cracks Misalignment can cause the rotor to bend, In a misaligned rotor, every time the rotor completes one revolution, it will also complete one cycle of stress reversal. In one 48 hour period, a 3600 rpm unit REVC nas278Page 56 Applied Diagnostics F. Shaft cracks Figure 35. LP Rotor Cross Section Turbine rotors are very large forgings of alloy steel that usually contain relatively large amounts of chromium, nickel, vanadium and molybdenum. Such alloys are strong and tough at elevated temperatures but are brittle and are more subject to cracking as a result of thermal shocks than in mild steel. Typical turbine rotor alloys have a nil ductility transition temperature (the temperature below which a brittle fracture can occur) well above ambient temperature; 121°C (250 degrees Fahrenheit) is a good approximate number. Being a massive part, turbine rotors will take a long time to warm up to operating temperatures. If the rate of warmup or cooldown of a rotor is in excess of manufacturers recommendations, stresses great enough to initiate a crack in the rotor can result. Usually turbine operators follow the manufacturers recommendations carefully. However, operational upsets can easily exceed the recommendations and cause a cycle of stress. Usually, the expected life of a turbine is defined by the number of, and REVe 29278Steam Turbines Page 55 The method for identifying the source of a fluid-induced instability is by examining the differential phase of the instability. When the vibration signal is filtered to the frequency of the instability, the source of the instability will lead in phase, when compared to other monitored locations on the rotor. This method can help locate the instability, and, by combining this information with the physical geometry, the instability source may be determined. ‘There are some short term, online remedies that may be helpfull in eliminating a fluid-induced instability on a temporary basis. Oil related instabilities may cause the rotor to be sensitive to oil temperature. Try changing the oil temperature up or down. Do this carefully, and watch the response. Remember that in 20% of the cases oil temperature has no effect on a fluid- induced instability. If there is a way that the oil supply pressure can be raised or lowered, try that carefully, and see if that affects the instability. If none of these changes make a difference in the instability, then it may be a steam-related instability. Ifa steam related instability is suspected, try varying the steam flow or pressure. The problem with this remedy is that any change in steam flow or pressure can usually translate to a change in the shaft eccentricity ratio. This can be seen in a shaft centerline plot and should be watched for when changing steam pressure or flow. In almost every case, increasing the eccentricity ratio will tend to make instabilities go away. The most important problem with these remedies is that they may be fixing a symptom and not the problem. REVC LeerPage 54 Applied Diagnostics POINT: BRNG 3 VERT DISP @50" LEFT DIR AMPT: 6.83 mil pp POINT: BRNG 3 HORIZ DISP @30° RIGHT DIR AMPT: 7.55 mil pp MACHINE: LP TURBINE (03 JUN $3 07:25:34 SHUTDOWN. DIRECT uP. — ] | + | / | | » | + s + + boo + to + 0.5 ml piv cow ROTATION 2588 rpm Figure 34, Orbit Plot, Steam Turbine With Fluid-Induced Instability When a fluid-induced instability occurs in a steam turbine, it's not desirable and we want to get rid of it. We need to be able to determine if the instability is oil or steam-related. In some cases, the type of instability (oil or steam) can be determined because oil related instabilities usually affect only one bearing at a time, while steam related instabilities can change the vibration of the entire rotor train and can be detected at many bearings. REVC 129278Steam Turbines Page 53 E. Fluid-Induced Instabi The fluid-induced instabilities that a steam turbine can experience are oil whirl/whip and steam whirl/whip. That's because oil and steam are the only two fluids in a steam turbine. Either malfunction is possible anytime there is a cylinder rotating within a cylinder in the presence of a fluid. Eccentricity ratio and lambda (A, fluid circumferential average velocity ratio) are the key factors in preventing fluid-induced instabilities. Remember that eccentricity ratio is defined as the value obtained by dividing the difference between the shaft and bearing centers by the radial clearance. The lower the eccentricity ratio (lower bearing stiffness (Ky), higher A), the more likely an instability will develop. If the shaft is running in the exact center of the bearing (or seal), then the eccentricity ratio is zero, Ky, is low and 2. is high, so instabilities may develop. Reve 29278Page 52 Applied Diagnosties speed ranges, however, if a rub occurs during resonance, the amplitude can remain high longer and the phase shift delayed. This is due to the increase in stiffness due to the rub. During coastdowns, a heavy rub can cause the turbine to coast down more quickly than normal, as the rub provides an additional braking torque. Having a general idea of the time it takes a turbine to coast down normally is useful. Conversely, if a turbine takes an unusually long time to coast down, or doesn't seem to want to stop, then you probably have a leaking steam inlet valve. 600] 000) 200 2an0 +600 +000) Speed: 100 rpmvidv Amplitude: 0.5 mil ppfdiv 00} al ‘0 40-2) OOO 0.771 @-24Hertz FREQUENCY: 5Hertzidiv 3.63 @ 24 Hertz ‘CCW Rotation Figure 33. Full Cascade Plot Showing High Sub-Synchronous Vibrations REVE 29278Steam Turbines Page 51 REV bearing will increase. The thrust could even change to the opposite side of the thrust bearing. Figure 32. Resonant Speed Deflections e. Radial rubs caused by resonant speed deflections Resonant speed deflections are often overlooked by Operations because the deflections aren't there all the time. In any rotor system, when the rotor reaches a resonant speed, the amplitude of the response is at a maximum. Things that weren't rubbing at running speed may rub at resonant speeds. What will rub depends on clearances and the mode shape the rotor is in at that speed. During startups, the turbine can be accelerated quickly through the resonant 29278Page 50 Applied Diagnosties d. Radial rubs due to rotor bow | are T ( Figure 31. Rotor Rubbing Due to a Bow Rotor bow is also a cause of radial rubs. The usual scenario is that a hot rotor is stopped and begins to sag or rise in the center. Cold rotors sag, but the action takes longer to sag the same amount as a hot rotor. When the machine is started, and if the bow has not been rolled out fully, then as the machine speeds up, the part of the rotor that is not rotating about its geometric center is going to act like a big unbalance weight, This large unbalance can start pulling the rotor, changing the unbalance state further. If the situation is bad enough, the rotor will rub. The rub may also cause local heating, making the situation worse. On many rotors with an HP/IP section, there will be balance piston packing in the middle area that is now being rubbed. If this packing is damaged, the thrust loading of the thrust REV 18278Steam Turbines Page 49 c. Radial rubs due to rotor movement Another radial rub situation occurs where the shaft has moved into the case to cause the rub condition. Here we deal with shaft dynamic movements. The dynamic movements in question come from unbalance or rotor bow which are especially severe at resonant speeds. An out of balance rotor is orbiting due to unbalance force and subsequently require more clearance. If the available clearance is not sufficient, the rub occurs. Seals will be the first part to rub because seals are closer to the shaft in normal circumstances. This situation can be made worse if the packing of the spring-loaded or retractable types fails. Normally the seal is supposed to move out of the way of the shaft; it is now locked, and what should be a light contact becomes a hard rub. The machine's balance condition can change if a blade shroud breaks off, a blade breaks off, a piece of deposit comes off or a balance mass detaches. Remember that balance changes will cause a change in the 1X filtered amplitude and phase. If you have enough information about the balance condition of the rotor before the element gets loose, then its possible to determine where, and how much came off. This information, though not certain, may be able to help you make intelligent maintenance decisions about what likely happened. Las278Page 48 Applied Diagnosties ogee est ns} No Load Carried Figure 30. Mis-adjusted Hanger It is important to remember that before the rub occurs there will probably be a shift in the shaft alignment, This can result in very low vibration if the shaft is now jammed in the bearing, or can result in high vibration and fluid-induced instabilities if the bearing is now unloaded and the shaft has a low eccentricity ratio (shaft centered within the bearing clearance). Reve Lasa78Steam Turbines Page 47 positions do not correspond to the actual hot and cold positions as in Figure 30. Bent hanger supports, fully extended or retracted snubbers or bent piping are also common indications of a piping strain. Piping strains will be more likely to show up after years of running because hangers and snubbers are virtually ignored. After years of not moving much, the hangers and snubbers can lock in position. The next time the unit is started up or shut down, the piping will not be where it is supposed to be and can pull the turbine out of alignment. On some units, piping is supported when disconnected from the turbine during overhauls. If the supports are not removed before the unit is started up, a piping strain can happen. Also, when piping is hydrostatically tested, the hangers are frequently “pinned” to lock them in position. If the pins are not removed, then piping strain may oceur. REVC 29278Page 46 Applied Diagnostics REVe other bearings, so they can move in relation to each other, due to mechanical or thermal effects. If the turbine foundations are decaying or the turbine is installed on separate foundations, the turbine cases and pedestals can move in relation to each other. When a case moves toward the shaft there will probably only be packing rubs caused because all the other clearances are larger in the turbine. These rubs will most likely occur at the ends of the shafts. Warped cases are most often caused by differential cooling due to water induction. The mechanism in this situation is that cool water enters the bottom of the hot turbine case, and causes the bottom side to contract, putting a hump in the case. This can cause packing and blade tip rubs and can cause diaphragms to warp. If the turbine was running when the water induction event occurred, and then is shut down, a warped case situation that was not causing any noticeable problems at operating speed could be made worse because the turbine rotor coasting down though its balance resonance speeds may not have enough clearance, and could rub very severely. b. Radial rubs due to piping or bearing pedestal movement Piping strains can pull cases in any direction, based on the piping configuration. If the designer or the erector made a mistake in the design or the erection of the piping, a strain can be caused. This may be observed in the pipe hangers when the expected hot and cold 129278Steam Turbines Page 45 2, Radial Rubs A radial rub means that the shaft has moved toward the case or the case has moved toward the shaft. It is important to know which component has done the moving in order to determine the root cause behind the rub. Knowing what the mechanism is, implies corrective measures. Steam turbine rubs can be observed with 1X phase rolling with time when the rub is causing a localized hot spot on the turbine shaft. STEAM FLOW Figure 29. Radial Clearance a. Radial rubs due to case motion The case may move toward the shaft if the foundations move, the case warps or the case is pulled off-line by piping strains. These situations are possible because the bearing pedestals are often separate from the turbine cases and because the shaft is supported by REVe 129278Page 44 Applied Diagnostics Thrust Ring Housing —~_ lain Bearing — Housing Z, —Thrust Collar —— Shim Plate “shims —Thrust Ring Figure 27. Thrust Collar - Separate Thrust Ring Main Bearing Housing ——~" Housing Integral Thrust Collar _—_—— orifice Shim Plate ~~—Shims —Thrust Ring Figure 28. Thrust Collar - Integral with Rotor 129278Steam Turbines Page 43 1, Axial Rubs. An axial rub means that the thrust position has changed, there is excess differential expansion between the case and rotor or a diaphragm has warped Differential expansion can't happen if the turbine is operating in a steady state condition and shouldn't happen if the warm up procedures are followed. The thrust position can change during steady state operation if the blades are plugging or are wearing away. However, to get a rub due to thrust position changes while the machine is online would imply that the thrust bearing is worn away, has too much clearance or that the thrust collar is loose on the shaft. If there are missing or broken blades or blades plugging, there would likely be enough radial vibration that a rub would be a secondary effect. A rub caused by a warped diaphragm, (which usually happens online) could be quite serious. An axial rub, due to a warped diaphragm, would show changes in axial vibration and radial vibration. However, the classic orbits associated with light rubs may not be present and a light rub is unlikely to cause a rotor bow due to local rotor heating with accompanying amplitude and phase angle changes. ‘The classic light rub orbits are formed due to impact and rebounding of the shaft in the radial direction. In the case of a warped diaphragm, there would be no impact in the radial direction or significantly increased stiffness in the radial direction. REV as278Page 42 Applied Diagnostics diaphragms) and how severe the situation has to be to get one of these parts to rub There are only two ways a rub can happen. 1) The shaft moves inside the case or, 2) The case moves toward the shaft. With either situation, there are two types of rubs that can occur, axial rubs or radial rubs. Figure 26. Axial Clearance DIAPHRAGM) REVC 129278Steam Turbines Page 41 POINT: BRNG 2 VERT DISP @50° LEFT DIR AMPT: 0.473 mil pp POINT: BRNG 2 HORIZ DISP @30" RIGHT DIRAMPT: 1.42 mil pp MACHINE: HP/IP TURBINE 03 JUN 93 22:37:40 DIRECT UP. Figure 25. Orbit plot from a Misaligned Bearing on a Steam Turbine x | cu a + + + + 0.2 mil ppidiv CCW Rotation 3440 rpm D. Rubs Rubs occur in a steam turbine when a rotating part comes in contact with the stationary part. Rubs are detectable in the vibration information when the rotating part is rubbing hard enough on the stationary part to cause one or both parts to change its motion, If we look at rubs this way, it is much easier to identify what parts are the most likely to be involved in rubs (packing, blade tips and REVE noon