Professional Documents
Culture Documents
WHO Waist Circumference Protocol
WHO Waist Circumference Protocol
ii
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n ts
ThismeetingreportwasoriginallypreparedbyDrPrakashShetty,withsupportfrom
ProfessorShirikiKumanyika(Chairpersonoftheconsultation)andDrGaryTinChoiKo
(Rapporteuroftheconsultation).Itwasfurtherdevelopedandfinalizedwithsubstantial
supportandinputsfromProfessorShirikiKumanyika,ProfessorScottLear,Professor
ThorkildSrensenandProfessorPaulZimmet,andthemembersoftheWHOSecretariat(Dr
ChizuruNishidaandDrFrancescoBranca).
Specialacknowledgementismadetoallthemembersoftheexpertconsultation,in
particulartothosewhopreparedthebackgroundpapersfortheconsultation.WHOis
gratefultotheEuropeanJournalofClinicalNutritionforacceptingandpublishingthese
backgroundpapers(EJCN,vol64,No.1,pp261,January2010)forwiderdissemination.
AcknowledgementisalsomadetotheWHOstafffromthedepartmentsofNutritionfor
HealthandDevelopment,andChronicDiseasesandHealthPromotion,whoprovided
valuablecontributionstotheconsultation.
WHOexpressesdeepappreciationtotheMinistryofHealth,LabourandWelfareofthe
GovernmentofJapanfortheirfinancialsupportforthecommissioningofthebackground
papers,holdingoftheexpertconsultationandproductionofthemeetingreport.
TechnicaleditingofthereportwasundertakenbyDrHilaryCadmanfromCadmanEditing
ServicesinAustraliaandcoverdesignwasundertakenbyMsSueHobbsfromMinimum
GraphicsinNewZealand.
iii
AdultTreatmentPanel
AUC
areaunderthereceiveroperatingcharacteristiccurve
BMI
bodymassindex
CARDIA
CoronaryArteryRiskDevelopmentinYoungAdults
CVD
cardiovasculardisease
DEXA
dualXrayabsorptiometry
FAO
FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations
FPR
falsepositiverate
IDF
InternationalDiabetesFederation
MESA
MultiEthnicStudyofAtherosclerosis
NCD
noncommunicabledisease
NCEP
NationalCholesterolEducationProgram
NHANES
NationalHealthandNutritionExaminationSurvey
NHLBI
NationalHeart,LungandBloodInstitute
NIH
NationalInstitutesofHealth
ROC
receiveroperatingcharacteristic
STEPS
STEPwiseApproachtoSurveillance(WHO)
SWAN
StudyofWomensHealthAcrosstheNation
TPR
truepositiverate
US
UnitedStates
WHO
WorldHealthOrganization
iv
C o n t e n ts
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................... iii
Abbreviationsandacronyms............................................................................................. iv
1
Introduction........................................................................................................... 1
Methodsformeasuringwaistandhipcircumference............................................. 5
2.1
Placement,tightnessandtypeofmeasuringtape ..........................................5
2.1.1 Placementoftape ...............................................................................5
2.1.2 Tightnessandtypeoftape..................................................................6
2.2
Subjectpostureandotherfactors ...................................................................6
2.2.1 Postureofthesubjectsduringthemeasurement ..............................6
2.2.2 Phaseofrespirationattheexactpointofmeasurement ...................6
2.2.3 Abdominaltensionatthepointofmeasurement ..............................6
2.2.4 Influenceofstomachcontentsattimeofmeasurement ...................6
2.3
Measurementerror..........................................................................................7
2.4
Implicationsofdifferencesinmethodology ....................................................7
2.5
Summaryandconclusions................................................................................7
Impactofvariationsinbodyfatdistributionbysex,ageandethnicity ................... 8
3.1
Sex ....................................................................................................................8
3.2
Reproductivestatus .........................................................................................8
3.3
Age ...................................................................................................................9
3.4
Ethnicity..........................................................................................................10
3.4.1 Ethnicgroupsforwhichwaistcircumferenceorwaisthip
ratiomayreflectmorebodyfatatagivenbodymassindex
level ...................................................................................................10
3.4.2 Populationsforwhichwaistcircumferenceorwaisthip
ratiomayreflectlessbodyfatatagivenbodymassindex
level ...................................................................................................10
3.5
Summaryandconclusions..............................................................................10
Relationshipsofwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiotodiseaserisk
andmortality....................................................................................................... 12
4.1
Measuresofobesityandabdominalobesityandcardiovascular
diseaserisk .....................................................................................................12
4.2
Measuresofobesity,abdominalobesityandtype2diabetesrisk................13
4.3
Measuresofobesityandabdominalobesityandallcausemortality
andmortalityfromspecificcauses ................................................................14
4.4
Ethnicdifferences...........................................................................................14
4.5
Summaryandconclusions..............................................................................15
4.5.1 Cardiovasculardisease......................................................................15
4.5.2 Diabetes ............................................................................................16
4.5.3 Riskfactors ........................................................................................16
4.5.4 Mortality ...........................................................................................16
4.5.5 Ethnicdifferences..............................................................................16
Summaryandconclusions.................................................................................... 19
5.1
Usefulnessofwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiofor
predictionofdiseaserisk ...............................................................................19
5.2
Measurementprotocol ..................................................................................20
5.3
Selectingcutoffpoints ..................................................................................21
5.4
Universalorpopulationspecificcutoffpoints..............................................22
Recommendations............................................................................................... 24
AnnexA:Currentusesofwaistcircumferencesandwaisthipratios,and
recommendedcutoffpoints ............................................................................... 27
AnnexB:Listofparticipants............................................................................................. 32
References ....................................................................................................................... 34
vi
Introduction
TheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)ExpertConsultationonWaistCircumferenceand
WaistHipRatiowasheldinGeneva,Switzerlandon811December2008.Theconsultation
wasorganizedbyWHOsDepartmentofNutritionforHealthandDevelopment,in
collaborationwiththeDepartmentofChronicDiseasesandHealthPromotion.Itwas
openedbyDrAlaAlwan,WHOAssistantDirectorGeneralforNoncommunicableDiseases
andMentalHealth.TheconsultationwasconvenedaspartofWHO's:
effortsinimplementingtherecommendationsmadeattheWHOConsultationon
AppropriateBodyMassIndexforAsianPopulations(WHO,2004);
responsetotheemergingproblemofobesityandrelatedchronicdiseases,inparticular
inlowandmiddleincomecountries.
The1997WHOExpertConsultationonObesityrecognizedtheimportanceofabdominalfat
mass(referredtoasabdominal,centralorvisceralobesity),whichcanvaryconsiderably
withinanarrowrangeoftotalbodyfatandbodymassindex(BMI).Italsohighlightedthe
needforotherindicatorstocomplementthemeasurementofBMI,toidentifyindividualsat
increasedriskofobesityrelatedmorbidityduetoaccumulationofabdominalfat(WHO,
2000a).Waisthipratio(i.e.thewaistcircumferencedividedbythehipcircumference)was
suggestedasanadditionalmeasureofbodyfatdistribution.Theratiocanbemeasured
morepreciselythanskinfolds,anditprovidesanindexofbothsubcutaneousandintra
abdominaladiposetissue(Bjorntorp,1987).Thesuggestionfortheuseofproxy
anthropometricindicatorsarosefroma12yearfollowupofmiddleagedmen,which
showedthatabdominalobesity(measuredaswaisthipratio)wasassociatedwithan
increasedriskofmyocardialinfarction,strokeandprematuredeath,whereasthese
diseaseswerenotassociatedwithmeasuresofgeneralizedobesitysuchasBMI(Larssonet
al.,1984).Inwomen,BMIwasassociatedwithincreasedriskofthesediseases;however,
waisthipratioappearedtobeastrongerindependentriskfactorthanBMI(Lapidusetal.,
1984).
The2002WHOExpertConsultationonAppropriateBodyMassIndexforAsianPopulations
andItsImplicationsforPolicyandInterventionStrategies(WHO,2004)reviewedtheissue
ofethnicdifferencesinthemeaningofBMIcutoffvalues.Inpopulationswitha
predispositiontocentral(i.e.abdominalorvisceral)obesityandtherelatedincreasedrisk
ofdevelopingmetabolicsyndrome,theconsultationrecommendedthat,wherepossible,
waistcircumferenceshouldbeusedtorefineactionlevelsbasedonBMI. Forexample,
levelsbasedonBMImightbeincreasedbyonelevelifthewaistcircumferencewere
elevatedaboveaspecifiedlevel.Thechoiceoftheactionlevelforwaistcircumference
shouldbebasedonpopulationspecificdataandhealthconsiderations.Anexpertworking
groupwasformedbythe2002consultation,tostartexaminingdataontherelation
betweenwaistcircumferenceandmorbidity,andonanyassociationbetweenBMI,waist
circumferenceandhealthrisk.Theaimwastodeveloprecommendationsforusingwaist
measurementstofurtherdefinerisks.
WHOsGlobalStrategyforthePreventionandControlofNoncommunicableDiseases
(WHO,2000b),andthemorerecent20082013ActionPlanfortheGlobalStrategyforthe
PreventionandControlofNoncommunicableDiseases(WHO,2008a),providetheplatform
forWHOsworkonnoncommunicablediseases(NCDs).Thesepublicationsidentifiedthe
monitoringofNCDsandtheirdeterminantsasakeycomponentfor:
developingpolicies;
evaluatingtheeffectivenessandimpactofinterventions;
assessingtheprogressmade.
TheExpertConsultationonWaistCircumferenceandWaistHipRatiocontributedtothe
implementationoftheglobalstrategyandNCDactionplan.Itachievedthisbyreviewing
andupdatingthewaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratioissuesrelatedtodiagnostic
criteria,classificationsand(possibly)managementguidelinesformajorNCDs.
Theoverallaimoftheexpertconsultationwastoreviewthescientificevidenceandmake
recommendationsontheissuesrelatedtowaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio.It
focusedparticularlyonissuesrelatedto:
methodsofmeasurement;
variationsbysex,ageandethnicity;
predictingrisksofcardiovasculardisease(CVD)anddiabetes,andofoverallmortality;
relationshipwithBMIinpredictingdiseaserisks.
Thespecificobjectivesoftheconsultationwereto:
reviewtheusefulnessofwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiomeasuresas
predictorsofNCDrisk;
assessoperationalconsiderationsrelatedtomeasurementprotocolsandcutoffpoints
forpublichealthaction;
definepotentialcutoffpointsforpublichealthaction;
identifyfutureresearchneeds.
Toachievetheseobjectives,sixpeerreviewedbackgroundpaperswerepreparedby
selectedexpertsintherelatedfields. Theselectionofexperts,bothforthepreparationof
thebackgrounddocumentsandfortheactualconsultation,followedWHOprocessand
guidelines;aspartoftheprocess,allexpertparticipants,peerreviewersandtemporary
advisorssignedadeclarationofinterests.
Wherepossible,thebackgroundpaperspreparedfortheconsultationevaluatedthe
strengthoftheevidence,usingmodifiedcriteriafromtheWorldCancerResearchFund,as
adaptedbyanearlierjointWHOandFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnited
Nations(FAO)ExpertConsultationonDiet,NutritionandthePreventionofChronicDisease
(WHO/FAO,2003)(seeTable1.1,below).Muchofthedataandmanyofthestudydesigns
didnoteasilylendthemselvestorigorousevaluationbasedonthesecriteria.Nevertheless,
thecriteriawereusefultothediscussionsattheexpertconsultation,inrelationto
understandingconclusionsonthedifferencesamongdiversepopulationsderivedfrom
examinationofassociationsbetweenBMIandproxyanthropometricindicatorsof
abdominalfat,anddifferenthealthoutcomes.
Table 1.1
Convincing evidence
Based on epidemiological studies
showing consistent associations
between exposure and disease,
with little or no evidence to the
contrary
Based on a substantial number of
studies including prospective
observational studies and, where
relevant, randomized controlled
trials of sufficient size, duration and
quality showing consistent effects
Association should be biologically
plausible
Probable evidence
Based on epidemiological studies
showing fairly consistent
associations, but with perceived
shortcomings in available evidence
or some evidence to the contrary,
precluding a more definite
judgement
Shortcomings in the evidence may
include insufficient duration of
trials/studies, insufficient availability
of trials/studies, inadequate sample
sizes, and incomplete follow-up
Laboratory evidence is usually
supportive
Association should be biologically
plausible
Possible evidence
Based mainly from casecontrol
and cross-sectional studies, and
data from insufficient randomized
control trials, observational studies,
non-randomized control trials and
evidence from non-epidemiological
studies (i.e. clinical and laboratory
based)
More trials are required to support
tentative associations
Association should be biologically
plausible
Thisreportprovidesasummaryofthediscussionsoftheexpertconsultation.Itincludes:
discussionofthemethodsformeasuringwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio
(Chapter2);
age,sexandethnicvariationsinfatdistribution(Chapter3);
associationsofwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiowithBMI,andwithhealth
outcomes(Chapter4).
Chapter5presentsasummaryandconclusionsonthesedifferentaspects,anddiscusses
approachesandresearchneedsforusingmeasurementsofwaistcircumferenceandwaist
hipratio.Chapter6outlinesstepsthatcouldbetakentoarriveatappropriateWHO
recommendations.AnnexAcontainsbackgroundinformation(compiledbytheWHO
Secretariat)onexistingcutoffpointsforwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio.These
cutoffpointsareusedtovariableextents,someforclinicalanddiagnosticpurposes,others
forscreeningandsurveillanceforpublichealthpurposes.AnnexBliststheparticipantsin
theconsultation.
Thedetailedbackgroundpapers,togetherwithanoverviewoftheexpertconsultation,
havebeenpublishedelsewhere(Huxleyetal.,2010;Learetal.,2010;Nishidaetal.,2010;
Qiao&Nyamdorj,2010a;Qiao&Nyamdorj,2010b;Seidell,2010;Stevensetal.,2010).The
mainfindingsandkeyissuesidentifiedfromthesebackgroundpapersareincludedinthis
report.
Someofthepotentialusesofthecutoffpointsforwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio
include:
surveillance
screening
diagnosisanddecisiontotreatinaclinicalsituation
assessingthevalueoftreatmentofanindividual
assessingthevalueofinterventioninthecommunity.
Touseeitherorbothofthesemeasures,themethodforselectingcutoffpointstoindicate
thresholdsforriskneedstobespecified(WHO,1995).Thebasisforidentifyingthesecutoff
pointsmaybeidenticalforthedifferentmeasurementsormaydiffer,dependingonthe
purposeforwhichthecutoffpointsareused.Therelevancetopublichealthisrelatedto
preventionandthepredictionofdiseaseburden,ratherthanthepredictionofmortality. As
partofanevidencebasetoinformpolicy,thesemeasuresmaybeusedtoassesstheneed
forinterventions,andtoassesseffectivenessofinterventionsinreducinghealthrisksor
associatedcostsandburdens.
theanatomicalplacementofthemeasuringtape,itstightnessandthetypeoftape
used;
thesubjectsposture,phaseofrespiration,abdominaltension,stomachcontentsand
clothing.
2.1
2.1.1
Placement of tape
Waist circumference
TheWHOSTEPwiseApproachtoSurveillance(STEPS)providesasimplestandardized
methodforcollecting,analysinganddisseminatingdatainWHOMembercountries.The
WHOSTEPSprotocolformeasuringwaistcircumferenceinstructsthatthemeasurementbe
madeattheapproximatemidpointbetweenthelowermarginofthelastpalpableriband
thetopoftheiliaccrest(WHO,2008b).TheUnitedStates(US)NationalInstitutesofHealth
(NIH)protocolprovidedintheNIHPracticalguidetoobesity(NHLBIObesityEducation
Initiative,2000)andtheprotocolusedintheUSNationalHealthandNutritionExamination
Survey(NHANES)III(WestatInc,1998)indicatethatthewaistcircumferencemeasurement
shouldbemadeatthetopoftheiliaccrest.
TheNIHalsoprovidedaprotocolforthemeasurementofwaistcircumferenceforthe
MultiEthnicStudyofAtherosclerosis(MESA)study.Thisprotocolindicatesthatthewaist
measurementshouldbemadeattheleveloftheumbilicusornavel.However,published
reportsindicatethatmeasurementsofwaistcircumferencemadeatthelevelofthe
umbilicusmayunderestimatethetruewaistcircumference(Croftetal.,1995).
Somestudieshaveassessedthewaistcircumferenceatthepointoftheminimalwaist(Ross
etal.,2008).
Hip circumference
AlloftheprotocolsmentionedinSection2.1.1indicatethatthehipcircumference
measurementshouldbetakenaroundthewidestportionofthebuttocks.
2.1.2
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.3
Measurement error
Informationonthemeasurementerrorofthewaistcircumferenceandhipcircumference
hascomefromstudiesinadolescents.Lohmanetal.(1988)calculatedthetechnicalerrorof
waistcircumferencemeasurementinadolescentstobe1.31cmfromintrameasurererror
and1.56cmfromintermeasurererror.Forhipmeasurements,theauthorscalculatedthe
technicalerrortobe1.23cmfromintrameasurererrorand1.38fromintermeasurererror.
2.4
2.5
I m pa c t o f v a r i a t i o n s i n b o d y f a t
distribution by sex, age and ethnicity
Commonlyusedcutoffpointsforwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratioarebasedon
studiesundertakenpredominantlyinpopulationsofEuropeanorigin. Theimportanceof
takingintoaccountethnicdifferencesintheamountofbodyfatassociatedwithwaist
circumferenceorwaisthipratioatdifferentBMIlevelswasaprimarymotivationforthis
expertconsultation,basedonthefindingsofthe2002WHOExpertConsultationon
AppropriateBodyMassIndexforAsianPopulationsandItsImplicationsforPolicyand
InterventionStrategies(WHO,2004).
Thekeyissueiswhethertherearesystematicdifferencesintheextenttowhichagiven
waistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiolevelpredictsdiseaseoutcomesindifferentethnic
groups,particularlyifsuchdifferencescouldleadtounderestimationofriskincertain
populations.Systematicdifferencescouldrelatetooneorbothofthefollowing:
differencesinbodycompositionthatis,therelativeamountsortypesoffatreflected
inthewaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiomeasurement;
differencesindiseaseriskforaparticularbodyfatprofile.
Alsoofinterestwerevariationsinbodyfatdistributionthatmayaffectallpopulations;for
example,variationsbetweenmenandwomen,andwithageing.Thischaptersummarizes
theissuesrelatedtosex,ageandethnicvariations.Moredetaileddiscussionswere
providedinthebackgroundpaperthatexaminedassociationsbetweensex,reproductive
statusandage,andwaistcircumference(Stevens,etal.,2010);andthepaperthat
examinedassociationsbetweenethnicityandwaistcircumference(Lear,etal.,2010).
3.1
Sex
Sexdifferencesindepositionofbodyfatareevidentevenatthefoetalstage,butthey
becomemuchmorepronouncedduringpuberty(Wells,2007).Afteradjustingfor
differencesinheight,menhavegreatertotalleanmassandbonemineralmass,andalower
fatmassthanwomen;thesedifferencescontinuethroughoutadultlife. Womenhave
substantiallymoretotaladiposetissuethanmen,andthesewholebodysexdifferencesare
complementedbymajordifferencesintissuedistribution. Menhavegreaterarmmuscle
mass,largerandstrongerbones,lesslimbfatandarelativelygreatercentraldistributionof
fat.Womenhaveamoreperipheraldistributionoffatinearlyadulthood.Sexdifferencesin
bodycompositionareprimarilyattributabletotheactionofsexsteroidhormones,which
drivethedimorphismsduringpubertaldevelopment.Inmen,areductioninfree
testosteronelevelsisassociatedwithanincreaseinfatmassandreductioninmusclemass,
andbothtotalandfreetestosteronelevelsareinverselyassociatedwithobesity(Derbyet
al.,2006).
3.2
Reproductive status
Parityisanimportantcontributortochangesinbodycompositionandbodyshapein
women.Pregnancyisassociatedwithgainsinvisceralandcentraladipositypostpartum.
CrosssectionalanalysisofdatafromNHANESIIIillustratedhowparityisassociatedwith
changesinbodyshape(Lassek&Gaulin,2006).Datafrom16325womenshowedthat
womenwhohadgivenbirthhadlesslowerbodyfatandgreaterwaistcircumference.After
controllingforageandBMI,increasingparitywasassociatedwithlowerhipandthigh
circumferences,andhigher waistcircumference.Thesefindingsaresupportedbydataover
10yearsoffollowupfromtheCoronaryArteryRiskDevelopmentinYoungAdults(CARDIA)
studyofwomenaged1830years(Gundersonetal.,2004).Bothfirstandhigherorder
birthswereassociatedwithincreasesinwaistcircumference.
Menopauseisalsoassociatedwithanincreaseinfatmass,andaredistributionoffattothe
abdominalarea(Tothetal.,2000).Itisnotclearwhethersuchchangesaredueto
hormonalchangesortotheageingprocess.TheStudyofWomensHealthAcrossthe
Nation(SWAN)includedanethnicallydiversecohortof3064women,withanaverageage
of45.9years.SWANshowednoindependenteffectofmenopauseonfatdistribution
(Sternfeldetal.,2004).Overa3yearfollowup,thestudyshowedameanweightgainof
2.1 kg(3%increase)andameanincreaseinwaistcircumferenceof2.2 cm(2.8%increase);
gainsthatcouldbeattributedtoageandphysicalactivitylevel.Otherstudiesconcurred
withSWAN,suggestingthat,onaverage,womenexperiencea0.68 kgperyearincreasein
weightduringtheir40sand50s,regardlessofmenopausalstatus(Macdonaldetal.,2003;
Wingetal.,1991).
3.3
Age
Toappreciatetheeffectofageingonfatdistribution,changesinBMIthatoccurwith
increasingageneedtobeconsidered.ChangesinbodyweightandBMIarestronglyrelated
tochangesinfatfreemass,andexplain54%ofthevarianceinthosechanges(Forbes,
1999).WhiletheassociationsbetweenBMIandbodyfatarelinear,theassociationwithper
centbodyfatiscurvilinear,withtheslopesteeperatlowerBMIsthanathigherBMIs
(Welch&Sowers,2000).Percentbodyfatmayremainconstantorincreasewithage,but
ageingisassociatedwithsubstantialredistributionoffattissueamongdepots(Cartwright
etal.,2007).Fromlatemiddleageuntilthe80sorlater,thereisadeclineinthevolumeof
subcutaneousfat,andaredistributionoffatfromsubcutaneoustovisceraldepots.This
ageassociateddeclineinthesizeofadiposedepotsisaccompaniedbytheaccumulationof
fatoutsideadiposetissue(inmuscle,liverandbonemarrow),andlossofleanbodymass.
DatafromNHANESshowthatwaistcircumferenceincreaseswithage,andislargerinolder
thaninyoungeradultsofbothsexesuptotheageof70years(Fordetal.,2003).Similarly,
intheBaltimoreLongitudinalStudyofAging,agerelateddifferencesinwaisthipratiowere
alsoreportedinallBMIcategoriesexaminedinbothmenandwomen(Shimokataetal.,
1989).ChangesinwaistcircumferencewerefollowedupinFinnishadults(9025menand
9950womenaged2564years),andmeanwaistcircumferencewasseentoincreaseby
2.7 cminmenand4.3 cminwomenovera15yearperiod(LahtiKoskietal.,2007).BMI
alsoincreasedoverthestudyperiod,butthechangeswererelativelysmall(1.2%orlessper
5yearperiod)inallbuttheyoungestagecategory(2534years),whileincreasesinwaist
circumferencewereseenineveryagegroup.
TheBaltimoreLongitudinalStudyofAgingalsoexaminedtheeffectsofweightchangeon
changesinfatdistribution(Shimokata,etal.,1989).Thestudyfoundthatchangesinwaist
andhipcircumferencescorrelateddirectlywithchangesinweight,buttherewere
differencesinthepatternofchangebysex. Inmen,waistchangeswerelargerthanhip
changes,whereasinwomentheyweresimilar.Thisresultedinweightchangesinmen
havingalargereffectonwaisthipratio.Onaverage,witha4.5kgweightgain,menhada
4 cmincreaseinwaistcircumferenceanda2.5 cmincreaseinhipcircumference.
Comparablevaluesforwomenwere3.3cmand3.6cm,respectively.
3.4
Ethnicity
Interpretationofevidenceonethnicdifferencesiscomplicatedbyissuesrelatedtodefining
ethnicity,andothermethodologicalissuesthatareoutlinedinthebackgroundpaper
preparedbyLearetal.(2010).Thebackgroundreviewonlyconsideredstudieson
populationsthatwerenotrepresentedinearlieranalysesandthatledtorecommendations
aboutwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiocutoffsinEuropeans.Thepotential
significanceofthesedifferencesforidentifyingcutoffpointstopredicthealthoutcomesis
consideredinChapter4.
3.4.1
Ethnic groups for which waist circumference or waisthip ratio may reflect
more body fat at a given body mass index level
StudiesinvestigatingbodycompositionandtheassociationwithhealthoutcomesinAsian
populationshavefocusedonstudypopulationsdefinedasChinese,JapaneseandKoreanor
SouthAsian(orIndian).However,anumberofstudieshaveanalysedtheseethnicgroupsas
ahomogeneouspopulationlabelledasAsians.Thesestudiesfoundahigherpercentageof
bodyfatinAsiansatlowerBMI(DeurenbergYapetal.,2001;DeurenbergYapetal.,2000),
aswellasanincreasedprevalenceoftruncalfat,comparedtoCaucasians(Wuetal.,2007).
3.4.2
Populations for which waist circumference or waisthip ratio may reflect less
body fat at a given body mass index level
ChineseandSouthAsianmenandwomendisplayagreateramountofvisceraladipose
tissueforagivenwaistcircumferencethanEuropeans(Learetal.,2007b).Similarly,a
higherpercentageofbodyfatacrossarangeofwaistcircumferencevalueshasbeen
documentedinEastAsia(Kagawaetal.,2007).
InNorthAmerica,comparisonsofIndigenouspeopleandCaucasianshavereportedno
differenceintherelationshipsbetweenvisceraladiposetissueandBMI(Gautieretal.,
1999),totalbodyfat(Lear,etal.,2007b)orwaistcircumference(Learetal.,2007a).
AustralianAboriginalslivinginaremoteareawerereportedtohavehigherwaisthipratios
withlowerBMIsthanurbanAustraliansofEuropeanorigin(Piersetal.,2003).
ComparedtoEuropeanwomen,blackwomeninSouthAfricahaveaslightlylowerBMIata
givenpercentagebodyfat,butalsohavelessabdominaladiposetissueasdeterminedby
dualXrayabsorptiometry(DEXA)atthesamewaistcircumference(Rushetal.,2007).A
fewsmallstudiesreportAfricanwomenashavinglessvisceraladiposetissuethanwhite
women(Punyadeeraetal.,2001a;Punyadeeraetal.,2001b;vanderMerweetal.,2000).
InHispanics,onestudyreportedthatvisceraladiposetissueatagivenwaistcircumference
wasnotappreciablydifferentfromthatofwhites(Carrolletal.,2008;Haffneretal.,1996;
Nelsonetal.,2008).
SomestudieshavereportedthatPacificIslandershavelargermusclemassesandlower
percentagebodyfatthanEuropeansatsimilarBMIs(Rushetal.,2004;Rushetal.,2009).In
women,thishasalsobeenreportedforsimilarwaistcircumferencesandwaisthipratios
(Rush,etal.,2007).
3.5
10
havelessvisceraladiposetissueorpercentageofbodyfatatanygivenwaistcircumference.
Ifhigherlevelsofabdominalfatforawaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiolevelare
reflectedinassociationswithhealthoutcomes,thenlowerthresholdsfortheseindicators
mightbeneededfortheaffectedpopulationsthanforEuropeanorotherreference
populations.ThereisrelativelyconsistentevidencethatthissituationmayapplytoAsian
populations. DataforAfricansandPacificIslandersareexamplesofpossibleindicationsfor
aneedforhighercutoffsthanthoseusedforEuropeanreferencepopulations.However,
giventhattheobjectiveistopredictdiseaserisk,drawingconclusionsaboutcutoffssolely
onthebasisofobservedrisksdoesnotseemappropriate.
11
R e l a t i o n s h i ps o f w a i s t c i r c u m f e r e n c e
and waisthip ratio to disease risk and
m o r ta l i t y
Bothgeneralizedandabdominalobesityareassociatedwithincreasedriskofmorbidityand
mortality.ThemaincauseofobesityrelateddeathsisCVD,forwhichabdominalobesityisa
predisposingfactor.Itisunclearwhichanthropometricmeasureisthemostimportant
predictorofriskofCVDinadultsBMI,waistcircumference,waisthipratioorevenhip
circumference.
BMIhastraditionallybeenthechosenindicatorbywhichtomeasurebodysizeand
composition,andtodiagnoseunderweightandoverweight.However,alternativemeasures
thatreflectabdominaladiposity,suchaswaistcircumference,waisthipratioandwaist
heightratio,havebeensuggestedasbeingsuperiortoBMIinpredictingCVDrisk.Thisis
basedlargelyontherationalethatincreasedvisceraladiposetissueisassociatedwitha
rangeofmetabolicabnormalities,includingdecreasedglucosetolerance,reducedinsulin
sensitivityandadverselipidprofiles,whichareriskfactorsfortype2diabetesandCVD.
Thischaptersummarizestheexpertsdiscussionsonthestrengthofassociationsbetween
anthropometricmeasuresandhealthoutcomes.Moredetailedreviewsareprovidedin
severalofthebackgroundpapers(Huxley,etal.,2010;Qiao&Nyamdorj,2010a;Qiao&
Nyamdorj,2010b;Seidell,2010).
Onepaperexaminedhowwaistcircumference,waisthipratioandBMIperformin
predictinganddifferentiatingrisksofhypertension,dyslipidaemiaanddiabetes(asmajor
riskfactorsforCVD),andrisksofCVDevents(Huxley,etal.,2010).Theauthorsreviewed
datacomparingAsianandPacificwithCaucasianpopulations,anddataonotherethnically
diversestudypopulations.Otherstudiesexaminedtherelativeassociationsofwaist
circumference,waisthipratioandBMIwithdiabetesrisk(Qiao&Nyamdorj,2010a;Qiao&
Nyamdorj,2010b).Seidell(2010)revieweddataonallcausemortality,cancerandsleep
apnoeainassociationwithwaistcircumference,waisthipratioandBMI,highlighting
variationsinfindingsaccordingtochoiceofindicator,ageandBMIstatusofthepopulation.
4.1
measuresofabdominalobesityarebetterthanBMIaspredictorsofCVDrisk,although
combiningBMIwiththesemeasuresmayimprovetheirdiscriminatorycapability;
foranygivenlevelofBMI,waistcircumferenceorwaisthipratio,theabsoluteriskof
diabetesorhypertension(riskfactorsforCVDincidence)ishigherinsomepopulation
groupsthaninCaucasianadults;
universalcutoffpointsforBMIandwaistcircumferencearenotappropriateforuse
worldwide,givenethnicorpopulationspecificdifferencesindiseaseriskforany
12
particularanthropometricmeasure;however,theremaybegeneralconsistencyinthe
cutoffpointsofwaisthipratioforpredictingCVDrisk.
4.2
13
4.3
waistcircumferenceandwaisthipratioarebothrelatedtoincreasedriskofallcause
mortality,throughouttherangeofadultBMIs;
waistcircumferenceandwaisthipratioarestronglypredictiveinyoungandmiddle
agedadultscomparedtoolderpeopleandthosewithlowBMI;
waistcircumferencealonecouldreplacewaisthipratioandBMIasasingleriskfactor
forallcausemortality.
However,dataarelackingonappropriatecutoffsformeasuresofabdominalobesityfor
predictingriskofallcausemortalityinethnicandpopulationgroupsotherthanEuropean,
NorthAmericanandAustralianwhitepopulations.Evidenceforuseofwaistcircumference
orwaisthipratiotoreplaceBMIforpredictingmorbidityrelatedtocancerriskisless
strongthanforallcausemortality.
4.4
Ethnic differences
Numerousstudiesofpopulationsthroughouttheworldhavesuggestedusingcutoffpoints
specific toethnicgroups.Thissectionhighlightsstudiesthathaveevaluated(directlyor
indirectly)thepotentialbasisforwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiocutoffpointsthat
differfromthoseproposedforgeneraluseandarebasedonEuropeanorCaucasian
referencepopulations.
WhenstudiesinAsianpopulationsaretakentogether,Asiansappeartohaveanincreased
metabolicriskatlowerwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiothanEuropeans.Thisis
probablyduetohigherlevelsofbodyfatandabdominaladiposetissue. Inparticular,those
studiesthatincludedaEuropeanorCaucasiancomparisongroupindicatedalowerwaist
circumferenceforAsians,andsomealsosuggestedalowerwaisthipratio(Diazetal.,
2007;Huxleyetal.,2007;2008).Thesedataindicatealowerwaistcircumferenceand
waisthipratiocutoffpointforAsians;forexample,waistcircumferencevaluesof85cm
and80cm,andwaisthipratiovaluesof0.90and0.80formenandwomen,respectively.
StudiesinpopulationsresidingintheMiddleEasthaveprovidedwaistcircumferenceand
waisthipratiocutoffpointssimilartothosesuggestedforEuropeans.Onlyoneanalysis
reportedonwaistcircumferencecutoffpointsinAfricans(noneinvestigatedwaisthip
ratiocutoffpoints).Thatanalysisrecommended75.6cmand80.5cmformen,and71.5cm
and81.5cmforwomenofNigerianandCameroonorigin,respectively,fortheidentification
ofhypertension(Okosunetal.,2000a;Okosunetal.,2000b).Giventhatnootherstudies
14
haveinvestigatedcutoffsinthispopulationgroup,thereisinsufficientevidencefor
recommendingspecificcutoffsforsubSaharanAfricans.
Cutoffpointsforwaistcircumferenceof94cmand80cm(determinedforEuropeanmen
andwomen,respectively)havebeenassociatedwitha1.52.0foldincreasedriskin
hypertension,anda3.9and1.6foldincreaseindiabetes,inmenandwomenofAfrican
origin,respectively(Okosunetal.,1998).FindingsthatAfricanAmericanstendtobeleaner
thanEuropeansareinconsistentwiththedataindicatingthatAfricanAmericansareat
increasedriskforCVDatagivenwaistcircumference(duetohigherbloodpressureand
lipids).StudiesinvestigatingspecificcutoffpointsforAfricanAmericanseithersuggested
similarcutoffpointstothoseusedforEuropeans,basedonthelimitedevidenceavailable,
orindicatedthattherewasnotenoughevidencetosetspecificcutoffpointsforAfrican
Americans.
StudiesinvestigatingSouthAmericansrecommendedwaistcircumferencecutoffpointsof
8890cmformen,and8384cmforwomen(Lear,etal.,2010).Threestudiesreportingon
waisthipratioindicatedavaluerangingfrom0.85to0.95inmen,andfrom0.80to1.18in
women.Thesestudiessuggestedthatwaistcircumferencecutoffpointsshouldbelower
thanthoseforEuropeans,butthatwaisthipratiocutoffpointsshouldbesimilartothose
forEuropeans. OnlyonestudyinHispanicsprovidedarecommendationforcutoffpoints;it
suggestedawaistcircumferenceof90cmformenand85cmforwomen,andawaisthip
ratioof0.900.91formenand0.840.86forwomen(Berberetal.,2001).Anotherstudy
suggestedthatthecurrentwaistcircumferencecutoffpointsbasedonEuropeansprovided
lowsensitivitywithrespecttometabolicriskfactorsfortheHispanicpopulation(Okosun,et
al.,2000a).
4.5
4.5.1
Cardiovascular disease
ThebiologicalrationaleforrelatingmeasuresofcentraladipositytoCVDriskisthat
abdominaladiposetissue(whichispositivelyassociatedwithwaistcircumferenceand
waisthipratio)isrelatedtoarangeofmetabolicabnormalities.Theseabnormalities
includedecreasedglucosetolerance,reducedinsulinsensitivityandadverselipidprofiles,
whichareriskfactorsfortype2diabetesandCVD.Mostanthropometricindicatorsof
abdominalobesityhavebeenderivedfrompredominantlyEuropeanpopulations.Thishas
raisedissuesabouttheapplicabilityoftherecommendedcutoffpointstononEuropean
populations,amongwhomtheproblemiscurrentlyofmuchgreaterconcern.Neitheris
thereconsensusoverwhichofthesemeasuresofcentraladiposityismoststrongly
associatedwithCVDrisk,eitherwithinorbetweendifferentethnicgroups.
Ithasbeensuggestedthatwaistcircumference,waisthipratioandwaistheightratio,
whichreflectabdominaladiposity,aresuperiortoBMIinpredictingCVDrisk.Forexample,
intheINTERHEARTcasecontrolstudyofmyocardialinfarctionindiversepopulationsin52
countries(Yusufetal.,2005),BMI,waistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiowereall
stronglyandlinearlyassociatedwithriskofmyocardialinfarction.RelationshipswithBMI
wereattenuatedbyadjustmentforwaisthipratio,butrelationshipswithwaistmeasures
wererelativelyunaffectedbyadjustmentforBMI,indicatingtheindependenceofmeasures
15
ofabdominalobesityinpredictingrisk.However,a combinedanalysisofthePhysicians
HealthStudyandtheWomensHealthStudyfoundthat(Gelberetal.,2008):
themagnitudeofassociationsofBMI,waistcircumference,waisthipratioandwaist
heightratiowithCVDriskweresimilar;
thesemeasureswerenotentirelyindependentaspredictorsofrisk;
differencesaccordingtothemeasureusedwerenotlikelytobeclinicallysignificant.
IntheAsiaPacificCohortStudy,noneoftheanthropometricindiceswereclearlyassociated
withstrokeoutcomes(APCSC,2006).Overall,thesemeasuresseemtobecomparablein
theirdiscriminatorycapabilityasassessedbytheareaunderthereceiveroperating
characteristiccurve(AUC)atidentifyingthoseindividualswiththehighestriskofCVD
(Huxley,etal.,2010).
4.5.2
Diabetes
Datafromprospectivestudiesshowawiderangeofrelationshipsbetweenanthropometric
measuresandriskoftype2diabetes;hence,itwouldbedifficulttoconcludethatmeasures
ofabdominalobesityarealwayssuperiortoBMIinpredictingrisk.However,mostofthe
crosssectionalstudiesshowedthattheAUCwasslightlylargerforwaistcircumferenceor
waisthipratiothanforBMI.
4.5.3
Risk factors
Thisreviewsuggeststhat,atanygivenlevelofbodysize,theprevalenceofhypertension,
diabetesanddyslipidaemiaishigherinAsianthaninnonAsianpopulations.Italsosuggests
thatnoanthropometricmeasureismorestronglyassociatedwithbloodpressure,plasma
glucose,diabetesandlipidlevelsthananyothermeasure.However,BMIappearstobeless
informativethanothermeasures.
4.5.4
Mortality
Theevidencewithregardtoanthropometricmeasuresinparticularwaistcircumference
orwaisthipratiomeasuresandallcausemortalityispredominantlyfromwhite
EuropeanandAmericanadults,bothinyoungandmiddleagedadultsandolderpeople.
FewstudieshaveexaminedAfricanandAsianpopulations.Whenwaistcircumferencewas
adjustedforBMI,therelationshipappearsJshapedtoalmostlinear.
4.5.5
Ethnic differences
Overall,thedatasuggestedthat,foragivencombinationofBMIandwaistcircumferenceor
waisthipratiomeasures,theriskishigherforAsiansforalldiseaseoutcomes;however,it
wasnotpossibletodrawdefinitiveconclusions,duetolimitationsofthedata.Onlyin
populationsofAsiandescentweredifferencesinrisksufficienttowarrantconsiderationof
alternativecutoffpoints.Themultiplecausalityandimpactofthenutritiontransitionmay
alsocontributetotheinterpretationofapparentethnicdifferences.Specifically,theimpact
ofexposuretoundernutrition(includinggestationalexposuretomaternalundernutrition)
onsubsequentweightgainandfatdepositionwasnotedasapossiblefactorcontributingto
differencesamongpopulations.Arisingrelativeriskofdiseasealongthecontinuumof
waistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiowasalsoevident.However,theabsoluterisk
currentlydeterminedbythemultipleriskfactorsassociatedwithbodyfatandits
distributionmaywellreflectthephaseofdiseasetransitioninapopulation.Hence,the
thresholdsforriskassociatedwithwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiomayvarywith
16
time.Theseconsiderationsmakeitdifficulttospecifycutoffpointsonthebasisof
ethnicity.
Table 4.1
Waist
circumference
Waisthip ratio
Waistheight
ratio
Strength of
evidencea
Relationship
Strength of
evidencea
Relationship
Strength of
evidencea
Relationship
Strength of
evidencea
Relationship
CVD risk
++
++
Convincing +++
Convincing +++
Convincing +++
+++
Probable +++
Probable
WHO (2008b)
+++
Convincing +++
Convincing +++
Convincing /
+++
Hypertension
(mainly crosssectional data)
+++
Convincing ++++ Convincing ++++ Convincing ++++ Convincing Huxley et al. (2007)
Huxley et al. (2008)
Nyamdorj et al. (2008)b
Qiao & Nyamdorj (2010b)
Convincing +++ Convincing +++ Convincing +++ Convincing Wolf & Colditz (1998)
James et al. (2004)
Huxley et al. (2007)
Huxley et al. (2008)
Nyamdorj et al. (2008)b
Convincing +++ Convincing +++ Convincing +++ Convincing Koster et al. (2008)
Zhang et al. (2008)
Welborn & Dhaliwal (2007)b
Remarks:
Some studies showed Jshape relationship with BMI,
especially elderly people
(Dolan et al., 2007;
Katzmarzyk et al., 2002)
Evidence is less consistent
in elderly people (Baik et al.,
2000; Price et al., 2006)
Probable
++++ Convincing ++++ Convincing /
/
Kalmijn et al. (1999)
Pischon et al. (2008)
Overall mortality 0/
(with mutual
adjustment of the
17
Waist
circumference
Waisthip ratio
Waistheight
ratio
Strength of
evidencea
Relationship
Strength of
evidencea
Relationship
Strength of
evidencea
Relationship
Strength of
evidencea
Relationship
anthropometric
parameters)
Cancer
+++
colorectum, breast
(post-menopause)
+
Cancer
pancreas,
endometrium,
cervix, kidney,
gallbladder
Convincing ++
Convincing ++
Convincing NR
NR
Possible
Possible
Possible
NR
AICR (2007)
NR
APCSC, Asia Pacific Cohort Studies Collaboration; BMI, body mass index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; FAO, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; NR, not reported; STEPS, STEPwise Approach to Surveillance; WHO, World
Health Organization
Levels of evidence are based on the report of the joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (WHO/FAO, 2003) (see Table 3.1 of
that report)
Relationship: + to ++++ = positive association, mild to strong; 0/ = negative association, nil to mild
a Definitions of the strength of evidence are based on those that were used by the 2002 joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation
on diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases (WHO/FAO, 2003)
b References with evidence on waistheight ratio
18
5.1
waistcircumferenceversuswaisthipratio,withorwithoutaccompanyingBMI
measurements;
measurementprotocolsforwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio;
methodsforselectingcutoffpoints;
considerationsfordeterminingtheneedforpopulationspecificcutoffpoints.
theextenttowhichtherangeofwaistcircumferencedependsonbodysize;
whetherdifferencesinthewaistcircumferencedistributioninpopulationswith
differentbodysizesmaycreateproblemsinarrivingatappropriatecutoffpointsthat
wouldbesimilarlysensitivetohealthriskinallpopulations(e.g.theNIHPracticalguide
toobesitysuggeststhatwaistcircumferencecutoffsareonlyusefuluptoaBMIof35,
afterwhichmostindividualswillexceedthecutoffpoints).
Duetotherelativeeaseofobtainingwaistcircumference,itsuseisfavouredoverwaisthip
ratio.Therewasinsufficientdataonotherproxymeasures(e.g.waistheightratio),to
suggestgivingothermeasuresanypriorityatpresent. AlthoughBMIandabdominal
adipositymeasuresmaybehighlycorrelated,itisdesirabletoobtainaBMI,wherepossible,
andconsidertheutilityofjointuseofthetwoindicators.
19
Table 5.1
Underweight
Normal
Overweight
Obesity
Extreme obesity
Obesity class
<18.5
18.524.9
25.029.9
30.034.9
35.039.9
>40.0
I
II
III
Increased
High
Very high
Extremely high
High
Very high
Very high
Extremely high
Table 5.2
Sex
Europid
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
South Asian
Chinese
Japanese
Waist circumference
(cm)
>94
>80
>90
>80
>90
>80
>90
>80
5.2
Measurement protocol
Itwasrelativelystraightforwardtodeterminetherecommendedprotocolforthe
standardizedmeasurementofwaistcircumferenceandhipcircumference,andforthe
assessmentofabdominalobesity.Therearemanypotentialpointsofvariationinhowthese
measurementscanbetaken,andmanypotentialsourcesofmeasurementerroramongand
withinmeasurers.Nevertheless,theconsultationagreedthatthemeasurementprotocol
previouslyapprovedbyWHOshouldberecommended.Thisprotocolisinextensiveuseby
STEPS,andhasbeenfeaturedinseveralpreviousWHOexpertmeetingreports(WHO,1995;
WHO,2000a;WHO/FAO,2003).
Thisprotocolcanbesummarizedasoutlinedbelow.
Measurethewaistcircumferenceattheendofseveralconsecutivenaturalbreaths,at
alevelparalleltothefloor,midpointbetweenthetopoftheiliaccrestandthelower
marginofthelastpalpableribinthemidaxillaryline.
Measurethehipcircumferenceatalevelparalleltothefloor,atthelargest
circumferenceofthebuttocks.
Makebothmeasurementswithastretchresistanttapethatiswrappedsnuglyaround
thesubject,butnottothepointthatthetapeisconstricting.Keepthetapeleveland
paralleltotheflooratthepointofmeasurement.
20
5.3
Ensurethatthesubjectisstandinguprightduringthemeasurement,witharmsrelaxed
attheside,feetevenlyspreadapartandbodyweightevenlydistributed.
Whichhealthoutcomeoroutcomesshouldbeused?
Shouldoutcomemeasuresfromcrosssectionaldatabeused?Althoughuseofcross
sectionaldataispractical,thedatamaybeconfoundedbyeffectsofexistingdisease
anditsdiagnosisandtreatmentonriskstatusorassociations. Aclearpreferencewas
statedforoutcomesfromlongitudinaldata,whichavoidthebiasassociatedwith
relyingonprevalentcases.
Arerelativerisksorabsoluteriskspreferablewhencomparingriskfactorordisease
levelsatdifferentlevelsofwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratio?Relativerisks(the
outcomeinthosewithwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratioaboveagivencutoff
pointcomparedtotheoutcomeinthosebelowthecutoffpoint)vary,dependingon
thereferencecategoryusedtocalculatetheratio;thus,theydonotnecessarilyreflect
thediseaseburdenonanabsolutescale.Absoluterisks(thedifference,bysubtraction,
indiseaseburdenamongthosewithwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratioaboveor
belowaspecifiedcutoffpoint)maybemorerelevantfromapolicyperspective.This
situationmaybeparticularlyrelevanttotheissueofethnicdifferences.Ahighbaseline
diseaseratewilldecreaseratiosrelativetopopulationswithlowerbaselinerates,but
willnotinfluencethecalculationofriskdifferences.
Wouldlinkingwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiomeasurestooverallbodysizeor
generalizedobesitygrades (e.g.byusingBMIcategories)addvaluableinformation
withinpopulations,withinagivenrangeofbodysize,oracrosspopulationsubgroups
withsubstantiallydifferentBMIdistributions?Thisquestioncouldbeansweredby
analysingpotentialdifferencesintherangeanddistributionofwaistcircumferenceor
waisthipratioinpopulationswithdifferentBMIrangeanddistribution.Forexample,
suchanalysesmightcomparewaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiodistributionsand
healthoutcomesinAsianpopulations(inwhommeanBMIlevelsarerelativelylow)
withEuropeanorotherpopulations(inwhommeanBMIlevelsarerelativelyhigh),to
determinewhetheronesetofwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiocutoffpoints
wouldbesufficientlysensitiveinbothpopulations.Theperformanceofmeasuressuch
aswaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio,usedinconjunctionwithBMI,might
contributetothedevelopmentofcompositeindicesforusewithindividualsandthe
community.
Shouldcutoffpointsbedeterminedusingstatisticalapproachessuchasreceiver
operatingcharacteristic(ROC)curves;ifso,howshouldsuchapproachesbeused?
WithrespecttotheuseofROCcurves,questionsincludedwhethertochoosecutoff
pointsonthebasisofthemaximumlevelofsensitivityidentified,likelihoodratiosor
equivalenceofsensitivitytospecificity,andwhethertoresorttoanarbitrarily
designatedlevelofsensitivity(e.g.85%)ascriteriaforcutoff values.Asindicatedin
AnnexA,allofthesemeasuresarecurrentlyinusebyvariouscountries.The
consultationdidnotidentifyabasisforgivingprioritytoaparticularapproach.In
addition,potentiallimitationsoftheROCmethodwerenoted,includingdifferencesin
21
cutoffpointsbasedondifferencesinpopulationcharacteristics(e.g.averagebodysize
ordiseaseprevalence).
Allthesequestionsneedtobecarefullyconsideredwhendeterminingthemethodand
processusedtoderivecutoffpointsforwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiofor
recommendationbyWHO. Thechoiceofmethodandtheprocesstobeoutlinedwillalso
dependonthepotentialusesofthederivedcutoffpointsandhealthrelevantpolicy
considerations.Forexample,specificproblemsofthepopulationgroupforwhichthecut
offpointsaretobeused shouldbetakenintoaccount.
5.4
Inindividualsofthesamesexandageanywhereintheworld,isthesamelevel,
proportionorquantityof:
totalfatoradiposetissuepresentforagivenBMI?
intraabdominalorvisceraladiposetissuepresentforagivenwaistcircumference
orwaisthipratio?
Inindividualsofthesamesexandageanywhereintheworld,istheriskofdiseaseand
mortalitythesameforagivenBMI(i.e.levelofobesity),orwaistcircumferenceor
waisthipratio(i.e.levelofabdominalobesity)?
22
Istherelationshipbetweenadiposityandtheproxymeasure,andtheassociationwitha
givenhealthrisk,thesameforbothsexes?
Istherelationshipbetweenadiposityandtheproxymeasure,andtheassociationwitha
givenhealthrisk,affectedbyincreasingageforbothsexes?
Addressingtheseissueswillbeamajorchallenge.Itisclearfromthedatareviewedatthis
expertconsultationandfrompreviousWHOpublicationsthatthecurrentevidencebase
cannotanswerthesequestions.Furtherstudiesareneededtodeterminewhether
recommendedcutoffpointsshouldbespecifictosex,ageandpopulation.
23
Recommendations
Theexpertconsultationagreedthattheanthropometricindicatorsandmeasuresused
previously(i.e.BMI,waistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio)arepredictiveoftheriskof
chronicdisease.Hence,anywaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiocutoffpoints
developedfollowingtheprocessrecommendedbytheconsultationcouldbeusedaloneor
inconjunctionwithBMI.
Ideally,thecharacteristicsassociatedwiththemostusefulanalysesforoneormoreusesof
waistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiowouldbethat:
thedataarerepresentativeofallpopulationgroups(withrespecttoage,sex,social
classandconcurrentdiseases)incountriesfromallregions;
datacollectedincludeanthropometricmeasures(ofbothcentraladiposityandBMI)
andatleastthreeriskfactors(e.g.bloodpressure,bloodglucoseandcholesterol);
standardizedmethodswereusedformeasurementofwaistcircumferenceandother
anthropometricindicators;
measuredweightandheightwereavailableandwerenotselfreporteddata;
thedatasetincludeinformationoncharacteristicssuchasage,sexanddemographics;
sufficientlongitudinaldatafromappropriatepopulationsbeavailable,withhighquality
followupofdiseasestatusalongthetimecourse,topermitconfirmationofkey
conclusionsaboutcutoffpointsderivedusingcrosssectionaldata.
Giventhedataavailable,theconsultationfeltthatthestepspresentedbelow(whichare
notinanyspecificorder)couldbetakentoarriveatappropriateWHOrecommendationsin
thiscriticalarea:
Determinewhethermultiplesetsofcutoffpointswillbeneeded(e.g.bysex,bodysize
orhealthstatuscharacteristicsofthepopulation).
Thiscouldbeaccomplishedbyevaluatingsimilaritiesordifferencesintheassociations
ofwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiowithvarioushealthoutcomes,across
populationsorpopulationsubgroups.Theapproachwouldcomparepopulationsthat
differindistributionsofwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio,orindiseaseprofiles.
Type2diabetesshouldbeconsideredasamajorhealthriskfactororoutcomein
evaluatingassociationswithwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio.Inpopulations
throughouttheworld,diabetesapparentlyincreaseswithoverallandabdominalfat
gainandobesitydevelopment.Comparisonsbasedondiabeteswouldallow
identificationofthepotentialvariationsinthepredictivepotentialofvariouscutoff
points.
Foranysetofcutoffpointstobedeveloped,choosethemostsoundandpolicy
relevantstatisticalapproachtodeterminecutoffpointsforwaistcircumferenceand
waisthipratio,andspecifytheresultingdecisionrules.
Developaschemawithdifferentlevelsofriskandthreesetsofcutoffpoints.Thiscould
beachievedbylinkingdatasetstodiabetesprevalenceforcountries,andexamining
whethertherecommendedcutoffpointsareappropriateforthereliableidentification
ofdiseaserisk.Inaddition,itwouldbehelpfultoanalysepopulationswithhighrisk,to
ensurethatthecutoffpointsdevelopedareasensitivemeasureofrisk.
24
Alternatively,chooseasetofthreeindicativeriskfactors(e.g.highbloodpressure,
elevatedcholesterolandelevatedbloodglucose),wherebyapopulationorgroupcould
beidentifiedbywaistcircumferencecutoffpointsashavingoneofthreelevelsofrisk:
LevelI:MinimalriskAtthiscutoffpoint,lessthan10%ofpeoplewouldhaveany
oneofthethreeindicativeriskfactors;hence,thiswouldbethelowestlevelofrisk.
Theobjectiveistoidentifyavaluethatnationalgovernmentscouldusefor
surveillanceandtodeterminetheneedforpublichealthinterventions.
LevelII:ModerateriskAtthiscutoffpoint,therewouldbeahighprobabilitythat
80%ofpeoplehaveatleastoneofthethreeindicativeriskfactors,inwhichcase,
givinghealthadviceorotherappropriateactionwouldbedeemedessential.The
suggestionwastoexaminecombineddatasets(bearinginmindglobalvariation),to
judgewhetheritwaspossibletoarriveatauniversalcutoffpointtoindicatethis
levelofpopulationrisk.Issuestoconsiderwouldbetheeffectsofusing80%asthe
basisforLevelIIclassification,andwhetherthisvaluewouldhavethesameutility
acrosspopulationgroups.Criticalanalysisofthedatashouldultimatelyenable
WHOtocreateaschemetoderivecutoffpointstailoredfordifferentpurposes.
LevelIII:SubstantialorhighriskAtthiscutoffpoint,everyoneinthepopulation
groupwouldbealmostcertaintohaveatleastoneofthethreeindicativerisk
factors.Thisdeterminationwouldbebasedonnationalorregionaldatasetsthat
suggestthattheindividualsinthisgroupwillhaveadoublingofriskcomparedto
lowriskgroups.Highriskgroupsmayincludesubgroupsorpopulationsdefinedby
obesityordiabetesprevalence.
Thequestionofhowtocopewithtransitionsindiseaseriskalsoneedstobeaddressed.
Associationsofwaistcircumferenceorwaisthipratiowithriskfactorsanddiseases
maychangeovertimeinpopulationsinwhichincidenceofobesityrelateddiseasesis
increasinginassociationwithsocialandeconomictransitions.
Tofacilitatetheimplementationoftheproposednextstepandcarrythisprocessforward,
theconsultationformedaworkinggroupofexpertsinthisareatoworkcloselywithWHO.1
Theworkinggroupcomprisesacademicresearchers,clinicianswhohaveexpertiseinthis
field,statisticiansanddataanalysts.Theworkinggroupwillalsoconsidergapsinthe
availableglobaldataanditemsappropriateforfutureresearch.
Theconsultationrecommendedthattheworkinggroupbeaskedtodevelopandsuggest
theappropriatemethodsandcriteriaforaprocessforopenandtransparentanalysisand
clarificationoftherelationshipsbetweenabdominalfatdistributionanditsmeasures,and
diseaseriskandhealthoutcomes.
Itwasagreedthattheworkinggroupneedsaccesstoawiderangeofdatabasesworldwide,
includingtheSTEPSdatawithinWHO.Theconsultationrecommendedthattheworking
groupbeassistedtogainaccesstotheavailabledatasets.
TheconsultationurgedWHOtoviewthismatterasbeingofutmosturgency,andtoenable
completionofthetaskwithina2yearperiod.TheultimaterecommendationsfromWHO
willdependonwhetherWHOcanobtainrepresentativedatasetstopermitsystematic
The recommended follow-up work to be carried out by the working group that was formed by the consultation has been
overtaken by the new guideline development process implemented by WHO as of 1 January 2009. During 20112012, the
WHO Nutrition Guidance Expert Advisory Group (NUGAG) will take forward the follow-up action recommended by the expert
consultation, through its subgroup on Diet and Health.
25
analysisofalltheissuesraisedintheconsultation.UltimaterecommendationsfromWHO
needtotakeintoconsideration:
thevariouswaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratiocriteriathatarealreadyinuseby
nationalgovernments,andbynationalandinternationalmedicalorganizations;
thepotentialpolicyandpracticalimplicationsassociatedwithanyattemptstoalign
diversecutoffs.
Ontheotherhand,timelyandauthoritativeguidanceisneededtoensurethatmeasures
thatcanguideappropriatepublichealthandclinicalactionsontheproblemsrelatedto
NCDsarebroughtintofulluseasquicklyaspossible.NCDsarerapidlyincreasingworldwide,
particularlyinlowandmiddleincomecountries.
26
Indicator
Waist circumference
Waist circumference
Waisthip ratio
Cut-off points
>94 cm (M); >80 cm (W)
>102 cm (M); >88 cm (W)
0.90 cm (M); 0.85 cm (W)
M, men; W, women
27
Table A2
Europids
South Asians, Chinese and
Japanese
Men
>94 cm
>90 cm
Women
>80 cm
>80 cm
A2
28
operatingcharacteristics(TPRandFPR)asthecriterionchanges.Thus,ROCisdirectly
relatedtodiagnosticdecisionmaking.
TherearelimitationstousingaROCapproachforchoosingasinglecutoffpoint (e.g.to
designateahighwaistcircumference),particularlyiftheintentistochooseasinglecut
offpointthatisapplicableacrossdifferencepopulationsandsurveyconditions.TheROC
approachshouldtakeintoaccountthevalidity,reliabilityandreproducibilityofthetestor
criterionmeasure(e.g.thewaistmeasurement),andtheprevalenceoftheconditionof
interest(e.g.highbloodpressureordiabetes)inthepopulationtobescreened. Population
prevalenceisimportantbecausethepredictivevalue(e.g.theprobabilityofhavinga
diseasegivenapositivetestresult)ishigherinpopulationswithahighprevalenceofthe
diseasecomparedtopopulationswithalowprevalence.Thiswouldapplytodifferencesin
diseaseprevalencebothacrossandwithinpopulations(e.g.ifonlyhighriskindividualsare
selectedforscreening,asopposedtothepopulationatlarge).Measurementerrorsalso
reducetheutilityofROCcurves.
Figure A1
Belowareexamplesofhowtheseconceptshavebeenusedastherationaleforwaist
circumferenceandwaisthipratiocutoffpointsindifferentcountries.
Sensitivity is equal to specificity
TableA3showsexamplesofstudiesfromdifferentcountriesthathavesetcutoffpoints
basedonsensitivitybeingequaltospecificity.
29
Table A3
Country
Barbados
China
Islamic Republic of
Iran
Islamic Republic of
Iran
Mexico
Mexico
Mexico
Mexico
Men
87.3 cm
Women
87.5 cm
Reference
(Okosun, et al.,
2000b)
Notes
8085 cm
7580 cm
90 cm
90 cm
95 cm
95 cm
90
85
0.90
0.85
Waist
circumference
for diabetes
Waist
circumference
for hypertension
9398 cm
9499 cm
(Sanchez-Castillo et
al., 2003)
9296 cm
9396 cm
Sensitivity equals
specificity (based on
the ROC technique),
from a study in a
hospital population in
Mexico City
These national
recommendations are
based on the
intersection of lines of
specificity and
sensitivity
Maximum sensitivity
AstudyfromFranceprovidedcutoffpointsforthemostcorpulent30%ofthepopulation
(Balkauetal.,2006):
waistcircumferenceforobesity,diabetes,andCVD:96cmformenand83cmfor
women;
waisthipratioforgeneralriskandobesity:0.96formenand0.83forwomen.
Sensitivitywasofparamountimportance,withwaistcircumferencesensitivitiesof74%for
menand82%forwomen,andforwaisthipratioof66%formenand77%forwomen.
30
waistcircumference:80cmformenand84.5cmforwomen;
waisthipratio:0.91forbothmenandwomen.
SeparateROCcurveswereplottedforwaistcircumferenceandwaisthipratio.
Range of values and best cut-off points for multiple indicators
AstudyfromTunisiaprovidedacutoffpointforwaistcircumference(forobesity,diabetes,
andCVD)of85cmforbothmenandwomen,basedonsensitivitybeingequaltospecificity
(Bouguerraetal.,2007).
However,thestudyalsoprovidedindividualcutoffpointsforeachdiseaserisk,andwould
clearlybeapplicableforclinicaluse(whereasthesinglevaluegivenabovewouldbeuseful
forpublichealthpurposes):
A3
formen:82cm(hypertension);83cm(glycaemia);87cm(diabetes);85cm(total
cholesterolandtriglycerides);
forwomen:81cm(hypertension);82cm(glycaemia);87cm(diabetes);83cm(total
cholesterolandtriglycerides).
Summary
Cutoffpointschosenvaryconsiderablybetweencountries;also,thevariationisgreaterfor
waistcircumferencethanforwaisthipratio.Thecutoffpointsappeartobechosenbased
ondiseaserisk(e.g.CVD,type2diabetesandriskfactorsofCVD)andonhardoutcomes
suchasmortality.Rationalesvary,butaregenerallybasedonindicesofsensitivityand
specificity.Insomecases,therearemultiplespecificcutoffpointsfordifferentdiseasesor
riskfactors.Inadditiontotheaboveexamples,somecountries(e.g.Japan)havebasedtheir
cutoffpointsonassessmentofvisceraladiposetissuefromcomputerizedtomography
thatis,theextenttowhichmeasurementspredictintraabdominalfatratherthandisease
risk(JSSO,2002)andDEXA(Itoetal.,2003).
31
A n n e x B : L i s t o f pa r t i c i pa n ts
ThisannexliststheparticipantsattheWHOExpertConsultationonWaistCircumference
andWaistHipRatio,Geneva,Switzerland,811December2008.
B1
Members2
ProfessorSirGeorgeAlberti,SCMS(DiabetesResearchGroup),TheMedicalSchool,
UniversityofNewcastleuponTyne,NewcastleuponTyne,UnitedKingdom
ProfessorFereidounAzizi,Director,ResearchInstituteforEndocrinologyandMetabolism,
ShaheedBeheshtiUniversityofMedicalSciences,Tehran,IslamicRepublicofIran
ProfessorJulianaCNChan,Director,HongKongInstituteofDiabetesandObesity,The
ChineseUniversityofHongKong,DepartmentofMedicineandTherapeutics,ThePrinceof
WalesHospital,Shatin,HongKongSAR,People'sRepublicofChina
ProfessorRachelHuxley,Director,Nutrition&LifestyleDivision,TheGeorgeInstitutefor
GlobalHealth,Camperdown,Sydney,NewSouthWales,Australia
ProfessorPhilipJames,InternationalObesityTaskForce,London,UnitedKingdom
ProfessorTakashiKadowaki,DepartmentofMetabolicDiseases,GraduateSchoolof
Medicine,UniversityofTokyo,Tokyo,Japan
ProfessorKayTeeKhaw,DepartmentofClinicalGerontology,UniversityofCambridge,
Addenbrooke'sHospital,Cambridge,UnitedKingdom
DrGaryTinChoiKo,HongKongInstituteofDiabetesandObesity,TheChineseUniversityof
HongKong,ThePrinceofWalesHospital,Shatin,HongKongSAR,People'sRepublicof
China(Rapporteur)
ProfessorShirikiKumanyika,CenterforClinicalEpidemiology&Biostatistics,Universityof
PennsylvaniaSchoolofMedicine,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania,US(Chairperson)
ProfessorScottLear,SchoolofKinesiology,SimonFraserUniversity,Vancouver,British
Columbia,Canada
ProfessorJeanClaudeMbanya,ViceDean/ProfessorofMedicineandEndocrinology,
FacultyofMedicineandBiomedicalSciences,UniversityofYaound,Yaound,Cameroon
DrQingQiao,AcademyResearchFellow,DepartmentofPublicHealth,Universityof
Helsinki,Helsinki,Finland
ProfessorK.SrinathReddy,President,PublicHealthFoundationofIndia,NewDelhi,India
ProfessorJaapSeidell,Head,DepartmentofNutrition&Health,FacultyofEarthandLife
Sciences,FreeUniversityofAmsterdam,Amsterdam,TheNetherlands
Unable to attend: Dr Viswanathan Mohan, President & Chief of Diabetes Research, Madras Diabetes Research
Foundation, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Advanced Centre for Genomics of Diabetes, Chennai, India
32
ProfessorThorkildIASrensen,InstituteDirectorandProfessorofClinicalEpidemiology,
InstituteofPreventiveMedicine,CentreforHealthandSociety,Copenhagen,Denmark
ProfessorJuneStevens,Chair,DepartmentofNutrition,SchoolsofPublicHealthand
Medicine,UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill,ChapelHill,NorthCarolina,US
ProfessorPaulZimmet,EmeritusDirectorandDirectorofInternationalResearch,BakerIDI
HeartandDiabetesInstitute,Caulfield,Victoria,Australia
B2
Secretariat
DrAlaAlwan,AssistantDirectorGeneral,NoncommunicableDiseasesandMentalHealth,
WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
DrFrancescoBranca,Director,NutritionforHealthandDevelopment,WHO,Geneva,
Switzerland
DrChizuruNishida,Scientist,Countryfocusednutritionpoliciesandprogrammes,Nutrition
forHealthandDevelopment,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
DrJonathanSiekmann,TechnicalOfficer,Countryfocusednutritionpoliciesand
programmes,NutritionforHealthandDevelopment,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
DrPrakashShetty,TemporaryAdvisor,Countryfocusednutritionpoliciesandprogrammes,
NutritionforHealthandDevelopment,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
DrElaineRush,Consultant,Countryfocusednutritionpoliciesandprogrammes,Nutrition
forHealthandDevelopment,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
MsYingLiu,TechnicalAssistant,Countryfocusednutritionpoliciesandprogrammes,
NutritionforHealthandDevelopment,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
DrFionaAdshead,Director,ChronicDiseasesandHealthPromotion,WHO,Geneva,
Switzerland
DrTimothyArmstrong,Coordinator,SurveillanceandPopulationbasedPrevention,Chronic
DiseasesandHealthPromotion,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
MrGodreyXuereb,TechnicalOfficer,SurveillanceandPopulationbasedPrevention,
ChronicDiseasesandHealthPromotion,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
MrsLeanneRiley,Scientist,SurveillanceandPopulationbasedPrevention,ChronicDiseases
andHealthPromotion,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
DrShanthiMendis,Coordinator,ChronicDiseasesPreventionandManagement,Chronic
DiseasesandHealthPromotion,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
DrGojkaRoglic,MedicalOfficer,ChronicDiseasesPreventionandManagement,Chronic
DiseasesandHealthPromotion,WHO,Geneva,Switzerland
33
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