| NEW, a versioCopyright © 2000 New Age Intemational (P) Ltd., Publishers NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Offices at: Bangalore, Calcutta, Chennai, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Lucknow and Mumbai This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher ISBN : 81-224-1266-1 Published by K. K. Gupta for New Age Intemational (P) Ltd. 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 and printed in India at Chaman Enterprises, Pataudi House, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002.Contents Preface v 1._ ATOMIC PHYSICS 1 I. Pre Wave-Mechanics Atomic Physics 1 L1___The Rutherford Atom 1 13 X-Ray Production 5 1.4 Compton Scattering 6 LS uantum Numbers 7 1.6 Pauli Exclusion Principle 9 L2_ Shell Structure of Electrons in.an Atom _9 L8___ Waves, Particles and de Broglie’s Hypothesis _ 11 L.9____Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 13 Tave P Parti 7 TL_Wave Mechanics 6 1.11 The Schrodinger Equation 16 1.12__The Hamiltonian _18 1.13__General Solution 20 1.14 Potential Barrier Vy < E from x= Oto +00 21 1.15 Potential Barrier of Finite Width, 2a.£ >V, 22 1.16 Potential Barrier of Width 2a,E (4.9) where _&, = permittivity of free space = 8.842 x 10° '? F/m Therefore E = ~en,x/e, (4.10) If the energy of an electron equals the mean kinetic energy due electrons to thermal velocity, then the electrostatic field has no effect on the electron within a certain distance Ap, called the Debye length. The kinetic energy shields the electron from experiencing the force due to the electric field. Its value is determined as follows: Fig. 4 Debye length and radius Work done in moving an electron over a distance 2, is (Fig. 4.1) - fee de =2n23/2% 4.11) Equating this to V2 kT, we obtain MM, = wg kT/ eng, 0%, Ay = Vegk Ten, (4.12) As temperature increases, the shielding distance increases, since the thermal energy is high and the electrostatic field of the negative charges of (¢ n,) has less effect than at a lower-temperature. Similarly, higher concentration n, lowers thePlasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 137 Debye shielding distance because of more intense electrostatic field which it sets up. The constant (eq k/e)* = (8.842 x 1.38066 x 10°57 1.60227 x 107%) = 68.97269 Therefore 4) = 68.97\T/n, (4.13) Normally, pis a few micro-metres (10° ‘m). Example 4.3: In Examples 4.1 and 4.2, n, was calculated to be 2.73715x 10"? and 4.24678 x 10'” perm’ at 3000 K and 2000 X, respectively. Calculate (a) the Debye lengths for these two cases, and (b) the number of electrons Ny in a sphere with radius A) - Solution: (a) (i) mn, = 2.73715 x 10'° - T= 3000 K Ap, = 68.97 V3 x 10 72.73715 x10" = 72.2% 10-'m = 0.722 pm (i) m, = 4.24678 x 10'7, T = 2000K App = 68.972 /4.24678 x 10°7 = 4.73 wm [Atm = 5.112 10" and T = 2500 K,p3 = 1.526 pm] u (®) Np, = fn x 0,722 « 10” '# x 2,73715 « 10'9 = 43 Similarly, Nyy = 188, and Np, = 76 in sphere of radius Ay. Definition of Plasma The number of particles ina sphere of radius equal to the Debye radius is Ny = Am aba/3 = Su 6897 79789! = 1.37426 «108 T9752 4,14) In the previous example we found values of 43, 76, 188 charged particles within spheres equal to Debye radii. These are much greater than 1, (Np>> 1). If the dimension L of the container of the gas is large, then L>> dy. When Np >>1,the particles exhibit collective behaviour and not individual behaviour. We now define a plasma as follows: A plasma is an ionized gas in which NV, >> 1 and A, << L, and in which the ionized particles collide with neutral atoms sufficiently frequently that the motion can be described by hydrodynamic laws. 4.4 Cyclotron Frequency under Applied B - Field When a charged particle with charge g moves at a velocity um/sinamagnetic field B Tesla,a Lorentz forceacts on itequaltoF = gu x B, where (q u) isthe current. Its equation of motion is consequently138 Energy Conversion Systems ma = mdu/dt = quxB (4.15) oes In MHD, work, the direction of B-field is normal to they, gg plane containing u. (See Fig. 4.2) B-¥ 8: Tuy? Tuy +Rey LetB = B.K andu = in,+ju,+kO. Fig. 4.2 Magnet field B and charg Then carrier velocity u ijk u 4 0 0 0 B From Eq. (4.15) dug/dt = (q B/ m) u,, and du,/ dt = ~(q Bim) u, (4.17 ux B= iBu,-jBu+k0=[Bu.-Bu,,0) (4.16) The resulting trajectory of particle in the x-y plane can be found if we determine u, and 1, The quantity (g B/m) is denoted by «, and is known as the cyclotron frequency in radian/sec. [gB/ m= Coulomb x Tesla/kg = Coul x (Volt-sec/m’) /kg = (Joule/m) x sec/{kg-m/s"] x sec? = Newton/(Newton-sec) = sec”') Now, Pu,/de = -o.-duy lat = -02 4+ Therefore u, =A cosa,t+B sino,t = C sin(o.1+@) (4.18) where A, B, C are constants, independent of ¢ C = (4 +B)" and tang = A/B, (4.19) Then, using eq. (4.17) du,/ dt = Ou, = Cw, sin(o, (+9 = 0/2) (4.20) Therefore u, = —C cos(w,t +9) = C sin(o,t+ 9-2/2) (4.21) = Asinagt+ Boos a. (4.22) This yields for the velocity trajectory of the particle to be was (P+ P) Gintoe + cos ot)=C (4.23) Thus, w, and u, describe a circle in the x-y plane perpendicular to the direction of the B-field, with an amplitude C. We can take the phase @ as zero, giving u, = C sin(@,t—x/2) and u, = C sina, 1. Since C denotes a velocity, we observe that @, can be written as C = @, +r, where the radius 7, is called the Larmour radius. In order to find the trajectory of the particle, we use u, = de/dt = Csin(o.t- 1/2) = “Comat and w, (4.24) dy/dt = Csin(@,2)150 Energy Conversion Systems When two nucleii with charges (+Z,e) and (+Z,e) are just touching and are separated by the distance (R, + R,), the electrostatic force of repulsion is F = Z\Z,¢°/4 0 69 (Ry + Ry)’ Newton @.51) The corresponding electrostatic potential is Bo = Z,Z,¢/ 4m (Ry +R), Joule (4.52) This is the minimum amount of energy that has to be provided by an external source before the nucleii can callide. Due to quantum-mechanical effects, some- what less energy is sufficient for the nucleons to penetrate the barrier. Using minimum values for the nuclear radii, the coulomb barriers for the D-D, D-T, and Li-D reactions have the following values: (1) D-D Reaction: R, = R, = 1.512%10°*m.Z, = Z = 1, 10°°/9,e = 1.6022 x 10°"e, 1 MeV = 1.6022 « 10°'7J, 1,600 K B, = 1.6022? x 10°78 x 9/ 10"? x 10°" x 3.024 = 7.64 x 10°45 0.4768 MeV = 477 keV = 5.53 x 10°K. 4x lev (2) D+=T Reaction: Ry = 1.521 x107'S Ry = 1.7307 x 10°'Sm B, = 23.10336 x 107! /3.2427 = 7.125 x 10743 = 04447 MeV = 444.7 keV = 5.1585 x 10°K (3) Li- D Reaction : Ry = 1.512 10" m, R, = 218x107? m B, = 23.10336 x 1074 x 33.692 = 18.77% 10°'*J = 1I72MeV= L172keV = 13.6 «10K Even though the coulomb barrier is nearly 0.5 - 1 MeV and corresponding temperatures are between 10° and 10'° K, because of wave-mechanical effects and random velocity distribution, usually 10 - 100 keV energies and 10° - 10° K temperatures create conditions favourable for thermonuclear fusion process to take place and the resulting energy release is sufficient to continue the process. For the D-D collisions of Eqs. (4.45) and (4.46), we observe that for an input energy of about 0.5 MeV in each atom or a total of | MeV at temperature of 5.5 X 10° K, the energy released is 3.27 MeV or a ratio of 3.3/1. 4.9 Kinetic Energy of Products When an energy of Q MeV is released in a thermonuclear reaction, it is shared by ‘the product nucleii which are eventually utilized in a heat exchanger to raise steam. ‘The energy carried away by each species of daughter nucleus can be calculated, for which we assume the momenta of the product nucleii are equal and oppositely158 Energy Conversion Systems Ill. MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS — MHD 4.12 Principles of MHD Power Generation In a rotating dynamo discovered by Faraday a conductor moves at right angles to the direction of an applied magnetic field of strength 2 at a velocity v. A voltage is thereby induced in the third perpendicular direction having the magnitude e=Bv,Vim (4.60) where B is in Tesla and v in m/s. If the velocity of conductor is not at right angles to B, only that component of velocity at right angles to B will be used in Eq, (4.60). The polarity of voltage, ie., the direction in which a current will flow out to a y y € poe { Pa y a) (a) Fig. 4.11 [Hustrating Fleming's rule for pos: connected load is given by Fleming's right-hand rule, Fig. 4.1 1(a), with (a) the fore finger pointing along the direction of B, or, the flux density vector, (b) the middle finger pointing in the direction of current flow I, and (c) the thumb pointing in the direction of torque or turning of the conductor. The conventional flow of current is taken|to be of positive charges, i.e., against the direction of electron flow. The general vector expression is e=vxB (4.61) However, if the solid conductor normally used in a conventional Faraday, dynamo is replaced by a conducting gas with free electrons, the left-hand rule of Fleming would be used as shown in Fig. 4.11(b) and the direction of induced voltage will be opposite as compared to the solid-conductor case. In an MHD generator, shown schematically in Fig. 4.12, amag- netic field B is applied in a direction at right angles to the flow of gas containing electrons (negatively- charged particles in general), with the result that an emf V,, is induced, whose polarity is such that it drives conventional current in the third perpendicu- lar direction as shown. This is called the Faraday Fig. 4.12 MHD duct with Faraday Configuration of the MHD generator. ‘and Hall voltages and loads As discussed earlier an electron (or charged particle) moving in a magnetic field is deflected. This results in a velocity component at right angles to the gas-flow direction. The electrons experience a Lorentz force which tries to concentrate them on the down-stream side of face N. This part acquires a negative potential withPlasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 157 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS - Calculate the coulomb barriers in Joules, MeV and degree K for the following two reactions: (a) D - T reaction; (b) Li- D reaction. [(@) 6.843 x 107 J = 0.4271 MeV = 4.954 x 10° K; (0) 17.01 x 10" J = 1.0617 MeV = 12.316 x 10° K]. . Explain the significance of the coulomb barrier in nuclear-fusion genera- tion of power.154 Energy Conversion Systems For example, as before, for T = 108K, (kT) yy = 105/ 11.6 x 10° = 8.62 keV. Therefore BR... = 0.4584 x 10°%* x 10 x VB.62 = 1.346 x 10° W/m' oss Furthermore, if (kT) is in Joules, then BRiogg = 0.362 x 10° * n,n, 2 KTS (4.59) This is left as an exercise for the reader. For T= 108K, kT = 1.38066 x 10° x 10° = 1,38066x10°'9J— and (kT) = 3.7157 x 10°* . Thus, BRi.g, = 0.362 x 3.7157 x 10° = 1.345 x 10°. The input energy supplied for sustaining the nuclear fusion reaction must exceed the bremsstrahlung and other losses. These include, among others, the cyclotron and synchrotron radiation when a magnetic field is applied for contain- ment of the plasma. Example 4,7: Laser beams of 10% m diameter are used for heating a pellet of D-T mixture inside a nuclear fusion container. If 10 beams are used and the power is to be a minimum of 135 MW/m?, and the efficiency of each laser unit is 1%6, find the power in each laser. Solution: Input power = 135 x 10° /0.01 = 135 x 10° MW/m?. Let P, = power of each laser unit or beam. Then the power density is Py / [10 x (wx 10°"? 4) ] = 1.2734 x 10"! PL, MW /m? Therefore P= 138 x 10°/ 1.2734 10"! = 0.106 MW. 4.11 Confinement of Plasma In order to confine the extremely hot plasma inside the container, two methods are being adopted for the present: (a) Magnetic-field confinement; and (b) Inertial confinement by mechanical pressure. This is carried out by high-powered lasers which also provide the energy required in the fuel for overcoming the coulomb barrier, BRj.,, and other losses. Magnetic-field confinement provides instabilities or breaking up the plasma by oscillations, but can be overcome by proper design of the field distribution and strength. All methods involve non-linear effeets and shock waves. 4.11.1 Magnetic Confinement We observed earlier that a charged particle exhibits a cyclotron frequency and Larmour radius when a magnetic field is applied, the orbit being in a plane at right angles to the direction of the B-field direction. The cyclotron frequency isPlasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 153 In such a plasma, the Debye length is, according to Eq, (4.12) dep = (eg kT) e? ny® 4.12) Consider values of» = 1077/m? and kT = 10'eV = 1.6% 105 Then, Ap = (8.842 x 107? x 1.6 x 10° '$/ 1.60227 x 1073 x 107) 0.7434 x 107m = 7.434 pm The number of charge carriers in a sphere with radius equal to Ap will be Np = (40/3) x 0.7434 x 107 x 107 = 1.72 x 107, Thus, 4p << container dimension L,, and Np >> 1. According to Sec. 4.3, these criteria satisfy the conditions for considering the resulting charge carriers as a plasma and apply all equations of performance governing plasma behaviour, Because the electrons flow freely and are subjected to attractive forces by the positive ions, they experience bremsstrahlung or braking radiation. This is a source of loss, and the energy released in the fusion reaction must exceed this loss as well as provide energy for overcoming the coulomb barrier. Without resorting to detailed derivation, the energy loss of electron by bremsstrahlung is dann, 2 ov, BRogs = ———3——5 3 (4ne) m, he wim’ (4.56) where 7,2, = number density of positive ions and electrons perm’, respectively, and v, = average electron velocity given by V2 m,v,? = 3kT/2 With e = 1.6022 x 10°! coulomb, 4 1 &) = 10°? / 9, f= 1.054589 x 10° *J-s, © =2.9979246 x 10° m/s, m, = 9.109538 x 1073! kg, k = 1.38066 x 10°? 3K, and v, = V3ETTm, = 6.743 x 10° VT, there results BR, = 1.34564 x10 x n,n, 2VT, W/m G5) For example, if n, = , = 107, Z = 1,7 = 10°K, the bremsstrahlung loss will be BR, = 1.34564 x 10" W/m? = 135 MW/m? nearly. If (kT) is in keV, since 1 keV = 1.6022 10°'°3 vy, = V3 x 16022 x10" 7m, (kT), with kT in keV, 2,297 x 10” (kT) Therefore BRjag, = 1.34564 x 10° *? x (2.297 x 106.743 « 10°) 1,0, 2° VET = 0.4584 x 10° nn, 2 KTV (4.58)152 Energy Conversion Systems Temperatures : 0, = 1.14273 MeV = 13.256 x 10° K; Q, = 3.42162 x 10° x 11600 = 36.69 x 10” K (3) D+T —9 ‘He ++ 17.57MeV mye / my = 4.002603 / 1.008665 = 3.9682 "Qe = 17.57 14.9682 = 3.5365 MeV = 41 x 10°K. Q,, = 14.0335 MeV = 162.8 x 10°K (4) “Li+ D —— 2x ‘He + 22.372 MeV Energy of each helium nucleus = 11.186 MeV = 129.76 x 10° K. Example 4.6 : Consider the possible reactions with deuterium yielding a total of G.27 44.56 + 17.57 422.37) = 47.77 MeV =48 MeV utilizing 6 nuclei of D. Calculate the energy released from 1 gram of D = 7H. Give the answer in MeV, Joules, kW-h, MW-h, and MW-d. Solutions ; m(D) = 2.0135532 = 1875.628 MeV, since 1 v= 931.5 MeV. | w= 1.660566 x 10°?” kg, 1 MeV = 1.6022 x 10°17 J, 1kW-h = 3.6 MJ. ‘The number of nucleii contained in | g of D is 107 / (2.0135532 x 1.660566 x 10°77) = 0.3 x 10". ‘Therefore energy released = 48 x 0.3 x 10/6 = 2.4 10" MeV = 3.84528 x 10" J = 1.068 x 10° kW=h = 106.8 MW-h = 4.45 MW-d [Nore: 1 g of *5U generates about | MW-d in fission. Ina conceptual nuclear fusion power-generation system, all the four possible reactions with deuterium take place. 4.10 Plasma Condition and Radiation Loss Iva fusion reactor, the thermo-nuclear fuel is provided with enough energy from an external source to heat the fuel pellet to temperatures of the order of 10° K, or since | eV = 11,600 K, an energy of 10/1.16 = 8.62 keV, or about 10 keV. This is carried out through bombardment with high-energy laser beams, and is maintained for a sufficiently long time for fusion reaction to occur, which can be about 1 milli second or less. Since only 13.645 eV are necessary to ionize a hydrogen atom completely, an energy of 10 keV strips all atoms of electrons and sets them free. The resulting fuel or product is a mixture of positive ions and negative electrons inside the fusion container.Plasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetalydrodynamics 151 directed, and the total kinetic energy is equal to the Q value. If a and 6 refer to the two nucleii, then we have the following relations: m,v,, = my vy, and Vam,v, + Vamyvy = @ 4.53) Therefore Q,= Yam, v= 01 (1+ mgt mg) andQ,=Q-Q, = OF +my/m,) (4.54) Also. v4/ v= mg/g, %q = ¥2Q,/ my .¥, = V2.0, m, QD, + Op = Vaimg vi, (+i! my) = Vo mg (+m, / mg) = O and Q,,/Q, = V2 m, vol Vom vi = my /m, (4.55) Let us now compute these for the five reactions (4.43) through (4.49). (1) D+D —— > “He +3.27MeV my = mCHe) = 3.016029 u, my = m(n) = 1.008665 u, Tu = 1,660566 x 10°?” kg mg/my = 2.99, and my/ mg = 0.3344, Therefore One = O/3.99 = 0.81955 MeV = 25% 0; Q, = Q/ 1.3344 = 2.4505 MeV = 75% 0. The lighter nucleus carries higher kinetic energy in the inverse ratio of the masses of the two daughter or product nuclei. Velocities : Vite = [2 0.81955 x 1.6022 10°"? 3.01609 x 1.660566 x 10° 77] = 0.724 x 10 m/s = 2.41% of light velocity. Neutron :¥,, = Vie (iy, / m,) = 2.1652 x 10" m/s = 7.217%c. The resulting temperatures of the products are: He : Oye = 0.81955 x 10° x 11600 = 9.5 10° K; n:Q, = 285% 10K. Q) D+D ——> T+p+4.56435 MeV m, 3.016049 u, m, = 1.0072765 u. my/ m, = 2.99424 , and m, / my, = 0.334. Therefore Qy = 4.56435 / 3.99424 = 1.14273 MeV, and Q, = 3.42162 MeV. Velocities : vy = 1.38914 x 10” Y1.1427373,016049 = 0.855 x 10" m/s. and v, = 2.56 x 10” m/s = 8.534% light velocity.Plasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 159 respect to the upstream side as in Fig, 4.12, so that a voltage develops along the direction of gas flow. This is known as the Hall voltage. The main parts of an MHD generator are consequently as follows: (i) A duct through which high-temperature ionized gas flows at a very high velocity; (ii) A magnetic field in a direction at right angles to the gas flow, produced by suitable coils; and (iii) Electrodes located suitably to carry the current to external loads in the Faraday and/or Hall configurations. The generator is capable of producing extremely high specific power outputs {power/mr® volume of duct) of 100 Mim” or of that order, But the high tempera- ture, the high magnetic field and the electrode material present problems that are very severe and much more difficult to handle than in conventional electromag- netic generators with copper conductor, copper magnetic field coils and copper commutator and brushes for current collection. Material problems have restricted the use of this extremely attractive power-generation method. Faraday himself in the 1830's was searching for a suitable gas with good conductivity to generate a voltage and having a low intemal voltage drop; but it was over a century later that an acceptable MHD mode of power generation became feasible and acceptable for industrial use by Kantrowitz and his co-workers at Cornell University and later at AVCO. MHD power generation or the research and development of it has now become world-wide. (In India, the Bharat Heavy Electricals have an MHD plant Fig: 4.13 Thevenin equivalent ae i ce of MHD generator on load at their high-temperature equipment works at Tiruchira- palli). By applying power from an external source, it is evident that a gas can be propelled to very high velocities (high Mach numbers) giving motor effect in the MHD duct. This has been used mainly for research purposes. The development got ‘a boost when the possibility of using rocket exhaust as the was investigated successfully. 4.13 Ideal MHD - Generator Performance First consider Fig. 4.12 in which is shown a source of emf E,, having an intemal resistance R,, connected to. load R,. We are assuming the voltage developed to be de, The load voltage is V1, and the current in the circuit is J, Let K = V;,/ Eso that the intemal voltage drop in the emf source is £,= J R,= (Ey Vi.) =(1~ K) E, « Then R= (1-K) E/T (4.62)160 Energy Conversion Systems If aq = area in the source that is conducting current, J = length of current path in source, and = conductivity of material inside the source, then R, = Moa =(1-K)E,/1,ohm (4.63) This expression yields the current density inside the source to be j=l/a=GE&(l-K/l =o E, (1-K), Asm (4.64) where E, = E,/1 = electric field intensity inside the source, V/m. E, = wB, with u = velocity of conductor which for 8 now is taken to be perpendicular to the direction of applied “ I v €= uxB magnetic field B (Fig. 4.14). This applies when u repre- sents velocity of positively-charged particles. ty of po: orchargee Pi Fig. 4.14 Faraday voltage The quantity E = V,/1 = KE, =KuB is the electric in MHD duet field intensity set up by the load voltage, as it were, inside the generator. Therefore f=6 (uB-E) (4.65) ‘We can now transfer these ideas to the MHD duct, with the difference that the velocity of the conducting ionized gas represents the velocity of electrons in it. The voltage gradient generated is [Ej] =[uxB) =18,V/m (4.66) Taking w= u, and B = B,, the generated voltage is in the y-direction with magnitude (x, B,), since from Fig, 4.15 we have ij ok uxB=|u 0 0 00 B. Let B= ¥,/1,V/m and E/uB = K (4.68) K is known as the Performance Coefficient. Then the current density is j=0(E,- 2) =ouB(- K),A/m? (4.69) er 2 14 “xB” fp oh Fig. 4.15 MHD duct in Faraday configuration The power density delivered to load, or the specific output, is Py =jE = ouB(l-K)-KuB = ou? BK(L-K),W/m* (4.70)Plasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 161 For the same current flowing through load and source, the efficiency is 1) = load voltage / source voltage = K (4.71) Therefore power density generated in duct is : P, = Pyln = ou B(1-K) (4.72) The electrical power is generated at the expense of pressure difference in the gas at inlet and outlet. Thus we obtain the force due to pressure difference in the duct to be f= Pylw= Ap = 6uB'(1—X), Newton/im (4.73) The force on gas is opposed by power developed. Therefore f = jx B = ouB (1 —X),and the work done is (fu) = ou? B (1 — X). The open-circuit voltage gradient is E,,. = u B, and the corresponding voltage across load is Vig =u Bw 74) 15. where w= width of duct at right angles to wand B in the direction of E, , Fig. The short-circuit current density is j,, = owB, with K=0, and the corre- sponding current will be 1, = ou Bwh (4.75) Therefore Ej, = ow B (4.76) Maximum power delivered to load can now be obtained from Eq, (4.70): dP, fdK = ow B((=K)-K] =o B (1-2K) (4.77) This is zero when K= 0.5, Consequently, the maximum power density deliv- ered to load is = 0250 B = 0.25 E, Wine (4.78) Prax ioc Scr Efficiency at maximum power delivered to load is K = 0.5. But this does not mean that the efficiency of the system cannot be higher than 50%, but the power delivered will be lower than maximum possible. Fig. 4.16 shows the relation- ship between K and (P,/o 1 B)=K(I-K). The latter is symmetrical about K = 0.5. Fig. 4.16 Power output variation with ‘coetficient of performance K We can also write the power density developed inside the duct or generator from Eqs. (4.72) and (4.76), as follows: P, = 010 B (1-K) = (IK) Eycdse (4.79)162 Energy Conversion Systems Referring to Fig. 4.16: (a) The total power developed is W, = P, x duct volume = ox? B (1—K)-(wh),W (4.80) (b) Current flowing in duct in the y-direction is I= f(A) = ouB(I-K) (Ih), A (481) (©) The generated voltage is E, = 16, = uBw (4.82) (a) The resistance of the duct will be Ry = (1/a)-w/(a), and conductance Gy = olh/w (4.83) Alll the equations (4.68) through (4.83) are based on the assumption that the charged particles in the gas have a velocity only along the direction of gas flow, which has been taken to be along the x-direction, at right angles to the direction of the applied magnetic field B. This is known as the Faraday configuration. The current from the generator duct to the load will be collected across the faces perpendicular to the y-direction of area (/ h) in the x-z plane. ‘The maximum power developed per m’ of duct at c= 10 mho/m, 8 = 1 T, u= 100 m/s at K = 0.5 works out as Py, = 10 108 1 < (1-05) = 0.05MW = SOkW. For a= 10,B= ST, w = S00m/s and K = 0.5, itis Py, = 6.25 W/m’, In order to appreciate the extremely large power densities obtainable, the following examples are provided. Conductivities of gases used for MHD work at temperatures between 2000 and 3000 K range from 10 to $0 mho/m. Flux densities using superconducting magnets range from 2 to 8 Tesla, while gas velocity can range from 200 to 800 mis. [Note: Velocity of sound in air at 0°C and I atm pressure is 331.6 m/s at sea level. The main gas velocities in the MHD duct come close to Mach I in the gas to prevent shock waves.] Example 4.8: An MHD duct has the dimensions w = 0.6m, h = 0.35 m and J = 1.7 m. (Volume = 0.357 m’). The magnetic field strength is B = 4.2 T along hf, and the gas velocity is w = 600 m/s along /. Ata performance coeffi- cient of K = 0.65, calculate: (a) Generated voltage and its gradient £; inside the duct; (b) Indicate the direction of flow of conventional current in the load and the polarities of the electrodes of the generator (duct); (c) Load voltage and the gradient E caused by it inside the duct.Plasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 163 Solution : Assume u = u, and B = B,. (a) Generated voltage gradient: £; = uB = 600 x 4.2 = 2520 V/m.Gener- ated voltage, V, = u Bw = 1512 V. This is also the open-circuit voltage, (b) Positive electrode is at the far end and negative electrode is at the near end in Fig, 4.15 (c) Load voltage, ¥, = Ku Bw = 0.65 x 1512 = 983 V. Gradient, E = Ku B = 0.65 x 2520 = 1638 V/m. Also, Vw = 1638. Example 4.9 : The ionized gas in the previous example has a conductivity of ¢ = 60 mho/m. Calculate: (a) Current density and current in the system; (b) Short-circuit current density and current generated; (c) Power density and current generated in the duct; (d) Total power generated; (e) Power delivered to load; (f) Joule heating loss in duct; (g) Efficiency at this load; (h) Maximum possible power delivered to load. Solution (a) j = ou B(I -K) = 60x 2520 x 0.35 = 52,920A/m? = 5.292 A/cm? 1 = jAl = $2,920 x 0.35 x 1.7 = 31,4874 A = 31.4874 kA (b) $-C current density, jg. = 60 x 2520 = 151.2 kA/m? = 15.12 A/cm? Io = Jue BL = 90KA (©) Py = ow B (= K)= 52,920 x 2520 W/m? = 133.36 MW/m’. (d) Total power generated = P, x volume of duct W, = ow B (1-K):(wh) = 133.36 x 0.357 = 47.61 MW. * (e) Power delivered to load, Wy) = K W, = 30.95MW at K = 0.65. (f) Joule heating loss in duct W, = W.-W, = 16.66 MW = 0.35 W,- (I~ K) = 0.35. Also, Wy = Pe = 52.927/60 = 46.68MW/m’, Therefore W,, = w, x volume of duct = 46.68 x 0.357 = 16.66 MW (g) Efficiency n = K = 65%. (h) Maximum power density delivered to load Prugg = 0.25 6? B= 0,25 Bjye jec = 0.25 x 60 x 2520" x 10°® = 95.256 MW/m?*164 Energy Conversion Systems Waa = 00 B(I-K)- (WD = Evedse (whl) = 60 x 2520? x (1 - 0.5) x 0.357 = 68 MW Therefore efficiency at maximum power = 34/68 = 0.5 = 50%. Example 4.10 : For delivering a power of 2000 MWe at K = 0.5, for o = 10,B = 5T, and u = 300m/s, calculate: (a) the volume of duct; (b) the diameter and length of cylindrical duct with 1/ d ratio of 5. Solution; Py = o # B?(1—K) = 10x9x 10' x25 0.5 = 11,.25MW/m> Therefore volume of duct required = 2000/ 11.25 = 177.8 m* or n@'l/4 = 125nd = 1778, giving d = 3.564 m. The corresponding length of duct is! = 5d = 17.82 m (= 58.45 feet). Note the very large dimensions over which a uniform magnetic field is to be impressed in a non-magnetic medium. Even with superconducting coils used, magnets weigh about 2000 Tonnes. Attendant refrigerating equipment, etc., weigh an equal amount. 4.14 Practical MHD Generator: Faraday and Hall Configurations In the previous section, the velocity of electrons was equal to the gas velocity and was assumed to be along the gas flow. This was considered to be in the x-direction, while the applied magnetic field is in the z-direction at right angles to the direction of gas flow. A Lorentz force acts on the electrons which is F=-quxB (4.84) This force is such as to deflect the electrons in the +y direction (Fig. 4.11) by using Fleming's right-hand rule for the electron (-ve charge). The electron veloc- iity is now given by us iu,+ju,+ko (4.85) Consequently, the voltage gradient induced inside the duct is e = -uxB = [-u,8,,u,8, 0) (4.86) We now observe that in addition to the Faraday voltage gradient (w, B,) in the y-direction at right angles to both gas velocity w and magnetic field B,, there is a Voltage gradient in the (- x) direction, i.e., opposing the gas flow. Its value is (uy, B,) and is called the Hall voltage gradient. If the electrodes which collect current in the Faraday configuration of dimen- sions (? 4) are solid, they will act as short circuit for the Hall voltage. A very heavyPlasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 165 current flows in the electrodes as a consequence, There- fore, to drive loads due to Hall voltage, the electrodes are made discontinuous or segmented. This is shown in Fig. 4.17. We now observe that there are several voltage gradi- ents induced inside the duct. Let €, = /€,+j€,+K€, Fis 417 MHD duct in Hall configuration and the voltage induced due to velocity u and magnetic field B be equal to 6, = - ux B, caused by electrons, We observed earlier in this chapter, Eq. (4.44), that electronic motion in a magnetic field gave rise to a ‘conductivity Gy = n,€0,t/B,mho/m (487) where n, e = total charge of electrons, @, = ¢ B/m,,and@,t = Hall parameter. ‘The current density is therefore j= 9,€-6,uxB (4.88) But ggu =n, eu-@,t/B = 0, t//B (4.89) This gives an equation for the current density: j= 6,8-(w,t/B)-jxB 490) Now, with 2 = B,, jxB = [j,8,-j,2,0] 91) Therefore, we obtain the three components of curent density to be, from Eq. (4.90) by using Eq. (4.62) as follows: dy = &,- Ot), jy = 08, +0, T i, (4.92) and nok. Upon solving for j, and , explicitly, there results fy = G,- 0,18) 0/14 020°) id (4.93) andj, = G40, 18, 0/ (+027) 493) Thus we observe that €, = Hall voltage gradient, and &, = u B. Therefore j, = (,-@,tuB)-o/(l+a7t") (4.94) Thus, the open-circuit voltage gradient in Hall configuration is Eo = ou B, with j, = 0 4.95) The effective velocity is increased by the Hall parameter (wt). The short-cir- cuit current density is jag = 00,TUB/(l+a27), & = 0 (4.96)166 Energy Conversion Systems For Ot >> 1, fg = 6 UB/(@,1) For the Faraday generator we obtained Bo = UB, and j,, = ouB (4.97) Therefore, Hall open-circuit voltage gradient = w, + x Faraday gradient. Hall s-c current density = Faraday s-c current density x ©, t/(1 + 02 t°), Let the Hall generator performance-coefficient be defined as K, = €,/0,tuB = load voltage/o-c voltage (498) Then, the specific power output is 2 Py = —jyEy = 2 BK, (1-K,), W/m? (4.99) Ital? We note that if a, 1>> 1, P,, = ou? B? K,(1—K,). This has the same ex- pression as for the Faraday generator, Eq. (4.70). Example 4,1] ; An MHD duct consists of gas (with electrons) of velocity u = 6001+ 100 j+0k. A magnetic field 8 = 3.2 7 is applied in the k-direction. ‘The gas conductivity iso = 60 mho / m. The mean collision time of the electrons with neutral atoms in gas is t= 10°" s, The coefficient of performance in Hall configuration is K, = 0.65. Calculate: (a) The cyclotron frequency; (b) Hall parameter; (c) Hall current density j,; (d) Power density delivered to load at Kj, = 9.65; (e) Short-circuit current density; and (f) Open-circuit voltage gradient. (g) Compare with Faraday configuration. Solutions : (a) @, = eB/ m, = 1.6022 x 10°? 3.2/9,11 «10°! = 0,56272 x 10" rad/s (b) Hall parameter: @, t = 56.272 (dimensionless) (©) -uxB = 4B, 4,8, 0) Hall current density j, = o(€,-0,1 u,B)/(1 +0217) Lic| = 60| (100 x 3.2 - 56.272 x 600 x 3.2)| /(1 + 56.272*) sou, B/(w,t) = 60x 600 x 3.2 / 56.272 = 2047.2 Asm. @ Py, = cet eB K,(1-K,)/U+027)Plasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 167 For @, t>> 1. Py, = ow BK, (1 = K,) = 60 x 1920? x 0.65 x 0.35 = 50,32 x 10° W/m’ = 50.32 MW/m' (¢)$-C current density dy = FO, 7u,B/(ltaz? rou, Blog = 2047.2 A/m? =2.05kA/m? (Q) Open-circuit voltage gradient Ey, = ©, UB = 36.272 x 600x 3.2 = 108kV/m (g) For Faraday generator = uB = 1920V/m = 192kV/m Ew jy = OUB = 1NS2KA/ For the Faraday generator Ey jy, = 221.2 MW/m* “yw dys For the Hall generator £,, j,, = 108 x 2.05 = 2214MW/m’. From the above example, we observe the following salient properties: (a) In the Faraday configuration, voltage gradient is low but current density is very high. (>) In the Hall configuration, voltage gradient is very high but current density is low. (c) The power densities are nearly equal. (d) An MHD duct with given dimensions can develop the same power density (MW/m’) in either configuration, (e) The Faraday configuration is useful for lower voltage, higher current than in Hall configuration, which is used for high voltage — low current application. L\ B In order to take advantage of both the voltages in- EX ® duced in the direction of gas flow and at right angles to it in a plane perpendicular to the applied B-field, elec- trodes are fixed in a diagonal direction as shown in Fig. 4.18. Voltages are of the order of 10,20, 40 kV, which Fig, 4.18 Diagonal electrode are tapped and fed to their own individual loads, which — U™™neementin MHD duct ‘could be connected through inverters and transformers which step up the voltages to 132 kV, 230 kV, or even 500 kV. This is the preferred configuration for generators designed for a predicted power in the range 1000 to 2000 MW, electrical, Overall efficiencies of such conceptual devices are of the order of 45 so that the thermal power is a little over twice the electrical power output. The168 Energy Conversion Systems angle of inclination of the electrode configuration to the gas flow direction is 45° or more. In the next section we will describe some of the MHD technology envisaged in future, and which has been achieved until now, based on the theoretical discussion presented earlier. 4.15 MHD Technology From what can be imagined, MHD generating stations of large capacity are very expensive and technologically use very difficult concepts, while material problems at high temperature themselves involve very stringent properties. These are all easier said than done in practice. However, with progress of time it is envisaged that MHD power plants equalling the output of conventional thermal or nuclear plants can be made available at costs approaching 1 billion (10°),dollars. Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction took place in 1831 and 30 years later Edison had designed, built and operated central stations using de supply. With the discovery of the three-phase ac system by Tesla soon after and its adoption by Westinghouse, power station sizes increased by leaps and bounds. Unfortunately, the same type of progress has not been achieved with MHD in spite of huge amounts of money spent on research and development. What Faraday, Edison, Tesla and even Bell achieved by working in isolation with their own financial resources and some backing by others in their “wax, twine, tin-can” laboratories, modem high-pressure research and development has lacked the same progress from conception to realization. The fields of MHD and Nuclear Fusion depend on harnessing high temperatures and man has not yet shown progress in these fields as has been the case with low temperatures. This is a great stumbling block. MHD has seen the most development in the USA, Russia, and to some extent in Japan, But European countries have shied away from this power source for reasons of lack of financial resources for R and D that it entails. So we can imagine what success or achievement less fortunate countries can achieve in the MHD field, even with best of intentions and ingenuity. Historically, the feasibility of obtaining enormous specific power outputs by MHD was conceived after the Second World war in the 1950's. The main agencies which could encourage this concept and fund the research and development were Defence, Space, and Science Departments at Government levels, and not at indi- vidual or even corporate levels, although giant manufacturing firms in the electri- cal industry did help initially. Since these agencies are very volatile, the moment funds were withdrawn all development came to a halt. During the course of 40 years, MHD generators built and tried achieved the following purposes, listed chronologically: (a) Demonstrate the feasibility of MHD power generation. (These units oper- ated for 10s).Plasma Physies, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 169 (b) Obtain fluid-mechanical data of high-pressure and high-temperature plas- mas. (c) Test materials for use in MHD ducts and electrodes. (@) Exhibit rapid-starting capability of an MHD system to take up peak loads in an interconnected system. . (©) Develop MHD units capable of developing ac power directly from the duct. All these systems were used in an unsystematic manner, subject to vagaries in research funding. But with cooperation between major countries becoming a reality, a systematic development was undertaken and the required ideas as well as equipment which were guarded secrets, were exchanged. We can say that we are in a position to describe MHD systems directed towards large-scale electrical power generation in combination with steam generating stations called the “bot- toming cycle”, With the advent of LMFBR’s, the MHD generator can in turn become the bottoming cycle in a nuclear power station in the future. These are very advanced concepts and open up vast possibilities for utilizing MHD systems. We realize the tremendous attraction of MHD of compactness, simplicity and high power density. Furthermore, theoretical Carnot efficiencies are as follows: Inlet temperature = 3000 K, Outlet temperature = 300 K. Carnot efficiency (3000 - 300) /3000 = 0.9 = 90%. Such a high efficiency is an ideal to be aimed at, but MHD systems even at the development stages have overall efficiency of less than 50%, which is still higher than thermal stations at the highest steam pressures and temperatures used (2500 psi and 1000°F). The highest temperature used in the MHD duct is about 2850 K = 2600°C= 4700 F. ‘Some of the salient points of design, plant description are given below: (a) Fuel used: Modern MHD systems use dried and pulverized coal, with less than 20% ash content, which is injected at the input end through coal-injection equipment. This is mixed with pre-heated air at about 1400°C in nearly equal ratio giving a combustion gas. In the combustor sced material in K,CO, powder form is combined. This gives a potassium content of about 1% by weight in the combus- tion gas. K,CO, is desirable as it combines with sulphur in coal and precipitates it at the outlet. Some portion of the heat in combustion gas is also used for drying coal to remove moisture. Air is compressed and heated before being fed to the combustor utilizing heat in the exhaust gases of the MHD generator. Those countries who possess vast natural-gas deposits used this gas directly in the initial stages of development, but are gradually converting to coal, Several countries have tried kerosene, indigenous vegetable oils, etc., but coal is still the170 Energy Conversion Systems preferred fuel. In research MHD systems, argon and helium gases were used but for large-scale power production these are impractical. (b) MHD Generator: An average value of magnetic field strength is 5 Tesla. The inlet pressure of gas in duct is nearly 10 atm and outlet pressure | atm (1 atm = 10° N/m’). The gas velocity is in excess of 500 m/s (1.5 Mach). For a 2000 MWe plant size planned, the MHD duct has inlet diameter of 6.5 m with an active length of 25 m. The magnet must be of this size, made in two halves, as shown in Fig. 4.19. It has an ampere-turns of about 50 x 10° with an average current density in its super-cooled winding of 20.A/ mm’. The B-field is suitably graded with approxi- mately 2 to 3 Tat inlet and exit ends, reaching 5 to 7 T maximum inside the duct. A superconducting magnet uses niobium-zirconium winding. The power consumption is about 5 W/tonne weight. re ND gece Example 4,12; An MHD duct has an inlet pressure of 10 atm and discharges into the atmosphere. (a) Find its volume for a length of 20 m and inlet diameter of 2 m, if the duct is of circular cross-section throughout, as well as the outlet diameter. (b) Repeat for a square cross-section, if the inlet dimension is 1.5 m and duct length of 25 mm. Solution : For both cases, outlet area = 10 x inlet area. (a) Outlet dia = V10 x inlet dia = 2VI0 = 6.325 m Volume = (2 +6.325)° x 20/16 = 272.2 m* Inletarea = 27/4 = 3.1416 m* (6) Outlet dimension = 1.5VI0 = 4.4743 m Outlet area = 10x inlet area = 10x 1.5? = 22.5 m? Volume of duct = [(1.5 + 4.743)/2P = 25 = 243.6 0° Duct and Electrode Materials These are strictly protected by patents. Broadly speaking, with tempera- tures reaching 3000 X, the walls of the duct have to be lined with high-tem- perature refractory material. Reinforced fibreglass composites have also been tried. The highest temperature bricks are made from zirconium oxide, the same as are used in the fuel rods of nuclear-reactor cores, (c) On account of high temperature and high gas velocity, electrodes inserted into the channel! melt and vaporize, are eroded mechanically. A suitable material and aPlasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 171 scheme for preserving the electrodes in position has consumed a major portion of research and development-time and effort. Many conflicting requirements have to be met. Copper is still the best material for the electrodes but melts in the heat. The resulting melted copper can short-circuit many pieces of equipment, especially those used for protection. Other materials tried are Al,O,-oxide coating on copper, Zr,O, refractory coating and zirconium boride (ZrB,). Because of erosion of the surface, an arrangement for continuously feeding the electrode rods must be used. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS . When a conducting medium moves with a velocity v in a magnetic field B the induced voltage per metre length is: (a) v.B; (6) B xv; (c) vxB; (d) none of the three. v . The voltage induced in a direction along the direction of one of the velocity components is known as: (a) Faraday voltage; (b) Hall voltage; (c) Lorentz voltage; (d) none of the three. we . A hot gas has a velocity u, in a magnetic field B, , where the subscripts x- and z denote directions in a Cartesian coordinate system. The resulting generated voltage (a) is in the y-direction; (b) deflects electrons in the y-direction; (c) the deflected electrons give rise to a voltage in the opposite direction to the gas velocity; (d) all the three are true, 4. In Question 3, (a) the voltage induced in the y-direction is called the Faraday voltage; (b) the voltage induced in the direction opposite to the gas flow (- x direction) is called the Hall voltage; (c) the voltage induced in the z-direction is called Lorentz voltage; (d) both (a) and (b) are true. The force on electron F = -q¥, xB is known as: (a) Faraday force; (b) Hall force; (c) Lorentz force; (d) Maxwell force. w a A conducting gas with conductivity o = 100 mho/m moves at u = 333.3 mvs in amagnetic field B= 37 and at right angles to it. The short-circuit current density in the duct is: (a) 1000 A/m? ; (b) 100 kA/m”, (c) 33.33 kA/m? (d) none of the three. In Question 6, the voltage gradient generated is: (a) 1 kV/m; (b) 3 kV/m; (©) 333.3 V/m; (d) none of the three. In Questions 6 and 7, if a performance coefficient K = 0.5 is used, the voltage across load is: (a) 1.5 kV/m; (b) 50 V/m; (c) 500 V/m; (d) none of the three. By 9. The maximum power delivered in W/m? of duct is: (a) 0.5 o u B; (6) 0.25 a? BP; (c) 0.25 6 uw? Bs (d) 0.25 Ey. jigs (@) both (c) and (d) are true.s Energy Conversion Systems . The resistance of an MHD duct with width w, length / along which the gas flows and height h along which the B-field is applied, is given by: (@) Ry = wel hz (b) Ry = (1/o) wel hs (QR, = wilh; (@R, = ll ow-h, . An MHD generator delivers a power of 2000 MWe at K = 0.6 with & = 20mho/m = 2.57, and gas velocity u = 200 nvs. The volume of the duct is nearly: (a) 10 m’; (b) 2600 m?; (c) 200 m?; (d) 1000 m’. . Modem commercial generating MHD systems are fuelled with: (a) kero- sene; (b) high pressure air seeded with caesium gas; (c) low ash con- tent dried pulverized coal mixed with hot air and seeded with K,CO, powder; (d) hot liquid sodium from LMFBRs; (e) all four are used to some extent. Answers: 1. (c); 2.(b} 3d; 4. @ 5. (0); 6 (a); 7.(@)s 8. (A); 9. (0s 10. (c); 11. (6); 12. (e). REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS (a) A conducting gas is blown into an MHD duct at velocity 1, m/s across a magnetic field of B, Tesla. Prove that the electrons in the gas are deflected in the +y direction. (b) With electron velocity given by u = i u,+ju,+k0, show that: (i) the Faraday voltage gradient is u, B, V/m; (ii) the Hall voltage gradient is -u,B, V/m. (c) Show by diagrams how the Faraday voltage and Hall voltage can be connected to loads. . What is meant by the term “Segmented Electrodes”? Give reasons why such an electrode arrangement is necessary in an MHD generator. Are segmented electrodes necessary for the Faraday configuration or Hall configuration, or both in a combined Faraday-Hall generator? (a) The internal resistance of an MHD duct is Ry= 2.5 m-ohm. Ata performance factor of K = 0.5, what is the value of load resistance? (b) If the generated voltage is 1500 V, what are the current and load power delivered? (c) Calculate the efficiency of the generator. [() 2.5 m-ohm; (b)/ = 600 kA, P = 450 MW; (c)n = 0.5.) . Derive Eq. 4.70 for the power density delivered to the load in terms of o and w of the gas, B-field, and performance coefficient K. Give all units properly. Then show that maximum power density delivered to load occurs when K = 0.5.Plasma Physics, Nuclear Fusion Power and Magnetohydrodynamics 173 3. An MHD duct has the idealized dimensions of width = 0.5 m, height = 0.5m, / = 2m. The magnetic field 8 =3 T along h, while gas velocity is u= 400 m/s along !. Take K = 0.55. Calculate: (a) Generated voltage along w; and (b) load voltage. [(@) 600 ¥; (6) 330 V7] 6. In Prob, 5, the ionized gas has a conductivity of ¢ = 50 mho/m. Calcu- late: (a) Current density and current flowing in the duct (b) S-C current density and s-c current in the duct (©) Joule heating loss in the duct under load. [)27 kA /m?,27KA (b) jge = GOKA/m? dye = 60KA (©) Ry = 0.01 ohm, loss = 7.29 MW ] 7. In the previous problems, calculate: (a) Power density generated in the duct (32.4 MW/m’) (b) Total power generated (16.2 MW) (c) Power delivered to load (8.91 MW) (d) Efficiency (55%) (e) Maximum power delivered to load. (18 MW) . The velocity of gas with electrons in an MHD duct is u = 3001+ 50 j+Ok, while the applied magnetic field is B= 3 T along the k-direction. The coefficient of performance in Hall configuration is K = 0.6. The gas conductivity is @ = 40 mho/m, while the mean collision time of electrons with the gas atoms is t = 10-°s. Calculate: (a) The cyclotron frequency of electrons about the B-field; (b) The Hall parameter; (c) Hall current density j,; [(a) 8.3973 x 10! Hz; (b) $27.62 rad; (¢) 68.23 A/ m?] 9. In prob. 8, calculate: (a) Power density delivered to load; (b) Short-cireuit current density; and (c) Open-circuit Hall voltage gradient [@)8.1 MW/m ; (b)/,, = 68.23 A/m?; (c) 474.86 kV /m] 10. In Prob. 8, for Faraday configuration, calculate; (a) Open-circuit voltage gradient; (b) Short-circuit current density; (c) Power density in duct at short cireuit. Compare all the values with Hall generator. {(2) 900 V/m; 4b) j,, = 36 kA / m>, = 324MW/m’s E,,/,, = 324MW/m'] (©) BodyCHAPTER § Wind Energy Conversion 5.1 Power From Wind Power from wind is converted to electrical form through a wind turbine coupled to an electrical generator. This can be (1) a de generator connected through a solid-state inverter to the local ac load or an existing electrical system, or, (2) a synchronous alternator with or without frequency conversion, or, (3) an asynchro- nous induction generator connected to an electrical distribution system from which it derives its excitation, or, (4) very special generators designed specially for wind-electric generation of ac power, converting variable-frequency to fixed-fre- quency voltage. Such generators have names like “field-modulated generator” and Roesel generator, etc. Detailed properties of air and wind are of importance in wind-power application and will be described in the next section. The wind turbine consists of blades mounted either on a horizontal axis (wind axis) or on a vertical axis (cross-wind axis). The basic quantitative theory of power extracted from the wind by a turbine was first developed by J. Rankine, W. and R.E. Froude, and C. Betz. However, with rapid advances made in propeller and airfoil theory, and aerodynamics, wind-turbine designs have become very advan- ced and the interested reader should refer to exhaustive literature on such topics. Based on Rankine-Froude-Betz theories, the following salient properties can be summarized. These are derived later on in this section. Figure 5.1 shows three circular planes at inlet, turbine and the exit where the wind velocities are v, v,, and v,, respectively. At the Betz condition when maxi- mum power is being extracted from the wind, the Fig. 5.1 Theory of wind-enerey con- following relations hold: version (ideal ease) (1) Area over which wind flows over turbine is A, = 34,/2, or, Ay = 24,/3 (1)(2) (3) a) 6) (6) fe) (8) (9) (10) qa) Wind Energy Conversion Area over which wind exits from the system is A, =34,=24, (5.2) From the relations 4,¥; = A, ¥, = A, ¥,, the velocities are v, = 2/3, and v, = v,/3 (5.3) Therefore v, = v2 (vj +.) (3.4) Wind velocity at turbine = average of inlet and exit velocities. These velocity changes occur because the turbine rotor is partly obstructing the free flow of wind, Kinetic energy in input wind, e, = 4 p4,v? (5.5) where p = density of air = 1,293 kg/m? at 760 mm Hg and 0°C, Total power available in input wind: P, = 4p4,vi, W (5.6) Power available in input wind at turbine-blade location P, = pay (3.7) Power of turbine P, = 4p, v, (v7 = v3) (5.8) Power in wind still present at outlet of system P, = 4pd,v,v2 = 4pA.ve (5.9) Coefficient of performance C, = P,/P, = 4a°(1-a) (5.10) where a= vy, Maximum possible power extracted by ideal turbine from wind (5.11) Cymae = 16/27 = 0,593 when a = 2/3 This is called the Betz coefficient. It is at this condition that A, = 154,, Ae = 34,, ¥, = 20,/3,¥, = v//3, and v, = Ky +). Therefore, an ideal turbine cannot extract more than about 60% of the energy in the free wind present at the turbine-rotor location. Efficiencies or coefficients of performance usually do not exceed 50% due to various losses such as vortex creation, turbulence, blockage of wind, non-optimum designs because of mechanical constraints etc. At maximum C,, pressure difference across turbine is Ap = pv,(v-v,) = 4p v9 (5.12) ‘The distribution of pressure is shown in Fig. 5.2.