Electronic Communication ey eat Panis) ay Wa Fourth Edition Peer eee ey eae eeTata McGraw-Hill Electronic Communication Sysiems, Fourth Edition (Copyright (© 1995 by the Glencoe Division of MecrslianMe-Graw-Hill School Company. All rights resereed. Copyrighs © 1988, 1977, 1070 by I. Ing. All righes reverved, ‘No part of this publication may bee reproduced or eisirtbutet in my Furr or by ay moans, of were in a data hee or retrieval sperm, without INE peiot welines: permacion of the publisher TATA MeGRAVCHILE EDITION 1999 Sth reprint 2008 DENORDANABAKR For Seles lta Chey Libeury of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rannedy, Gecepe, dine Eleerreetic Commiaiteathes sywiens / Geonge Kennedy, Berard Davis, athed Pom Inchadles babi yrephical eeferences and Geale. ISN O-AC-BINS92-F thar corvar) 1. Telecommenication Daves, Herman, dive 1h Tine TR STINKS 1903 62th? BSEIN-13: 97074638824 SSEINAI Gs WIT On ni Publishod by Tata MeGirww-Hill Publishing Company Limised, 7 Weat Patel Nagar, New Det #10008, sd peinted st Poshupati Printecs Po Led. Deaths 10.008Contents 2.3.1 Addition of noise due en several sences 23.2 Addition of noise duc tm several ificrs in cascade 2.1.3 Ninise im reactive camcusts 24.1 Signalsto-noise malo 24.2 Definition of noise figure rae ane eine Bb BEEP BREESE RREEvi CONTENTS: 24.3 Calevlation of anise gure ee f poe 2.5 Noise figure from meavurement 3 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 5 2ELAMELITUDE MODULATION THEORY __as as é oe 38 3-2-1 Bosic equlvesneats—Comparion of levels 3 2 clase fier F 32.3 Pllate-moxtalated class C amplifier at 2.4 Modulared transisioc amplifiers cy 3.2.5 Semmary _ S52 _4 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TECHNIQUES 56 : - 5 ESC IRE ATE Deca Pe eee Sie |______4iny 4:2 SUPPRESSION OF CARRIER de) Effect of nonlinear resistance om added sigmals a 22 Tho alameda SUPPRESSION 43.1 The filter sysuem a $ i Sa The “ibe” met =H _ 403.4 System evaluation and comparison: og 44 EXTENSIONS OF SSR 0000 GCogyrapheed mamtal$.2 NOISE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION a EL Effects of ecive on carrier—Noise triangle a2 5.2.2 Pre-emphatis and de-emphasis 35 E24 Comparison of wideband and narrowband FM 38 {ELS Stercophomle FM multiples sysiem 34 4.3 GENERATION OF FREQUENCY MODULATION 6 RADIO RECEIVERS 61.1 Tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver 119 E12 Supechelersdyne receiver 120 . “(22.1 RE section. and characters oa 6-2.2 Frequency changing and tracking 128 12.3 Intermedime frequencies and IF amplifiers 134 624 ‘Detection and automatic gain comsral (AG) 136, 3.1 Extensions of the superheserodyne principle 0 aes . 3.3 Addisional systems 131 F-1.1 Fundamentals of wassmission lines 186 THL.2 Characterisie impedence J ne 1858 RADIATION AND PROPAGATION OF WAVES Hel ELECTROMAGNETIC RADHATION 00000 1.1 Fundamentals of electromagnetic waves 24 Bel.2 Effeces of the eyinomment 0000 8.2. PROPAGATIONLOF WAVES 00000000 BZ.) Growmed (eurface) wees B:2.2_Sky- eave. propagalion—The konowpber: 0 4-2,3 Space waves 26 8:23.40 Tropospheric scatter propagation 3 82.5 Euurateorestrial cammisnicatsony 2 9 ANTENNAS 1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS 941.1 Electromagnetic radiation 9-1.2 The elementary doublet (Henzian dipole) Bae 9.2.1 Curent and 92.2 Resonant antennas, radiation patterns, and length calculations 250 9-2.3 Nonresonant antennas (Directional antennas) DAL 9.3 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 262, 9.3.1 Antenna gxin and effective radiated power 2 0.3.2 Radiation mensurerwend and field intensity 264 3.3 Antenna resistance 9.3.4 Bandwidth, beamwidih, and polarization 94 EFFECTS OF GROUND ON ANTENNAS 266 Qt Ungrounded antennas 287 ‘AD Geoundied antennas 0CONTENTS ix ‘94.3 Grounding sym 268 94.4 Effects of antenna height 209 9-5 ANTENNA COUPLING AT MEDIUM FREQUENCIES: 272 95.1 General considerations m 9.5.2 Selection of feed point mm 9-5.3 Ancemna couplers a3 9.S.4 Impedtance matching will stubs and other devices ya 3.6 DIRECTIONAL HIGH-FREQUENCY ANTENNAS 00378 346.1 Dipole arrays 216 96.2 Folded dapole and applications 278 27 SUMMARY 10 WAVEGUIDES, RESONATORS AND COMPONENTS 10) RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES: 3 10-11 Introduction ay WAVEG ING, MATCHIB ATION 33: 103 A Methods of alin waveguides 435 10.3.2 Waveguide complings 00 (Q3.5 Basic accessories 00 10-34 Multiple jmetions 00 WO. matching and vening 0 M4 CAVITY RESONATORS 33 1043.1 Pendamessals 353 14.2 Practical comsideraticus ass 310® CONTENTS 10-5 AUXILIARY COMPONENTS 17 10-5.1 Directional couplers 7 10-5.2 Isalatoes and circulators 339 1W0-5.3 Mivers, detectors and devector enunts 365 105.4 Switches aT TL MICROWAVE TUBES AND CIRCUITS 37 11-| MICROWAVE TRIODES 378 HI-L.1 Frequency limitations of gridded tubes 37H L-1.2 UBF triodes and circuits 380 1b-2 MULTICAVITY KLYSTRON 3aL V2) Opeewtion 8 (Ui-2.2 Practical comssdecutioms 20000 UL REPLEX KLYSTRON 00000000 U-3.1 Fumelormeegeaby 00ST 11-3.2 Penesical considerations: 389 1-4 MAGNETRON 390 114.1 Introduction 391 114.2 Operation cry 114.3 Practices! considerations 396 List4 Types, performance and applications 304 115 TRAVELING-WAVE TUBE (TWT) 0 115.1 TWT fundamentals 301 Da Prachieal cael atl + 11-$.3 Types. performance and applications 405 U1-6 OTHER MICROWAVE TUBES 0.0... Li-6.1 Crossed-field amptifier 408 11-6.2 Backward-wave oscillator 4L0 Lid Misccltanenus pies ay 12 SEMICONDUCTOR MICROWAVE DEVICES AND CIRCUITS 416 1241 PASSIVE MICROWAVE CIRCUITS any L211 Stripline and microstrip circuits at? 12-12 SAW devices 419 12-2 TRANSISTORS AND [NTEGRATED CORCUITS .___42 12.2.0 High-frequency limitations 4b 12-2.2 Microwave transistors and integrated circuits 422 12-2.3 Microwave integrated circuits 424 12-2.4 Performance and applications of microwave tansivtors and MECy 425‘CONTENTS af (2-3 VARACTOR AND STEP-RECOVERY DIODES AND MULTIPLIERS 427 123.1 Varwctor diodes 427 12.3.2 Step-recowery diodes 430 123.3 Frequency multipliers 40 12-4 PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIERS 432 124.1 Basie peinciples 432 124.2 Amplifier clrewite 435 12-5 TUNNEL DIODES AND NEGATIVE-RESISTANCE AMPLIFIERS 12.5.1 Principles af tunnel diodes 12-5.2 Negative-resistance amplifiers 12-5.3 Tunnel-diode applications 12-6 GUNN EFFECT AND DIODES 1246.1 Gunn effect 12-62 Gunn diodes and applications 12-7 AVALANCHE EFFECTS AND: DIODES 12.7.1 IMPATT diodes 12.7.2 TRAPATT diodes 12-7.3 Performance and applications of avalanche diodes 12:8 OTHER MICROWAVE DIODES 1268.1 PIN diodes 12.8.2 Schotiky-harrier dinde 12-8.3 Backward diodes 12.9 STIMULATED-EMISSION (QUANTUM-MBCHANICAL) AND ASSOCIATED DEVICES 12.0.1 Fundamentals of mmers 12-9.2 Practical masers und their applications Sha S885 S4G% SEE ELSE 12-93 Fundamentals of lasers a0 12-94 CW lasers and their communications appleations a7 124.5 Other opieciccimnic deviers ams 13 PULSE COMMUNICATIONS ah er 3:11 Infoemmation in u communications 142 131.3 Koike in an intoemation-carrying channel | Lez 122.0 Introduetion— [3-LT Pulse-width modulation (3:2.3 Pulse-positioe modulation Uh24 Pulse-code modulation (PCM) | gesii CONTENTS 13.3 PULSE SYSTEMS Sot 142 T 510 14 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS MeL Bigied Pandamentals 00 (ELE fe baa punter pm a 14-13 Digital electromies W412 Characteristics of data transmission cixcuits 530 14-23 Digital codes 535 HA24 Error detection and conection S41 M43 DATA SETS AND INTERCONNECTION REQUIREMENTS 5a? T=. Modesn classification Sa 14-3.2 Modem interfacing, 550 14.3.3 Intercotinection of data circuits to nelephome loops 552 [4 NETWORK AND CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS 559 144.) Nenwork: onganizalioas a [4.2 Switching systems 144.3 Network peotacnils a7 i4-3 SUMMARY 59 15 BROADBAND COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS vision onl 2 Time-divisicon multiplex 586 (3:2 SHORT- AND MEDMUM-HAUL SYSTEMS 0.0... St 162.1 Guanial cables 0. sag 13-2.2 Fiber optic links SIL 19-25 Microwave links sm ‘Tropospheric scaner links 515 15-3 LONG-HAUL SYSTEMS 576 15-3.1 Submarine cables 516 15-3.2 Satellite communications 381 [$4 ELEMENTS OF LONG-DISTANCE TELEPHONY saz 18-4.) Routing codes and signaling systems 502 154.2 yand routin 393 154.3 Mitcellapeous practical aspects co 15-4.4 Intredection te traffic engineering 535 56CONTENTS xiii 16 RADAR SYSTEMS 0 16-1 BASIC PRINCIPLES ol 16-11 Fundamentals sal Ife12 Radar pesformance factors 606 16-2 PULSED 3YSTEMS lz 162.1 Basic palsed radar system 612 162.2 Antennas and scanning 67 fie2.3 Display methods on 16-24 Pulbed radar systems 623 \te2.5 Moving-target indication (MTT) 626 16-26 Radar beacons 832 16:3 OTHER RADAR SYSTEMS a3 16-3.1 CW Doppler radaz ou 14e3.2 Frequency-modulaied CW radar 637 Wfie3.3 Phased array radars 638 16-3.4 Planar array radars 642 17 TELEVISION FUNDAMENTALS 48 17-| REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS: a0 17-1. Introduction to television 17-1,.2 Television systenss amd standanss 17-2 BLACK-AND-WHITE TRANSMISSION 4655 17-2.1 Fundamentals 655 17-22 Beam Scanning 657 17-2.3 Blanking and synchronizing pulses 660 17-3 BLACK-AND-WHITE RECEPTION 64 17.3.1 Fundamentals 66 670 674 17-3.5 Hortzoetal deflection circuits on 17-4 COLOR TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 6a 17-4,1 Tnereduction ob? 17-42 Color mansmission oe 17-4. Color reception 6 18 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 701 LiL HISTORY OF PIER OPiS 0 Uhe2_ WHI PORER CHPICS?adv CONTENTS M3 INTRODUCTION TO LEGHT 00 Sn dena tbat + 18-3.2 Dispersion, Diffraction, Absorption, and Scattering 705 18-4 THE OPTICAL FIBER AND FIBER CABLES: 7 18.4.2 Piber Lonees 76 18-§ FIBER OPTIC COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS 17 18-51 The Source 17 185.2 Noise ‘ 718 18.5.3 Response Time 78 18-5.4 The Optical Link 79 185.5 Light Wave ia 18-5.6 The System crs 18:6 INSTALLATION, TESTING, AND REPAIR 00000782 14.1 Splices ari 18-62 Fiber Opeic Testing 7a 1846.3 Power Budgeting mHPreface This book originated a5 notes used tn aching communications at a technical college in Sydeey, Australia. At thot dime, textbooks written at this lewel were not available, As demand for this course grew, am Assratinn text was published, Soon afterward, this text, aimed primarily et American students, wus published in the Linited States, The text is designed for communications stuslents at the advanced level, ead is presents information, ebout the basic philosophies, processes, circuits. and cher build- jing blocks of consemunicstions systems. It is intended for use ax text material, but for Festest effect it should be backed up by demonstrations and practical work in which In this edition of the text, chapter objectives have bees added and stadent cenercises increased in mumiber to reinforce the theory in each chupter. Further, & new chapter on fiber optic theory has been added. ‘The muxhematical presequisites ure an endesuanding of the j aperanor, wrigono- metric formulas of the product-of-two-sines form, very basic differentiation and inte- ignition, afd binary arichmetic. ‘The basic clectical-lectrunic prerequisite is 2 knowledge of some cizcuit the- ory and common active eiveuits. This involves familiarity wich dz and sc circuit theory, including resoeance, filters, mutually coupled circuits and transformers, and the opera- tion of comenon solid-state deviees, Sense knowledge of themaionic devices and tiec- om ballistics is helpfel in the understandiag af microwave tubes. Flvally, communica tices prerequisites are resaricted tora working knowledge of mused voltage and power amplifiers, oscillators, flop-flogs, and gates, The sxthors are indebted to the fallawing people fr providing matesials for this tent: Noel T. Smith of Central Texas College; Rabert Leacock, Test and Measurement ‘Group, Tekteneix; James E. Gena, Phelps Dodpe Internatineal Carparatiern, end David ‘Reber, AMP Iacocporaied. We would also like wo thauk the reviewers, Clifford Clark of TTT Technical Institets, Millon Kennedy, end Richard Zboray, for their input te this editice. ‘Gorge Kennedy Beran! DavisElectronic Communication SystemsIntroduction to Communications Systems This chapter serves to introduce the reader to ibe subject af. systems, and ‘also this bock asa whole, In studying ét, you ‘will be introduced to an information source, a basic communications system, trasmitters, receivers and noise. Modulation methods are intreduced, and the absolute need to use OBJECTIVES them in conveying information will be made clear. The final section briefly discusses bandwideh: requirements are shows that the bandwidth needed to transmit same signals and! waveforms is a grent deal more than might be expected. Upan campleting the material ix Chapicr {, ihe student wil! Be wble to: Define the word information as if applies to the subject of communications Explain the term channel moive and its effects. ‘Understand the use of modulation, as it applies to eransmission, Solve problems using Fourier series and transforms, ‘Demonstrate 2 basic understanding of the tern handwide and it application in comm munications, ]-] COMMUNICATIONS Ina bimad serie, the terra commundeations refers tn the sending, receiving and process- ing of infornstioe by eleciragic meuns. Communications stzned with wine telegraphy in the eighicen forties, daveloping with Uelepheay some decades later and radio at the beghuning of this century. Radio communication, made possible by the invention of the triode nibe, wus greatly improved by the wark done daring ord War I. It subse- quently became even more widely used and refined though the invention and wie of he transistor, integrated circuits and other semicanducice devices. Mone recently, the2 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATICRN SYSTEMS: use of satellites and siber optics has made communicatioas even more widespread, with an increasing emphasis on computer and other dats communicatines Amoem commanications sestewt is first concerned with the sorting. process ing and sometimes suring of information before its eransmission. The stoal transmis- sion thon Follows, with further processing and the fibkeing of noise. Finally we bawe feception, which may inchude processing weps such as decoding, storage Ad interpe:~ tation, in this coment, Innes ed communications include radio telephony aad telepra- phy, boadcastieg, poist-te-pains and mobile communications (comovercasl oc ill. lary}, compatcr communications. redar, radictelemetry and rade aids 40 navigetina. All these are treated in tum. in folkvwing chapters. In order to become familiar with these systems, it is necessary fart to knove about amplifiers and oscillators, the buihting blocks of all electronic processes and oquipment. With these as a background, the everyday commenications concepes of noise, modulation ad infarmarion eheary. as well as the various systems themselves, may be angrowched, Any logical onder may be used, hut the ane auogsed here is, basic ayslems, communications processes and circuits, and more comples systems, bs com sidered snnst suitable, [t is alsa important te consider the human facioes influencing a particular system, since they must always affect its design, planing and use. COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS. Before inveitigating individeal systems, we bawe to define and discuss important terms such os igbsrmation, mesamge and sigma, chanel (eee Section |-2.3), maine and aise fortiov, miiuaion and demaduiurion, and finally encoding aed decoding. To corme- fate these concep. a block diagram of a geoeral communications systeca is shown in The communications system exists ie convey a message, This message comes fron the information source, which ceiginates i, in the sense of selecting one nctsayge drama grup of messages. Although this applies mone wo telegeaphy than $0 entertainment broadcasting, for example, if may nevertheless be shown 10 apply to all forms af cuntmonications, The set, or total somber of messages. consists af individual mete FIGURE Block diagrass of communications oyniem,INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 3 sages which may be distinguished fram ane another, These may be words, groops of wns, cide syaibals oF any ather potarramged units Information itscll is that witich i ccigreped. That amount of information exe- tained in any given message cam be measured in dts or im dite. whick are deals with in, Chapter 13, and depends on the number af chotoes that vast be make, The greater the fatal number of pessibte selections. the Linger she semount of information conveyed. Tos indicme the positios of a werd an this page. it mmry be-sullicient wo say shan if isan the tap or bottom, left or right séde. Le.. two consecutive choices of one cut of two possibilities, If this word may appear in nny ore af two pages, it is mow eecesmry 0 say which one, ace more inermabuon muss he giver. The meaning (or lack of mehning} of the isfoematian does nat matter. from this pial of view, only the quantity is ‘impestant, bt must be cealined that no zeal informative is conveyed by a redundant (i.e, ‘totally predictable) message. Redundancy ts mot wasteful under 2il cosdilions. part from its obvious use imentertainment, teaching and any appeal ta the emotions, it also belps a message co remain ineligible: under difficult or avisy conditions. 1-2-2 Transmitter ‘Unless the message arriving freim the information source is electrical in nature. it will be unsuiteble for immedisic wransminion. Even then, a tot of work mast he done so make such a message suitable. This may he demonstrated in sugie-cifeband moelula- flan (see Chapter 4), where it is secesiary to convert the incoming sound signals beso electrical variations, io restrict the range of the audiv frequencies and then. ta enmepress their amplitude rege. All this is done before any moatlarion, In wire telephony no Processing may be required, hut im long-distance communications, a transmitier is required to process, and possitly encwke, the incoming inforcnation so as oo make it siitble for tramsmnisssan snd subserwent eecepticn Eveowally, ina traasminer. the infiarmation modulates the carer, ie, is seperinposed on a high-frequency sine wave The acsual mecthod of mexulatian varics from one system to another, Modulation muy be high fewol or how devel, and the system itself may be ample madulction, freguesey medulatin, pulse moddation or any variadion or combination ef these, depending an the requirements. Figure (<2 dhows a high-level amptitude-modulated broadcast irunsméticr of a type that will be discussed fm detail in Chagrer 6. FIGURE 1-2 Mack diagram of typical radio transmitter,4 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: 12.3 Channel—Noise ‘The acoustic chaemel (i.¢., shouting!) is not used for long-distance communications, and either was the visual channel until the advent of the later, '*Coesmunicaticns,"" in this coment, will be restricted to cndio, wire and fiber optic channels. Also, it should bbe mated that the teams channe! is often used ta refer to the frequency range allocated ti 4 particular service or Lrumtmission, such ax a defevitian ehanned (the allowable carrier bandwidts with modulating), Hvis inevitable thot the signal will detesiorate during the process of transmission and reception as a result of sone distortion in the syste, or because af the intradue tien of noise, winch i unwanted exergy, ssuatly of random character, present ina transmission certent, due to a variety of caurer. Since noise will be received tagether ‘wilh the signal, it places a licnitation on the tansiaission systen as a whole. When couise is severe, it may mask a given sigeal so much thal the signal becomes uninielligi- fbte and therefore useless, fn Figure 1-1, only one source of mise is thown, net beers ‘oniy- one exists, but bo simplify the block diagram. Noise may interfere wut signal at any point ia a communications oyster, buit ir will Ave diy gremien’ effect when the signal ix weakest. This means thet noise in the chasioel or af the input to the receiver is the most noticeable, It is treated in detail in Chapter 2, 1-2.4 Receiver ‘There are a great vaciery of receivers in commanications systems, since the exnet fone ‘of a particular receiver is influenced by a guar many requirements, Among the mere esporaat requiements are the modiulanion system used, the opersting frequency axed its range aod ube type of display required, which in tura depends on the destination of the intelligence received. Mast receivers des conform browily to the superivererotyme type, a8 does Ube simple browdeast receiver whese block diagram is ahown in Figure 13, Receivers run the whole range of complesity from = very simple crystal re- ceiver. with hendphones, to a fat more comples radar eeceiver, with ite involved aoe artingements and viewal display sysiem, which ell be expatded upon in Chaprer & Whiusever the recelver, i mast important functiog b demodulation (andl a a per reette {[ aca excatat FIGURE 1.3 Mock disgram of AM superheterndyme receiver.1-3 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 5 soenetimes also decoding}. Both chest processes are the reverse of the comespoeding Titer modulsion processes and are discessed in the follwing chapters. ‘As staned initially, the purpose-of a receiver sed the tome of its output inilnence (ts comstruction a mach as the type of mexiulation rystem used, The ounpat af a teceiver may be fed co a lomdspesier, video display anit, teletypewriter, various radar displays, television picture tube, pen recorder or computer, In each instance different arrangements must be marie, each affecting the receiver desiga, Nose that the tansmit- ter and receiver must be in agreement with the modulation and coding methods used (and also timing ar synchrmnization in some cysters! MODULATION 1.3.1 Description Until the process of saperimposing a low-frequency (long-wave) voice information component on a high-frequency (short-wave) carrier signal was perfected, the most widely used form of commenicutions was a syster based on the transmission of a contivous-wave (CW? signal. With this system, the signal was inerraped periodi- cally (Morse code) to produce a cobied message. The CW aysten required tremendous training and expertise on dhe part of the persons involved in transmitting and receiving, the mtssages, and therefore the Field was limined 10 3 few experts With the development of modulation, a whole new ea of consmunicatices evolved, the sesals of which cam be socn all around ws today. "We sill now exacning dhe Process of moxtulstion in more det 13.2 Need for Modulation ‘There are two altematives ta the ese of a modulated carrier For the tans messages in the madic chusnel, One coeld try i send the (modulating) signal itself, or else use un uamodulated carrier. The impassibility of transmitting the signal itselE will be demanstrated. first. Althowgh the topic has not yet been discussed, several difficulties are involved in the propagation of electromagnetic waves at audio frequencies below 20 biloberte (20 kHz) {see Chapters # and 9). For efficient radiation and reception the transmitting snd revciving anteneas would have lo have lengths coenparable te-a quarier-wavelength cof the frequency used. This is 75 meters (38 en) at | megabeste {1 MHz). in the brogdcast band, but at 15 KE it has increased to SAM ms for fest ower 16,000 feet! A, vertical artenns of this size is impracticahle, “There is an even more important srquenent apsinst transmitting signal frequen« ies directly; all sound is concensrated withio the ramge from 20 He to 20 kHe, 90 cho all signals from the different sources would be hopelewtly and inseparably enixed up. in tany city, the broadcasting stations aloce would ceenplotely blanked tee “air” amd yer they represent a very seall proportion of he tal number of tunsenitncrs in use Tn order to separate the various signals, if is necesskey to conwert thems all oa different portines of the electromagnetic spectrum. Each must be given its awn fre quency location, This also overcomes the difficulties of poor mdiarion at how frequen-6 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS cies and reduces imisrference. Qace sipnals have bere weiasteted, a wned circuit is cnpiayed in the front sox of the reeeiver bo make: sure that the Ucsired section of the speciruns it admniied and 2d) the unwseted anes are rejecied, The tuniag af such 8 Giresit is moereally ede varable ind connected to the tuning coats, so that the fonciver cag seloct any desieed Iramiminiion wilhen a predetermined range, suchas the wey high fresweney (VHF) broadcast band wed for frequency modutation (FM) Although this separation of sigaals has remaved @ wamber of the difficulties encountered the absence of modulation, the fact still remains thet unewndalaied carriers of various frequencies cannat, by themselves, be used tn transmit intelligence. ‘Ac ummedulated cartier tues a constant amplinude, a constant frequency and 2 consti phase relationship with respect tp sume reference. A message consists of ever varying questities. Speech, for iestance, is made up af rapid and unpeedictable varistions in anyulinace ¢eelume} and frequency (pitch). Since it is impossible ta neprosemt these twa variables by a sel of three constant parameters, ant ctmodulated carer cance be used to convey informatics. In x continucws-wave-madulaiion system taxuplituile cr Ere- quency modtulalion, but rot pulse modulalion) one of (er parameters of the camrier is varied ly the message. Therefore ol any instant ils devistion fran tbe wamnodulated value (resting frequesky) is peopostiomsl fo the instansaneous aimplitine of the rmoatubat- ing voltage, amd the eaie at which this devtabon takes place is equal 10 the frequency of :oral, Te this Fashion, enough infaomation abot the instantanesas nmplitude andl ency is transmitted i enable the reveiver to recresie the original message (chis vill be expanded upon in Chapter 5). BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS a It is reasomable to expect that the frequency range (ie, handwidé} required For 2 given iraramission showhd depead os the bandwidth occupied by the medulaton signals themselves. A higtetigetity adic signal newoires a range of 30 10 150K) He, bert a basdeadih of 4p 340) Hy t) adlequare for atelepheane cowweralios, When a cartier has been similasty modulated with each, a greater bandwidls will te sequined for the hhigh>Fidelicy (Li-fiy tracemnission. At dhis point, is bs worth muting hat ihe cransenitted bandwidth: need not be exactly the same as the bandwidis of the original signal, foe reasons connecied wath the properties of the modulating systems. This will be enade clear in Chapters 3 00 3 Beioee trying to estimme the bandwidth of o modulated transmission, it is esseotial to know the bensiwidih occupied by the axdulaling sigtal iescll, If this con- sists of sinusoidal sigeats, there is no problem, and the eacupied band wtih wall simply bbe the Frequency range between the Lowest anal the ksghest sine-wave signal, However, if the modslaing signals are nonsinusesdal, a much more complex situstion results, Since such Gontiowsoidal waves ocoer very frequently as modulating sherals i com- fusicatiens. their frequency requirements will be discussed in Section 11.2,INTRO THON TO COMMUNICA TED? SVSTEMS 7 1-4.1 Sine Wave and Fourier 5 Review Tes very important in communications to have a basic understanding of a sine wave signal, Described mathernaically in the tne domain sel in the frequency domain, this signal may be repeescntedt am follows: vieh = En sie (2p + of) = EE, vin Ger + hp (ely where vith = woltage as a functing of rime Eq peak voltage sin = trigonometric: slite function JF = frecqoency in hertz radian frequency (w= 2) r= time é = phase angle If the voltage waveloerts described by this expression were applied to the verti. cal inpat af an cocatloscope, a sine wave would be displaysd on the CRT screen, The symbol f in Equstion (1-1) represents the frequency of the sine wave signal, Nest we wall review the Fourier series. which is used to expeess periodic time Functions in Ube frequency demain, ant the Fourier sransform, which is wed snexpress noaperindic time demain functions in the feequeney domain To expand upea the wpic of bandwidkin requirements, we will define the terms of the expnessacns and provide examples so that these topics can be clearly andersinod. A potiodic waveform has ampliteds and repeatx iteelf during 2 specific time period 7. Some examples of waveforms arc sine, square, rectangular, triangular, ancl sawtooth, Figuee Its an example of 2 rectangular wave, where A designates ampli. tude, FT cepresents timer, and + indicates pulse width, This simplified review of the Fouriet series ts teant to neacquaint ihe student with the basics. The form for the Faurier series is ax follows: {daar beh, sin (=) | 11-2)ff ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: Each term is a simple mathomatical symbol and shall be explained as follows: S = the sum of a terms, in this cose from | to infinity, where takes on = values of 1, 2,3, 4, Op, te, &, = the Fourier coefficients, determined by the type of waveform T + the perind of the wave Jt?) = an indication that the Fourier series is a function of time The expression will becume clearer when the first four terms are ilPastrated: j= [5] [oc (22) rn an 22)] [een (22) onal I. [oer($2) na (te)}s... 09 If oe substitute wy for 2/7 (or. Infy = Dev) in Equation (2-4), we can rewrite the Fourier series in radian terms: Fi) St] + ay cs woe + By sin ma ++]ay cos 2wot + by sin Zod) + fey con Soy By sin eye) # AY Equation (1-4) supparts the statement: The makeup ofa square or rectangular wave ix the sum of (harmonica) the sine wave components af various amplitutes. ‘The Fourier coefficients for the rectangular waveform in Figure (4 are _ir i ey Ar sin (rani) Fee 4, =O because ¢ = @ (waveform is symmetrical ‘The first four terms of his series dor the rectangular waveform arc: po [|= et 2] «(2 ter a Geo) (+ Ls) Example 1-1 shouki simplify asd enhanot umdcats* understanding of this re- view materiINTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 9 EXAMPLE 1-1 Compune the fiew four tems la the Fourier series for a 1-KHe Fectenguilar waveform with « pulse width of SOQ yee and an amplitake of 10 ¥, SOLUTION Tm time (10 = 1 = 00"? or palse width = S00 x E0-® any 7 = 04 Refer to Equation (1-5) to solve the protien, (FU) = C00) (0.599 + fr) C1) (OS) en ‘eos (2% 10%] + [manos 7 cos [de 10] = [era ins) (FEE) cn ter x 0%) yom 51+ [SO eas 2 x io’ ] + [2 sax ae x 104] +[S:2 ase 0%] Fit = £5] + (6.3606 oom Cer % 1] + 10) + [2.122 cox fie x 10°) (Because this waveform is 6 symmetrical square wavelorm, it has components at (Ane) DDC, id at (be,) U REte and (be) 3 He potnts, wad at odd multiples thereafter Siac in radians. 1, #5 0 ny —1 (see Figute 1-51, ‘The Fousier transform review material is included here becawse nos all wave- ‘forms ste periodic and informacion cenceming these noeperiodic wavefonms are at great interest in the shady of communications. A complete seedy and derivation of the series and transform are beyoad the scope of this text, but the snadent may fine this review helpful in understanding these concepts.10 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Figure 1-6 ibhistrates 2 single nonsepesitive pulse. The transform fos this pulse is: Av sin (w!2) ae oer, (16) Fiw) = 2) Fie) = Fourier trassform rm pallse widths Qe) = radian frequency A = amplinude in volts w 20 ‘te Gr = = & ¥ 7 FIGURE 1-7 Fourker transform of a single pubse,INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATHENS SYSTEMS If 1-4.2 Frequency Spectra of Nomsiausoidal Waves Hany nomsinusoidal waves, noch as square waves. are to-be transmitted by 4 commnuni- cations system, then it bs inportses t realize that each such wane muy be broken down into its component sine waves. The handwidth required will nerefore be consierstily greater than might have been expected if cmly the repetition rave of such a wave hand been talen inte account. At may he sii thor any mowuniesedeal. stngle-nalied repetitive warefiienn consists of sine watver anifior cocine waves: fundamental, siee veree is cyaaf an dhe repetition cute ey the moni ; and aff others are harmonics of the fundamental. There are cn infinite ewmber exf sich Aarmurics. Some nen-sine wave recutring of a tue of 200 times per secuned will consist ofa 200s fundamental sine wave, and harmonics oN), 660 and 860 Ha, and so on, Far some waveforms only the even lor perhaps only the ext hamesonics will be pres: ‘cmt. As a general rule y be added than use higher the Earnoaic, the lower its -poeqgy level, so that in bandwidth calculations the highest hantanics are often ignored. ‘The preceding starcencan may be verified in any ont ef theee different ways, tt may be prowed maihematically by Fourier analysis. Graphical synshosis may be used, bn thi case adding the appogrine: sine-wave components, Laken from a formula de- rived by Fourier analysis, demoestrases the trth of the statement. An added sivastage cof this method is clue it makes it possible for us w see the effect an the overall waveform because of the absence of some of the components (iar instance. the higher hermcnics). Finally, tbe presence of the cummxment sine waves in the correct proportions may be demonstrated with a muve anslyaer, which i& basically a high-gais tinable amplifier with a narrow bandpass, cnabling if ta tune 1 cacl component sine ware and ngasire ifs armpliteds, Same formulas for freqaently encountered nonsinasoidal waves are tow given amd erare my bet Fonsnl iat handbooks, If the senplitade of the nonsimus- coidal wae is A and ins reposition rae is w/2e per second, then ft may be espresemed as fottows: Sequare wave: eos war — Veen Buoy Triangular wave 4A ‘ > fous ait + 6 cus Bast + Vos cos Saat + , = Sawtooth wave: + Mi sant Beet — thin aot — 3 8 sity doar + 5 in cach case several af the hanimnsies Wil he required, bm wdditiow 1 the furdda- nna Irqpency. iF the save fi 40 he repRCSnteMl sccguately tie. with aecepeatly ow distortion). ‘This, of course, will greatly inctense the raguired bandwith,12 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS oF SSS MULTIPLE-CHOICE ‘QUESTIONS Each of the fodlowing mudiple-choite quenions comsiats of an iacomplete surement Sollowed fy foe ehoters fa, b,c. are! dl, Circle the fetter preceding the fine that carrectly completes each sentence, 1. Ina commurscations systers, woive is most Wkely to affect the sigeal a at the transmitter be. it the channel Ce in the information source dat the destinasion 2. indicate the false statement. Fourier analy sis shows thal a sawinalh wave consists of @. fundamental and subharmonic site waves bh, 4 fundamental sire vawe and an infinite number of harmonics cy fundamental and harmonic sine waves whose amplitude decreases with the har- weenie aumber d. sinesoidal voltages, some of which wre simal] emonigh to ignere in practice A. Indicate the fafse statement, Modulation is used bo a. redice the bandwidth used be separa diffesing traersmissinas -e. ensure that intelligence nay be transmnit- ted over tong distances 4. allow the ee of practicable amennas 4. Indicate the jase statement. Pram the trans- milter she sigeal detertoration becuse of ini is casualty a. unwanted energy ‘b. predictable in charmeter present in the transmitter due to any cause Se Indicate the crue statement. Most eeceivers comfcenn 40 the a. amplitude roodulaied group th. frequencysenastulated group ¢, superbetmdiyme gromp od, tinted exiio Frequency roveiver jroup 6 Indicate the false statement. The need for modulation can bes. te exemplified by the fallowsng, a. Antenna lengths will be appreirsemely ANG ong bb. An antenna iat the standied beoedeant AM band is 16,008) f c. All sound is concentrmed from 30 He va 20 kHie aL A message 1s composed of unpredictable verianans in. both amplicede and fre quency 7. Indicate the rue statement. The process of sending and receiving startet at early as a. the middle 193s te, 1850 ¢. the beginning of the twentieth century Gs the 86s A. Which of the following steps is not included im the praceas of reception? a. decoding bs, encoding e stomage . imperpretstion 9 The acoustic channel is used far which of thee Folicavings? a. UHP comnmnications lb, single-sidebam! communications & television communications d, person-to-penen voine communications Mh. Ammpliticke micetulation bs the process al . superimposing a low frequency on a high inequency be. superimposing = high Frequency on a Jow Frequency e. carmier interruption i. frequency shifi and phase shiftINTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 13 REVIEW QUESTIONS L. The carrier performs certain functions in radio communications. What are they? 2, Define moive, Where is il ercvt fikely to affect Ube signal? 3. Whur does modulation actualy do ta 6 message and carer? 4. List the basic functions of a radio iranscnitter and the corresponding functions of the receiver. $. [gnaring the corstant relative ampdituce coespanest, plot sed jhd the appropriate site waves graphically, in each case using the first four composents, so as to eymehesiae: fat) a square wave, (b} a sawsoath wave,Noise Noise ls probably the andy topic in electronics and telecommunications with which every: ‘one must be Familiar, no matter what bis of her specialization. Electrical disturbances inverfere with signals, producing noise, It is ever prevent and limits the performance uf ost systems, Measuring it is very conten tows; almost everybody hus a different method of quantifying mote and iss effects. After studying this chapter, you should be famifiar with the types and svurces of nuise. The methods of calculating the noise produced by varius suurces will be learned, and so will be the ways of adding swch noise. ‘The very important umése quantities, signal Tor nuise roti, aise figure, amd aoise temper arure, will have best carveredd in detail, as wilt methods of measaring mais OBJECTIVES apteniag she material ir CSuaprer 2. re suvilewe will te sible re Upon Define the word nese as it applies to this material, Name at least six different types of noise. Calewlane ooise bevels for a variety of conditions using the equations in thee tent Demonstrate an understanding of signal-to-noise (S/Mb und the eqqual Work problems involving noise puoduced by resistance andl temperatune 6 intel wed Noise may be defined, in electrical tormms. as any enwanted intriduction wf energy Lereling 10 interfere with the proper reception amd reproduction oF transi Many alisutbegces Of an closteval tales prealiiog Boise In pecelarrs. mt Sigel li pul pil REMCEES. te inp the ay prewliwce hiss an the ee “contest” fesaresd snow) be- comes superimposed on the picture. in pulse communications sysiens, noise may produce unwanted pulses.or perhaps cancel oul the wanted ones Ji may causye seriens marhematical errors, Nuoxe can lisnil the range af systems. for a gived transmitted power, It alfocts che somisiviny Of roceiers. by placing a limit oe The weakes stents thai can he amplilied, is pray orn the faselo ii a sysiem, as will be discussed in Chapter In ‘Vere are puinerows wavs of classifying neve. Itimay be subdivided aocoeding Wo type, source, effect, ut relation to the mceiver. dipenling oo cintwmaturtces, Ie is mowL comeenbene hens 1 divile wero ome HAE bread gremps, mise whose sous aeNOISE 15 emtemal w the receiver, and noise created within the receiver itself, External neise is difficult to iret quantitatively. and there is often litte that can be done about i, short of maving the system tc anciber lncesion. Note how radiotslescopes are always located tay from industry, whose processes create so much electrical noese. International satellite earth stabsons are alsa located! in noise-free valleys, where penaible. Internal noise i both more quantifiable and capable of being reduced by appropetate receiver design. Because noise bas such « fimiting effect, and alse Because iis often possible is reduce its effects shrough imetligent circuit use and design, i is most important far all those connected with communications 49 be well informed about maise and its effscts. 2-| EXTERNAL NOISE The varinus fomsy af noise crewed outside ube receiver come under the heading of extemal noise and include atmospheric and exirsternestrial noes and industrial aokse., 21.1 Atmospheric Noise Pechape the Best way 40 broume acquainted with somespheric noise is to listen a shonwaves On a ociver which is tee well equipped to receive trem. An astonishing ‘variety of strange sounds will be heant, all tending to interfere with the program. Most vf these sounds are the resull of spurtous radin waves which induce vobixges in the amenna, The majority al these faith waves come from panzal scunces of disturbance They repnsent atnsoapheric ance, generally called sate. Static is caused by lightning discharges an thunderstorms aired other nurturnl electric disturbances occurring jm the atmospherw. Ib originates in the toma af amplix tode-moculsted impulses, and because such processes ace random in mature, it is spocad over must af the RF spectram normally ased far bromdcsting, Mtmospheric ngise consists of spuricus radio signals with comporents distitvaied over a wade range of Froqmencies. His propagated over the earth in the same way as ondinary radio waves of the same frequencies, so thot af any point on the ground, slate will be receives fren all thunderstirts, local and ister. The attic bs likely to be more severe bt beSs frequent if the ston is local. Fick strength is inversely proportional te frequency, 50 thar this meise will interfere mone wilh the eeception of radio than thal of ictevision. Such note consis af impulses, and (ax shown in Chapter 1) these noesimuscidal waves have harmonics worse amplitude falls off with imercase in the harmonic. Static from alistart sources will vary in intensity acennding 4 the variations in. propagating sondicions, The uesunl increase iin its level takes place at night, at bots broadeast and shortwave frequencies Amoapheric niise becomes lesx severe at frequencies abave abut 30 MI became of Ewer separate factors. First, the higher frequencies are limited ta line-f- sigtn propagation (as will he seen in Chapter 8p, Le., fess tham 8i kilometers or st, Seonnd, the natire of the mechanism generating this noise is sich that very Lille af it ts ereated i the VHF cange andl above.16 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: 2-12 Extraterrestrial Noise ‘It is sage to say that there are almost as many types of space noise as there are sources, Poe canvenience, a division into twa subgeoups will suffice Solar nolse ‘The sua radiates so many things oor way that we showld not be ino ‘surprised tn find that noise ix noticeable among them, again there une two types. Under ‘normal quiet" conditions, there is a consiam noise radiation from ihe sun, simply because it is 2 large body at a very high temperature (wver BOOT om the surface). Tt therefore radiates over a very broad frequency spectrum which includes the frequencies we use for communications, However, the san is 2 comslanily changing star which undergoes cycles cf peak activity from which electrical divturbunces erupt, such as corana flares and sunspots. Eves thowgh che additiunal aoise prodaced comes from a limited partion ef the sun's suriace. it may still be orders of magnitude greater than that revelved daring periods of quiet sun, ‘The solar cycle disturbances tepeat themselves approcimately every | 1 years. fe addition, if a line is drawn to joén these 11-yeur penis. itis seen that a supercyete is in operating, with the praks reaching an even higher maximum every 1K) years a 30. Finslly, these 1-year peaks appear to be increasing in inieasity. Since there is correlation between peaks in solar disterbence and growth rings im tees, it has been possible 00 trace them hack 1 the beginning of the cightecnth cemury, Evidence shaws that the yeer 1957 wax not only a peak but the highest such peak on record. Cammic noise Since distant stars ane also suns and buve high temperstares, they radduase RF nise in the same manner as ou sim, and what they lack in neamess they nessty emake up in numbers which in combination can become skgnificacs. The notse received is called mera (ce black-bady}aotse and is distributed feisty uniformiy aver the entice sky, We also receive noise doom the cemer of cur owe galaxy (ihe Milky Way), form other galaxies, and from other virtual point sources such ax ‘quasars’ and “*palsars,"* This palesic noise is very inteese, but it comes from seurces which are ‘onty points in the sky. Two of the strongest sources, which were also two af the earliest discovered, sre Cassiopeia A and Cygnus A, Note that it is inadvisable to eefer to the previous statements as ‘poise sources when talking with radio astronomers! Summary Spuce qaise is observable at frequencies in the range from about § Miz in somewhat above 1.43 gigahertz (1.43 GHz), the lntter Frequency corresponding. ta the 2i-em hycimgen ““line.”* Apert from man-made onise it is the strangest component over the range of shout 20tn 120 MHz. Nat very much of it bebaw 20) MHa penesrates down thigh the sonoyphere, while its eventual disappearace a: frequencies inexcess Of 1.5GHz is poobsbly governed by the mechanisms penesuling i, dtd its absorpeion by hydeogen in interstellar spac: 2.1.3 Industrial Noive Berween the frequencies of | to 900 MHz (in erban, eetarban amd other imdkstrial areas} the intensily of noise made by hums easily ontstrips that created by any cehet source, intern or external to the ebceiver. Under this heading, sources ouch as autoNOISE 17 mobile and aircraft ignition, ekeciric motors and switching equipment, leakage from high-voltage nes und a naahitude of other heavy electric machines are alf incleded, Flectescent! lights ure another powerful saurce af such noise and therefore should nat ibe used where sensitive receiver reception or testing is being coméucied, The noise is produced by the ane discharge preseot im all these operstions, and ender these circum. stances it is not surprising ther this noise should be mow intense in industrisl and densely popwlatd areas. (Under cetain candibons, industrial noise duc te spark dis- charge may even span oceans, a4 demonstrated by Marconi im 1901 ar St. John's, ‘Newfoundland ‘The mature of industriel noise is 0 variable thet it is lifficalt t asalyee ft an any basis other than the statistical, |i does, however, obey the gesers! principle dat received noise increeses as the reeciver tundwicih is increased (Section 2 2-2 INTERNAL NOISE ‘Under the hesiking of internal asise, we discuts noise crested by any of the active or passive devices found in receivers. Such poise is geaerally random, icepossible to teat oa 0 individual voltage basis, bul easy to obuerve and describe statistically. Because the noise is randocnly distritvwied over the entire radio spectram there is, om the aver- ape, a8 much af i al one Trequency as al any other. Random mukie power Oy propor onal to the bandwidth over whick it ix measured. 2-2.1 Thermal Agitation Noise The naiue generated in a resistance of the resistive component is canon and is relerred: Ins as chermal, ayptetion, white of Jafinsun soise, 11 is due io the rapid and. random motion of the malreules (wtoms and eleesroms) inside the companeni itself. Inthennodyramics, kinetic theory shows thar the temperature of a particle isa ‘way of expressing its internal kinetic energy, Thras the “'semperature"” of a body is the souistical root mean. square {ram} value of the welocity of mating af the partictes in the body. As ihe theory states, the kinetic energy af these particles hecames spronimaiely zero {i.e., their motion ceases) at the tempercure af absolute nero, which is 0K (kelvins, formerly called degrees Kelvin) and very nearly equals 273°C. It becomes Sppacent that che noise generated by x resistor is proportional to its absoluie tempers lure, in addition to being proportional to the bandwidth over which the mise fs to be measured, Therefore Pe PoP = KT Se ie where 4 = Boltzmann's comsamt = 1.38% 10-7) Jjoulesi/K the appeopriate wopariqnalizy constant jis this ease T= absolute tenpersnire, K = 273 4 °C Sf = bandwith of imerest P= maximum noise power output of a nexistor = = varies dinectly18 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Uae orheary resistor at the standant temperamee af 17°C (20 K) sno ect nected to any voltage source, It might af first be thought that there is no voltage to be incasured across fi. That is correct Hf the measuring instrament is a direct gercat (de) volmeter, ben itis incorrect if a ery sensitive electronic waltmeter is used, The resister is a poise generator, and there may even be quite & large voltage across iL. Since it is rasdom aad therefore has a fisite rms value bu! ao de-component, only the alkemnaving current (ach meter will register » reading, This noise voltage is caused by the random movement of electrons within the naister, which constitutes a currem It is true that as many electrons arrive af one end af the resistor as at the ether aver any long period of time. At any instant of time, there are hound to be mone electrons arriving #1 one Particular end than at the other becaase their mnavement is randuns. The saue of arrival ‘of clecirons at either end of the resistor therefore varies randomly, and so does the potential difference between the two ends, A random voltage arruse she revisor defi vaively extent and may be both measured ant calculated, Te remst he realized that all foqenulas referring to tazdom noise are applicable any to the rms valuc of wach poss, nat to ies Snstantancous valee, whlch is quire wnpredictable, So far ai peak noise wodtapes ape cancermed, 281 that mary the stants kx ghost they are unlikely to have values in excess of 10 times the rms value, Using Equarion (2-1), ibe oquivalem circuit af a rescdor as a noise generator inay be drawn as i Figure 2-1, and from thes the resistor’s equivalent snise voltage V, moay be calculated. Assume that Ry is colseless and is receiving the maximum anise power generated by A: under these conditions of maximum puwer transfer, ty roast be scqusl to 2. Then a0 a= ge & 4F Va aRP, ~ ARE Af and Vis WakT BFR a Iris seen troen Eqpuarion (2-2) that the square of the rims moise vubtage associ wed with a ecsistar ts proportional 1 the absolute semperanarc of the resistor, the value of its resistance, and the handwidth over which the nosse is measured, Note expecially that the generated noise voltage Is quite independent of the frequency at which it is mewsured, This stems from the fact that it is random and therefure evenly distributed cower the IPequency spectrum FIGURE 2-1) Resistance noise geicratar,NOISE 19 EXAMPLE 2-1 An amplifier operating over the freqenacy range tram 15 wo 20 Mia ‘ae # 1Ddblohm (MECH npet resistor What isthe Tea nose Yonge tthe apa tit amplifier if the ambient lemperatune ib 27CT SOLUTION v= VaR = VOx Linx eo eal + a et 1) =Vixaexae eet = 1 xo = 18.2 microwolts (18,2 #V) seus e ae mere amplifier woah! be masked by the moive and lai. 21.2 Shot Noise ‘Thermal agitation is by mo means the oely source of noise in receivers. The most important of all the other sources is the shor effect, which leads to shot noise im all arnplifying devices and virtually all active devices. /t is caused bry random variations in the errival of electrans (or bales) ai de ourpat electrode af an amplifying device and appears a a randomly varying noise current superimposed on the outpet, When ampli= ‘fed, it is sapposed to sousd as though a shower of lead chot were falling om a metal sheet, Hence the name shor noise Although the average output cerrent of a device is gowerned iby the various bias voltages, at any instant of time there may be more or fewer electrons arriving at the ‘oulpur electrode. In bipolar transistors, this is mainly a result af the randoen drift af the discrete current carriers across the junctions. ‘The paths taken are random and therefore unequal. so that although the average collector current is constant, minute variatioes nevertheless occur. Shot noise behaves in a similar manner to thermal agitation noise. apart from the fact that it has a different source. Many variables are involved in the generation of this noise in the various aenplifying devices, and so it is customary to use approximate equations for it, In addition, shot-noise werent: is a lick difficult to add to thermal-ecise volunge im calcu- lations, so that for ad) devices with the exception of the diode, shot-noise formalas used are generally simplified. Por a dice, the formula is exnctly i= Wie, of a where i, = rms shot-naise current e = charge of am electron = 1.6% 10-2 jy = direct diode carrent Sf = bandwidih of system ‘Note: It may be shown that, fora vacuum tube diode, Equation (2-3) applies only under so-called temperatureslimnited conditions, under which the ‘visual cathode" has nat been formed. In all other instances not only is the formula simplified but it is oot even a formula for shol-notse current. The most convenient melhod of dealing with shot noise20 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS iggo find the value or formula for an equlveless (apat-ncise restiter, This precedes the device, which is now ascumed to be noiseless, and kas a vaise sach thet the same amouré of noise is present at che owtput of the equivalent system ax in the practical amplifier, The onise current hes been replaced by a resistance so thet itis naw easier to add shot ooise to themnal noise. [t bas alsa heen refereed to the input of the arnplifier, ‘wich is a much mare convenient place, as will be seen. The value of the equivalent stew-noise resistince Raq of & device is penerally quoted in the maniifixtunet’s specifications. Appeoxicuate formulas far equivalent thor- noise resistances are also available, They all show that sach poise is inversely prapar- tional to transconductance and also directly peoporteonal to ourpat current. So far as the aio of R,, is consermed, the inportaed thing to realize is that i ise complesely fictitiows resistance, whose sole fusction is to simplify calculations invalving shat soise, Bar noise caly, this resistance is treated as though it were an ondinary moise-creating resis: lor, at the sume temperanuze as all the ocher resistors, and located in series with the input electrade of the device. 21.3 Transit-Time Noise If the time taken by an electron to travel Hom the emitter to the collector of a transissar became: significant 10 the period of the signal being amplified, Le,, at frequencies tm the upper VHF range sed beyond, the so-called ¢raunit-lowe effecn takes place, and the aise input sdmitance of the transistes increeses, The minuts currents induced in the ‘input of the device by random fhoctustions in the ouiput current become of great importance at such frequencies and create random noise (frequency distortion’, ‘Onee this high-fexquency notae makes ins presence Set, it goes an increasing ‘with frequency at a rate thet soan approaches 4 decibels (6 dB) per octave, and. this Fundons noise then quickly predominates over the ether forms, The resalt of all this is that i is preferable to measure noise af such high frequencies, instead of trying ta caloulite an input equivalent noise resistance for it. Radia frequesey (RE) rensistars are remarkably low-noise, A nulse figure (ate Section 2-4) 2a low as | dil Is possible with transésior amplifiers well ine the UP range. 22.4 Miscellaneous Noise Fllcker Ai low sudio frequeocies, a poosly understood farm af noise called flicker o mmovudacian noise is found in transistors. It is propomionsl to emitter current and june: ion temperature, but since i is inversely prapartional io frequency, it muy be cam plcecly ignored above abogt 500 Ha, It is np tanger very serious. Resistance Thermal noise, sometimes called resistance noise, Hl also present in tran- sisters. It is due to the base, emitter, and collector internal resistances, and in pucet circumstances the base resistance mules the largest contribution From above $00 Ha up to show Jon(S, tasdistor noise remains relatively con stant, 8 that an equivalent usput resistance for shot and thermal! maise may be freely used2-3 NOISE 21 Noise in mivers Mixers (noolinear amplifying circuits) are much noisier than amplifi- ere using identical devices, except ai microwave frequencies, where the situation is rather complex, This high value of noise in mixers is caused by two separese effects. Fira, comersion mansconductance od mixers is much lower than the transcoadectance of amplifiers, Second, if dmage frequency rejection is inadequate, 2s often bappens at shortwave Frequencies, noise associated with the image frequency will abso be ac cepted. NOISE CALCULATIONS 2-3.1 Addition of Nalse due to Several Sources Las’ salen she tio, Chel station ots. Gemma i sik = VaRT Bf R, and V,j = VaR 57 R;. The sum of two such ems vollages in ila grea og sss ee sor ma Gg ao ak Vaan = WR + Wh = Waar GPR, + Aer OTR = VERT Ef, + Aah = VERT Re (ay where Rye = Ry + Ry + aH Ibis seen from the previous equations thal in order to Find the ioeall noise voltage caused by several sources of thermal noise in series, the resistances are added and the noise voltage i calculaind using this total resistance. The same procedure applies if ‘one of those resistances is an equivalent input-noise resistance. EXAMPLE 22 mag eran iy aren steer saratpy, device thet hax 2 205-cim (200.09) equiabent noise and a 00-1 ieee: The hana amplifier br 6 MB, miasmapeeen Ine. soLunon Hac VERE AR 15, 7. Calculate the generalized form of noise figure toon steps 3 and & (2-205, B Calculaic #, from &,, bi possible (2-21, 2-22). and substitute io the general equation for F 4o-abiain the actual formals (2-23, 2.24), or determine P, from mesatremment 2061. ond substitute to obesin the formula for F (2-27 228, 2. it is seen trom Figure 24 that ihe sigeal inut volkage aad power will be (2-12) (LahNUHSE 27 Sintibealy, the soise input vahage and power will be RR 2 - Va aT (1) va RR. 1 aay BFR, ee waar Gp ee ew SE Fa = pm ar oe TER Rea RB, (2-18) ‘The dapat signal-to-noise ratio will be _ ER HAY EY Ry Mii NP ER PR RR AE ORL RY oy ‘The catput signal power will be Va ava Re cn - ( Ate eo = Ae _ (2-17) Bat Ry! Re (Rye RRL ‘The noise output power my be difficult to calculate, For the time being. it may simply be written as Pap = tase ouLpe power ha ‘The cungalt signal-to-noise ratio wall be avy Rs BAR Pee (hay Finally, the general expression for the noise figure is 220) Note that Equation (2-20) i an intermediate resubl.only. An actual formula for F may now be obtained by substinution far ibe output agise power, ox from » knowl: edge of the equivalem eeise resistance, oF frum mensunsense 24.4 Noise Figure from Equivalent Noise Resistance As derived [n Equation 12-7), the egaivaleat noise resistance of an amplifier ar receiwer is the sum of the input termvinating resistance and the equivalent aise resistance af the first stage, together with che noise resistances of the previous stages referred to the input, Puiting it anceher way , we see that all thesc resistances arc added so A, giving @ fuenped resistance which is then said so coocentrate all the “noise making’ of the receiver. The rest of it is now assemed to be noiseless. All this applies here, with the28 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: rainar exception that these ooise resistances must now he added tc the parallel cornbi- nation of Ry and R,. In order to ccerelete noise figure and equivaiant poise resisiance. it is convenient 10 define Rg, whichis a noise resisnance that does not incorporate &, and which is given by Big — Rey — Be 12-7) ‘The cotal equivalent noise resistance fer hit receiver will mow be Fak Sek cei) RAR ‘The equivalent noise voltege geserated at the enpur of the necelver will be Vy = VER aR Since the amplifier has an cwerall voltage gain A and may now bye treated at though it were noiseless, the maize output will be yaw ew AYE Aa ae R Ry Re Ry wet When Equation (2-22) a substituted into the general Equative (220) the reste is an expeessinn fir the noise figure in teres of the equivalent noise resistance, namely RR, + FR) Foom RAR + Ri AMET af ” Gir SPAR AR, WT af Ri RO+R, RAR, op be Lae bait Be AT ae, Rat 1+ Be ae Ra ean Htean be seen fram Equation (2:23) thet if the noise bs to be 2 snieimur for any piven salve of the antenna rosistance R, the ratio (Rt, + Ry, muest also be a suum, $0 thar A must be mvc larger then R,. This is a situation exploiced very alten in Practice, and at may naw be applied to Equation (2-23). Under these mismatched ities, (R, + 8/WR, approaches unity, and the formula for the eaise figure ne- Fale (22a) This ie a most impertant retalionship, best it must be remembered thet it applies ‘unwles mismitchad conditions anly. Under matched conditions (ft, = i.) o€ wists the mnisenatct 8 not Severe, Equation (2-23) must be used instead,14+ =a (els dB) Note that fan “equivalent noise resistance’ is given without any other com- meat in connection with noise figure calculations, it may be assumed to be Ap, 2-45 Noise Peart ee Measurement The preceding section showed how the noise figure may be computed if the equivalent noise resisiance is exsy to calculate. When this is aot practicable, as under transit-time conditions, it is possible 10 make measurements that lead 10 the determination of the noise figure. A simple method, using the diode mole generaior. is often employed. lt is shown in Figure 25 in circuit-block form. Equation (2-3) gave the formula for the exact plate ecise current of a vacuum: abe diode, and this can now be used. As chown, the anode current is controlled by means of the potentionrter which varies filament voliage, and that is bow shot-noise current is adjusted. “The outpwt capacitance af the diode and its associssed clrcult Is resonated at the operating irequency of the receiver by means of the variable inductance, so that it may be ignored. The output Impedance of the noise generator will now simply be R,. ‘The foise vollage supplied wo the input of the receiver by the diode will be given by wip Bef = AVE = iypZy ™ fy Rath m+ kr 23) 3 5 eee ein Voltage E Peay ITH | = > AA > Lo =< aMY) BLECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS The srsise gemeraior is connected wo the receiver ler amplifice) onder teat. an! the noise culpur pewer of the receiver is measured with zero diode plate current, he. swith the dinde plate voltage sepoly switched off. The diode pine voltage supply is now switched ca, and the Filament potentianeter is atljasted so that dade plate current ‘bexins to flow. It is farther adjusted unti! the noite peraer developed in Ry 14 twice as lange as the ectise power in the absence of dinde plate current. The plate current at which this happens, i, is measured with the millianieneter and noted. The axltiocall noise power output is now eqikal bo the aormnal ceive gerwer Oulpul. 4 ial Ge Lubes cam be eapressed im terms of the clinds plate current. Wie nem bay ARI RI sip Bg RAR. + RY As alteady cattinet, Equation (2-26) may be substieuted isne Eguaticm (2-H ‘This. yes Rife + Bian | ReiRy + Ry) ARERI2u, Bf = SRA, OF AUK BFR, WANT AFRAR, Buk, + RP (2th a, — (227) UT, + Ry 11 iL is assumed once: again chit dhe system is onismmsiched and #, FE, Equa lion (2-27) bs sinmplified 1 Ru, oe 228 Ifthe above procedure is eepeared right trons the heginning for a system under naiched conditions. itomy then be peoved that Equation (2.28) applies exactly to such, a systems instend of being merely 2 good appeosimation, a it in here, Such w result emphasizes the value of the noise diode measurement. Aga final simplification, we substitute into Equation (2-28) the values of the ‘varous constants it condalins. These include the slandanl bemperaiting at which uct mensarertents ane made, which is 17°C or 280K. This gives a foomila which is very often quoted: Fo Bale — tale) 6 % MY Px 290 e Lex 1" = (Raf) (2 * MH = 0 Rain 22H where Ry is memsared in ohms and dy la amperes NOISE TEMPERATURE ‘The conceps of noise figure, although frequently used, is net always the crust comve~ nicht measize of noise, particularly ih dealing with UHE and microwave low-noise aennas, receivers or devices. Controversy exists regarding which Is the better all-NOISE 31 arqund mesauement, but noise temperuture, derived from earty work in radoo astro ‘omy, is eenployed extensively for antennas nd low-noise microwave amplifiers. Not the least reason fog its use ix coavenlecee, bn chat ile an seditive like noise power. This may be seen fram reexamining Equaban (2-1), a5 follaws: Pes kT of SP, + Pee kt) Of + aT OF AR APS AT, Af + 29, af Let 4Ts (23) where P, and F, = two indivhtudl noise powers (e.g., eceived by the anenna and generasnd by the arscana, respectively) and Fis their sue 7, and 7, = the iedividual noise temperanares he Another advammge of the ase of noise temperazure for low nesise levels is cher it shows 2 greater variation for any given noise-level change than dows the noise figure, yo changes are easier to grasp is their trac perspective, i will be recalled that the equivalent paise resistance introduced in Section 2-3 is quite fictitious, but it is often ernployed because of its convenience. Similarly, Ty, the equivalent ooise teperaiuce, omy alee be utilized if it proves convenient. In defiang the equivaleat newe temperature of a receiver oc amplifier, itis asiuened that Rigo a. If this is to lead to the correct value of nese culpat power. len abviewsly i, whist Be at a emperaiure other than the standard one al which all the components Garetading R,) are absumed & be. It is them possible to wie Equation (2-24) to equate noise figure and equivaleet noise teyspersture, as follows: ee “gota! noise temperature pep + Sey 4 Mtn Ry Ty BF Ry i, wp ete 2) 1+ (2) where Fly = Ft., 08 postulated in the definition of Ta, fo = 170 = 290 K Toy = eyaivalent noise tempemiuse of the acuplifier or receiver whose anise figure is F Note that F here is & ratio end i not expressed in decibels, Also, T., may be influenced by fbat is certainly not equal to) the actual ambient semperaiure of the feoeiver oe amplifier, It must te: repeated that the equivalent nokst oemperature is past a convenient fletion. IF all the waise of the receiver were genemted hy R., its temperature would bave to be Tq, Fisally we have, frees Equation (2-31), ToF = Ty +7, Teg = TAF ~ 1 am32 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ‘Once noise igure is known, equivalent noise temperature may be calculated from Equation (2-32), or a nomograph muy be constructed if wie is frequent enough to justify it, Graphs of noise tempexature of variows sources vereas frequency and sky temperature versus frequency are aleo available. EXAMPLE 2-f A receiver connected to an artenss whose resistance ia 30 (2 Mat wn equivalent soise resistance of 30 (1. Calculate the receiver's noise figure in decibels sod 58 equivalent notte renpernure SOLUTION pare fee se Boren e x» = FO bog 1.6 = 10 0.204 2.08 dB Tog = Fo UF — 1) = 290 (1.6 — 1) x O16 = 14k LT TE MULTIPLE-CHOICE ‘QUESTIONS. Each of the following muitiple-chaice questions consists af am incomplete statement followed by four choices (a, &, ¢, and d), Circle the letter preceding the lime that correctly complrers cack nentemcr, One of the following types af noise be: b, quadrupled ‘comes of great importance at high frequen- ec. dowhiled cies. It is the 4. unchanged a. shot noise 4. One of the following is nov a useful quantity 1, random noise for comparing the noise performance of re- G impulse noise ccivers: d. tramsit-time noise leedicake the false statement, . © ret are generally noisier than nr » Spi bla vaiage i iniaaadnt bandwidth. ¢, Thermal poise is independent of the fre- quency at which it is measured, di Industrial noise ts usually of the impulse type. The valoe of a resistor creating thermal nobse Is dowhled. The ecise power pemer- nied is therefore a. halved a. Inport noise voltage b. Bquivalem noise resistance c, Noise temperavare d. Noise figure ‘Indicate the maise whose source is In. a case (ory differen from: that of Use oder three. a. Solar noise bb. Cosmic noise Inedicate: thee false stntement. The square: of the thermal notse vole pesermted by a resistor is propestional to7. 1h, its temperature ©, Boltzmann's ceestant G, the bandwidib aver which itis enewsured ‘Which two broad classifications of noise ee the mnt difBioalt to treat? a. noise genecated is the eoceiver bh, noise generated in ihe transcritter & esternally genemied acise d. imemaily generated anise Space noise generally cowers a wide ire- quency spectrum, bul che strongest imerier- SNe OCU a, between 8 mle and 143 ete bb, below 20 Mite &. between BM to 100 Mie dy above 1.5 GH ‘When dealize with random noise caicular ficns iE mmitst be remembered thal a. all calculations are faved om peak 02 peak values, NOISE 3d b. calculations are nesed om pesk valves, c, calculations are haved on average val- ues. d, calculations are beied on RMS vabees, 10. Which of the following is ibe mest rellabse ingasuremens for scumparing amplifier noise charmeteristics? 8. signal-to-paite ratio bs, noise factor €, shot noise i. thermal agitatian mise Which of the following statements bs true? a. Random sais power ix inversely pro- portioal so bandwidth, b. Flicker is sometimes called dessadula tiem mets. ‘t, Noise in mixers is cased hy inadequate image Irequency rejection. a. A risdom voltage across a resistance cannet be calculated. REVIEW PROBLEMS 1. Anamplifier operating over the Frequency tangs of 455 to 444) kbiz has 9 2-KE2 inpeat nesistor, What is the rms neise voltage at the input bo this amplifier if the ambien tempera ture is VAC? 2, The noise cutpet of a resistor is amplified by a solscisss amplifier having a gain of 6) and a bandwidth of 20 kHz A meter connected to the outpur af the amplifier rests Limi eras, fa) The bemdwidih of le amplifier is reduced to 5 kM, iis gain remaining constant, What does the meter rend now? 1b) If the resistor is operated at MIC, whan is ts resistance? 3. A parallel-tuned circuit, having a @ of 20, is resorated to 20 Mx with a 1 picafarad (J0-pF) copscitor, I this circuit is tmaintained at (7°C, what noise voltage will a ‘wideband voltmeter measure when placed acroes il? 4, The front end of a television reotiver, having a bandwideh of 7 MB and operating 2 a tempemture of 27°C, coosists of an amplifier having « gain of 15 followed by a mixer whose gain is 20. The amplifier bas a 300-0) input resistor and a shot-noiss equivalens resistance of $001 {1; for the converter, these values are 2.2 and 13.5 Af), reepectively,. and the mixer keod resistance is 470 &f1. Calculate i, for this televisiow seorives: 4. Calculate the shininum sigoal voltage that the receiver of Problem 2-4 cam handle for good reception, given thet the input sigmal-to-roése ratia mast be net tess than MMOL 6. The RF amplifier af a receiver bas an ign resistance of 100 £1, and equivalent shot-naise resistance of 20) (2. x gain of 25, and a Inad resistance of |24 af). Givew that34 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: the bandwidth & 1.0 MHz and the temperature [x 20°C, calculate the equivalent noise voltage at the iapat te this ELF amplifies. If this veseiver bs comnected to an setenna with an impedance of 75 £2, calculate thy noise figure. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1, List, separately, the various sources af random oie and impulse coise external to a receiver. How can sun of them be avoided or minimized? What is the serongest source of extraterrestrial naise” 2. Discuss the types, causes and effects of the various forms of noise which may be created within a receiver or an amplifier. 3. Beserthe tiriefly the forms of noise to which a transistor is pro 4. Define signal-to-noise ratio and noise figure of » receiver. When might the latter be a move suitable piece of information thin the equivalent noise resistance? 8, A receiver bas an overall gen A, an oulpwt resistance Ry, a bandwidth &f, and an absolute opersting temperature T. If the receiver's input resistance ts equal to the antenna resistance R., derive a formula for the woise figure of this receiver, One of the terms af ‘his formufa will be the acise output power, Describe briefly bow this can be measured vesing the diode generstar.Amplitude ‘The definition aad meaning of modulstion in general, ai well as the need for modulation, were introduced in Chapter 1. This chapter deals with ampliude modulation in detail and is subdivided into two sections. Having studied amplitude modulation (AM) theory, students will be able to appreciate that an amplitude-modulated wave is made up of a number of sinuscidal companents having a specific relation to one another. They will be able to visualize the AM wave and calculate Modulation the frequencies present in it, as well as their power or current relations to each other. The second part of the chapter will show several practical methods of generating AM, analye: ing them from a cireuit.waveform, rather than mathematical, point of view. Both vacuum-tybe amplitude modulators, which are the common ones where Ibigh pawers are involved, and transistor AM generators will ‘be discusses. OBJECTIVES Upor completing the material i Chapter 3, the student will he wble as: Dreseribe the AM process ‘Compute the modulating inde. Solve problems inviting bandwith calculations Dhraw a repeesentation of an AM sine wows Analyae and determine through computation the carrier power and sidehand power it AN Understand and explain the jerms grid mesdlavion, plate modlutives, ated framristor vernfariom, 3-1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION THEORY In arplined: modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by the soduiating voltage, whose frequency is invariably lower than that of the carrier. In practice, the earier may be figh+requency (HF) while the modulating is audio. Formally, AM ix a46 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS defined ax 4 system of modulation in which the amplinule of the curler is amade proportional 20 ke fustanganrous amplinute of whe mondlaning voltage. Let the carter voltage and the modulating voltage, v Iv... respectively, be represemied by v, = sin ae t hip Ve = Vig Sim thal (+2) ‘Nose that phase angle has teen ignored in both evpressions since it is an: changed by the omplinude modulation process. [ts inchesion here would merely coral salr ie proceedings, without affecting the result. However, it will certainly aot be possible to ignore plise angle when we deat with frequency and phuse modulation on ‘Chapter 4 4 Fron thee definition of AM, you can see that the (enzximuen) amplinade of the ‘unmogulaed carrier will have to be made proportional to the ineanneaeetre modutaneng vakage Vq si ain? when the carrier is amplitede-cvodulated, 31.1 Frequency Spectrum of the AM Wave ‘We shall show mathematically that the frequsccies present ia the AM wave are the carrier frequency and the first pair of sideband frequencies. where a sidebard fre quency is defined 9 fea f= ne cee seed in the fis pair = 1 ‘When a cerier is amplinds-modulaicl, the praporticaality constant is eid equal to unity, and the instastaneous moduluting voltage variations we suneriinpasseat ‘amio the carer amplisade. Thus when there is temporarily na snedulation, the araptli~ tude of the carrier is equal to its unmodulated vabuz. Wher modulation is present, the genplizude of the carrier in varied by its instantaneous value. The situation is illustrated in Figore 3-1, which shows how the cracimum ampGtude of the senplitude-enodutared voltage is make 40 vary in accontince with medulsting vollage changes. Figure 3: als shows that something: tntasial (disterioa) will occur if Vig es greater than ¥, (his istartion is a nesslt of overdriving the amplifier stage), This, amd the fact that be rates Yi, olte cori, leads 1 the definition OF the mowlition inder given in Equation Way ba r FIGURE 2.1 Aniplituke of AM waveAMPLITUDE MODULATION 37 i) ‘The modulation index is a number lying between O and 1, and it is very often expressed 48 4 percentage and called the percewaege moduliiian. Froen Figure 3-1 and Equation (3-4) it is possible to waite an equation for the amplitude: of the omplinids-medulaied voltage. We have A=Kh+ e050 +0, sin = = a, cle ae = V, (Le san a) (35) The instaneancous valtage of the revaliing amplitude-modulaied wave ix w= Asin OA sim ont = V, (1+ een th sin at (346) Equation (3-6) may be expanced, Sy means of the tigonometrical relation sinx sin y= 4 [oos (x — yi - con (+ y)]. to give WW sn aye + OE es a, — at EE cas ur + et (7) Hy has hus been shown that the eywation of an amptitude-modulsscd wave contains three terms. The first term is ideetical w Equation (3-1) and represents the unemdulated carrier, Ot is apparent that the process of amplitude: modulation has the effers of adding to the unmadulaied wave, rathet than changing if, ‘The two adktitional terms produced are the two sidebands outlined. ‘The frequency of the lower sideband (LSB) is f — foes and the frequency af the upper sideband (USB) is f+ fay. The very important conclusion to be made of thes stage is that the bandwidth required for ampli- tude modulation is twice the frequency of the modulating signal. In modulation by several sine waves sinualiancously, as in tbe AM broadcasting service, che bandwidth required is nice the highest modulating frequency. EXAMPLE 3-1 Ths tuned crcsit of the owcallatar coil and SOLUTION wonhe i 1 # as JeGe exis ws “Rarer Severn “2 038 ELECTRONIC COMM! ‘ Ls | USB btn fra Jerin ke Tet tee FIGURE 3-2 Prequency spectrin af AM eave, 31.2 Representation of AM Amplitude modulation may ine represested! im any of thee ways, depending ec the paint of view, Figure 2-2 shows the frequency specuum and so illustrates Equation (3-7), AM is shown sicnply as comsisting af dace discrete frequencies, Of these, the ventral frequency. i.e, the casrier, has tbe highest amplitude, and the other twa are disposed symmetrically about it, having amplatudes which are eqpaal ts each other, but which can never exceed half the carrier amplitude [see Equation (3-7), und nove thet wd LI ‘The appearance of the amplinademodalated wave is of great interest, and it és shown in Figure 3-3 for one eycle of the medubsing sine wave. Ot i derived from Figure 3-1. which showed the amphiude, or what may sow be called the inp envelope of he AM wave, given by the relation a= ¥, Vj, sin uot. The ewaimum negative amplitude, ar bottom camelape, i given by <= Vy sin pr + CCV ain? ae + ¥7 sin? pr + 2) "2 sin wer sin pe) 7) Exuation (4-7) may be simplified by the use of tbe appeopeiate tr expressions. (Note that these expressions arc sin x sin y= ‘feos (2 — y) — cos fe + yi] aed sin? z= (1 — cos Le, J a-+ BV, sim xt + BY, sin pt + VocWL — cos Bach + YecVAl — cos Jet + 2V, Vyfoas tar — ple — com fur + pe} Sia + MeV = Maeve) + OV, sim ar + BV, sin ar a ay cy {Vac} cos Jur + Vac} ons Ine) ~ + eV) V; cos (w= ple = CVV, cos ie + pie (4-8) we vi ‘The previcus derivation, with the resulting Equation (4-2), is possibly the most important of all im communicatzons. [t is the proof (1) that harmonic and inlermodala- tion distortios may occur in audio and RF amplifiers, (2) that som and difference frequencies will be present in. the output of a mixer, (3) that the diode detector tas wadio Frequencies bn its output, (4) of the operation of the beat-freqwency osciiator {BFO) snd the prodvet detector, and (5) that ie ® part of the proof that the balanced modulawor produces AM with the carter soppressed. IF in Equation (4-8) w is taken as the camier angular freqeency. and as he modulating angular frequancy, then term 1 is the dz component, term I is the carrier, term 111 is the modulating signal, term FV consists of hartronics of the carrier acl tee modulation, tern V represents the lower sideband voltage and term VI is the epper sideband. The equation shows that when two frequencles are passed together theough &42 ELECTRONE® COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AF in out aFin @) ‘ut FIGURE 4-3 Balanced modulstors, (ai Diede; (h) FET. nonlinear resistance, the proorss af amplitage encrdulation takes place, Ina practical modulation circuit, the voltages in Equation (4-4) would be developed across a circuit tuned to the camber Fregaency, and with a bandwidth just lange enough to pasa the carrier and (ww sidchand frequencies but no ahers, 4-2.2 The Balanced Modulator ‘Two circuits af the halenced modulaioe ane shown in Figure (4-3), Bach ulilizes the sonlioear principles just discussed. The modulation vollage v; i fad in push-pull, and ‘he carier vollage v) im parallel, io a pair-af identical diodes or class A (cransistor ar FET) amplifiers, Is the PET eireust, the carrier voltage is ses applied ta the two fates in plane; whereas ibé modulating voltage appears 137" oat of phase ot the gates, sinceSINGLE-SIDEBAND TECHNIQUES 63 they are at tbe opposite ends of a cesier-tpped transformer, The modulated utp currents af the two FETs are combined io tht center-tapped primary af the push-pull ‘omiput transdormer, They therefore sebirsct, as indicated by the direction of the amraws in Figure 4-25, If this sysnem is made complesely symmetical, the cartier frequency ‘will be completely canceled, No syenem can of course be perfectly symmetrical én practice, sa that the carrier will br heavily suppressed rather than completely remaved fa 45-8 seppression is normally segarded as scoepiphle). The output of the balanced modulator contains the two sidekands and some of the miscellaneous componenas ‘which are takes care of by the luning of the output transformers secondary winding. The final output consists only of sidebands, Bince it is oot immediately apparent how and why only the carrier reseed. a mathematical anelysis of the balanced modulator is now given. ‘As indicated, the iagut vollage will bev, +0; at the gate of T) (Figure 4-34 andy, = vy atthe gate of T). if pertect symmetry is assumed (it should be underssocd that the treo devices used in the balanced modulator, whether dices or transistors, must be matched}, the propertionality constants wall be the same for beth FETs and may be called o, 6, amd ¢ xs before, The two drain currents, calculated as in the Freteding section, will be Hat hte, +g) Set + mart by + bvy + oF + ov} + Devry. 1p nao t Bley = vp) bein = QF Sat by be ted + od ~ lees en sup: As previously indicated, the primary current is givert by the difference between the individual dren coments. Trex Sy ig, — fa 7 Ube + deve; ety whem Equation (4-10) is satvtracted from (4-9). We may how repersnnt the carrier vollage Wy by #, sith ei, and the modulating voltage v; by V,. sin as,.1, Substituting theve ino Equatien (4-11) gives iy DEY, sim aiat + deUV = DA, sin ar + dct wet Sin eat Vober far, — mid — cos tee, + ahh (4-13) “The ouput voltage rp ix propeitional te this primary carreen, Let the onesies of proportionality bee. The vy dy = Bab, sin at + Joel Mens (ar, ~ it — Go tor, + ont Shesplifying, we fet P= Debi, and Q = TeclV,, Thet Ho =P Bt gt * GP onsite — hy QP GG Had > te (413) stra reer poet ‘yor ucts oo Equatiog (4-13) shows that (under ideally symmetrical comsitions) the carrier has been canceled ou, lexving only the twa sidebands and (he modulating frequencies.G4 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 43 ‘The proof applics equally ty both diagrams of Figure 4-3, ‘The naning of the output traaaformer will remove the modilating frequencies trom the outpant, but it is also potsible to suppress them by the action of the circuit. The addition of two more diodes to dhe diode balanced modulator is required for this reault, and the circuit then becomes kenown at the ring modularor. SUPPRESSION OF UNWANTED SIDEBAND ‘As siated earlier, the three practical methods of SSB generation all eve the balanced modulator i suppress the carrier, but euch uses a different mechad of removing the anwenied sideband, All these sysiems will remove either the upper or the lower sideband with equal ease, depending of Ihe specific circuit arrangement, Each of the systerns will now be smdied in tam, 43.1 The Filter System ‘The filler systean Is the sienptest sysea af the three —after the balanced modubator the unwanted sideband is removed factually heavily atermaned) by a filter. The filker nay ‘be LC, crystal, ceramic or mechanical, depending on the eemter {requesey and aber equirensents, A block diagraen of an SSB transititter employing this system is thew in Figure 4+, ‘The key chrevits im this qansmitce we the belenced inodalitor aad the sideband-suppeession filter, The spcial consickeations involving sideband suppression will now be examined. Such a filter must hive « flat bandpass sd extremely high atsenwation outside ‘he bandpass, There is no linei.on tks; the higher the attencuation, the beties. In radio comumamicatiens systems, the fragacacy tunge used for voice is 300 to about 2BO0 He in most cases. IT it is required to suppress the lower sidchasd and if the transmitting frequency is, thea the lowest frequency thu this filter must pass withows aberaation is £4 300 Hz, whereas the Bighest frequency that mest be fully attenuated ia f— Cryetal cecilatcr I $85 cut Sings eengsiiann sideband Butfor fe] Batenced (eel fear LA | 1 fier {| | i {Fier ‘Crystal AF inomeie| Audis | Ld ter othor [+ | omeliator or “a sister sentheeizar FIGURE 4-4 Filer method of sidedand smppression,SINGLE SIDEBAND TECHNIQUES 65 300 Hz. in other words, the filte’s response must change from zero atteneation. 1 fall attentuation over a rings of cely 600 He. If the trananining frequency is much abows 10 MEtz, this is virtually impossible. The situatice becomes even worse if lower mod- lating frmquencies are employed, such as the 50-H2 minimum in AM broadcasting. In onder In cbtsin a filter response curve with skirts ax steep as those sagessted above, the Gof the caned circuits used must be very high. As the transmisting frequency is raised, sa must the be raised, until a situation is reached where che necessary (I is-90 high ‘that there is no practicable method af achieving il. Looking at the situation from: the ceher end, we find thas these mast be am epper frequency linait for any type of fier circuit used. Ui has been ferend. for instance, that multistage LC Glters exhnot be used for RF values much greater ches about 100 kHz. Above this frequency she altenuation cutside the bandpass is insufficienL. LC filsers may still he encoumered in currently aed HF eqquiginest, but they bawe otherwise tended to be supersaded by crystal. ceramic or mechanical Miers, minty because af the bully sire of components and great imyravernents iin mectandcal filters. Mechari- cal falters have been sed at frequencies up a S00 ke, and crystal ex ceramic filsers ep tw ubou 20 Miz. Of the three major types of SSB filters, the mechanical filter seecns to be the one with the best all-around properties, snail sige, good bandpass, very good attenna Hide characteristics and an adequate upper frequency limit aze its chief advaringes, (Crystal of ceruiie filters mary be cheaper, hut ane preferuble only at frequencies above 1 Mite All these fiters (even the crystal) have the sare disedvantege —thelt maximum operating frequency is bekow the sual transmitting frequencies. This Is areason for the fpalanced! mixer shown in Figuee 44. (lt is very much tke «balanced modulate, except that the sum frequency is mach farther from the crystal cacillater frequency than ‘the USH was feom the carrier, so that it-cam be selected with = tered circuit.) In this mixer, the frequency of the crystal oscillator oe syethesizer is added to the SSB signed ‘from the filter. che frequency thus being raised to the value desired fiar transmissiem Such so arrangement also allows the transmitter 1 te ninable. Ef the irsnsmisting frequency is much higher than the operating frequency of the sideband filter, then two stages of crining will be required. Ik becomes too difficult to filer oot the eawasted Frequencies in the onngal of tbe caine. I might be noted that the miner is followed by linear amplifies, Tie reason & that the ampliude of the SSB signal is variable aad must cod tye fed to a class C amplifier, whtich would distor: it. A class B RF amplifier (push-psll) is osed instead because lt is more efficient then a class A emplifler. The name dinear aeypiifier is not ‘confined to SSE cystems. Linear amplifiers are used is any AM systeen in which low ar no signal distortion is = requirement. 43.2 The Phase-Shift Method The phase-shift method avoids filters and some of their inherent dicafvantagec, and instead makes use of wo balanced modulators and tw phate-shifling networks, as shown im Figure 4-5, One of the modulators, Af:, receives the carrier voltages {shifted by GO) ond the modulating voltage, whereas the other, M2, is fed the modulating64 ELECTRONIC COMMLINICATION SYSTEMS: ‘wo lisear armtitians mrodalitor FIGURE 4-5 Single sideband by phuse shift, voltage (shifted through 4") and the carrier veltage. Sometimes the modulating volt age phase shift is arranged sligialy ditferestly. itis made +45" for ose of the balances modulators and —45° for the other, tut the result is the same, Bcth modulators produce aa outpet consisting ecly of sidehands, It will be shows that bolls upper sidebands lea! de input cocvier voltage by 90", One of the lower SSdebands leads the reference voltage by Si", amd the other lags it by SCP. The rw lower sidebards arc thus out of phase, and when combined tn the adder, they canoe! cach otieer. The upper sidchaacis are in phase at the adder and therefore add. giving SSH in which the lower sdcbasd has been conceled. The previows statements nay be proved as follows, Wit istaken for granted that the twe balanced modulators re aiso balanced with Fespect to cach other, then amplitudes may be ignored as they do eot-affeet the result Note also that bech balanced modulators are fed from the same sources. As before, taking sin w_ras the carrier ard cin ar a8 the modulation, we see that the balanced modulator M, will receivesin aiq¢ ned sin (as,¢ + G05, whereas Af; takes sin (ayd + S01 and sin wr. Potlowing the reasoning in the proof of the haleeced modulating, we keow that the output of My will contain sum ned difference frequencies. "Thus vy = eos [eet + 0 — age] — cos flare + OP) + anys] cos (wr ange + OP) — con fae + oye + OOF) (eld a Similarly, che ourpat of Jt, will cootabn vp coe feat — tet + SOY) — cos fast + dr + SO") = cos (ut — aye — BO) — com (as, t + og + 90") (1 The output of the adder is =a) + y= 2 ens fot + at + Wy (+16)SINGLE-SIDEBAND TECHNIQUES 67 This cotput is Gbiained by aching Equations (4:14) and (415) and obsesving thet the first term of the First equating is 181° ost of phase with the first term of the second, We have proved ibat one of the sidchands in the adler is canceled. ‘Tir other is reinforced. The system ns shown yields the upper sideband. .A sienilar anplysis shows thet SSB with the lower sideband preseat will he obeained if bath signals are fed Aphase-shifted) ta the ane balanced madulaine. 4-33 The “Third” Method ‘The thind method of peeceating SSB was developed by Weaver as a means of retaining the advantages of the phase-shift method, such as is ability to generate SSB st any frequency and use- low sadio frequencies, without the associated disadvantage of an AF pase-shift nerwock required to operate aver a liege range of audic frequencies. The third method is i direct competition with the filer method, bist is ery complies snd sot often used commercially, Feoen the: block diagram of Figure 4-6, we see that the liner part of this cercuit is identical to that of the phase-shift methesé, but the way in which appropeiaie vohapes are fed torthe last reo balanced inodalacors at paints C and F has been changed. Insiead of trying to phase-shift the whole range of sadia frequencies, this methad combines them with an AF camer f. which is a fined fregsency in the middle of the audio hand. 1650 Hz. A phase shift is then applied to this frequency only, and after the resaiting ‘voltages have been applied to the first pair of balanced modulators, the low-pass filters whose cutoff frequency is fin ensure that the input to the last pair of balanced modula- lore results in the proper eveadual sidebarul sappression. ‘The proof of this method is unduly complex. and therefore oot given here. It may be shown that all lower sideband signals will be canceled for the configuration af Balront <

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