One Stop Series For GATE/IES/PSU-2014: (Formula Sheet For ECE Dept.,)

One stop series for
GATE/IES/PSU-2014
(Formula Sheet for ECE Dept.,)
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Formula Sheet
(ECE Department)
Index
Page. No.
1. Mathematics
---
---
1 to 9
3. Digital Electronics
---
---
19 to 21
2. EDC & Analog Electronics

4. Microprocessors
---
6. Control Systems
---
5. Signals & Systems
7. Communications
---
---
8. Electro-Magnetic Theory
-----
---
22 to 25
26 to 31
---
32 to 34
---
39 to 45
---
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MatheMatics
Mathematics Formula Sheet
Matrix : If |A| = 0 Singular matrix ; |A| 0 Non singular matrix

Scalar Matrix is a Diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements are equal
Unitary Matrix is a scalar matrix with Diagonal element as 1 (AQ = (A )T = A1 )
If the product of 2 matrices are zero matrix then at least one of the matrix has det zero
Orthogonal Matrix if AAT = AT .A = I AT = A1
A = AT Symmetric
A = - AT Skew symmetric
Properties :- (if A & B are symmetrical )

A + B symmetric
KA is symmetric
AB + BA symmetric
AB is symmetric iff AB = BA
For any A A + AT symmetric ; A - AT skew symmetric.
Diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix are zero
If A skew symmetric A2n symmetric matrix ; A2n1 skew symmetric
If A is null matrix then Rank of A = 0.
Consistency of Equations : r(A, B) r(A) is consistent
r(A, B) = r(A) consistent &
if r(A) = no. of unknowns then unique solution
r(A) < no. of unknowns then solutions .
Hermition , Skew Hermition , Unitary & Orthogonal Matrices :
AT = A then Hermition
AT = A then Hermition
Diagonal elements of Skew Hermition Matrix must be purely imaginary or zero
Diagonal elements of Hermition matrix always real .
A real Hermition matrix is a symmetric matrix.
|KA| = K n |A|
Eigen Values & Vectors : Char. Equation |A I| = 0.

Roots of characteristic equation are called eigen values . Each eigen value corresponds to non zero
solution X such that (A I)X = 0 . X is called Eigen vector .
Sum of Eigen values is sum of Diagonal elements (trace)
Product of Eigen values equal to Determinent of Matrix .
Eigen values of AT & A are same
|A|
is Eigen value of A then 1/ A1 &
is Eigen value of adj A.
1 , 2 n are Eigen values of A then
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Pg.No. 1 of 45
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KA K 1 , K 2 ..K n
m
Am 1m , m
2 .. n .
A + KI
1 + k , 2 + k , .. n + k
(A KI)2 (1 k)2 , (n k)2
Eigen values of orthogonal matrix have absolute value of 1 .

Eigen values of symmetric matrix also purely real .
Eigen values of skew symmetric matrix are purely imaginary or zero .
1 , 2 , n distinct eigen values of A then corresponding eigen vectors X1 , X 2, .. X n for
linearly independent set .
2
adj (adj A) = |A|n2
; | adj (adj A) | = |A|(n1)
Complex Algebra :
Cauchy Rieman equations

=
;
=

1
=
r
1
= r
Neccessary & Sufficient Conditions for f(z) to be analytic
c f(z)/(Z a)n+1 dz =
f(z) = f(z0 ) + f (z0 )
(zz0 )
1!
2i
n!
[ f n (a) ] if f(z) is analytic in region C & Z =a is single point
+ f (z0)
(zz0 )2
2!
(zz )n
+ + f n (z0 ) n!0 + . Taylor Series
fn (z0 )
n
if z0 = 0 then it is called Mclauren Series f(z) =
0 a n (z z0 ) ; when a n = n !
If f(z) analytic in closed curve C except @ finite no. of poles then
c f(z)dz = 2i (sum of Residues @ singular points within C )
Res f(a) = lim( ()
= (a) / (a)
Calculus :-
= lim (1)!
1
1
((Z a)n f(z) )
Rolles theorem :If f(x) is

(a) Continuous in [a, b]
Pg.No. 2 of 45

(b) Differentiable in (a, b)
(c) f(a) = f(b) then there exists at least one value C (a, b) such that f (c) = 0 .
Langranges Mean Value Theorem :If f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b) then there exists atleast one value C in (a, b)
f(b)f(a)
such that f (c) =
ba
Cauchys Mean value theorem :-
If f(x) & g(x) are two function such that

(a) f(x) & g(x) continuous in [a, b]
(b) f(x) & g(x) differentiable in (a, b)
(c) g (x) 0 x in (a, b)
Then there exist atleast one value C in (a, b) such that

f (c) / g (c) =
f(b)f(a)
g(b)g(a)
Properties of Definite integrals :-
a f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx
= 0
a < c < b a f(x). dx = a f(x). dx + c f(x). dx

a
a
0 f(x)dx = 0 f(a x)dx
0 f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx
= 0
na
0 f(x). dx = n 0 f(x)dx
b
f(x) is even
f(x) is odd
if f(x) = f(2a- x)
if f(x) = - f(2a x)
if f(x) = f(x + a)
a f(x). dx = a f(a + b x). dx

Pg.No. 3 of 45

a
a a
0 x f(x). dx = 0 f(x). dx
if f(a - x) = f(x)
/2
/2
sinn x = 0
/2
(n1)(n3)(n5)2
n (n2)(n4).3
cosn x =
sinm x . cosn x . dx =
(n1)(n3)1
n (n2)(n4).2
if n odd
. if n even
{(m1)(m3).(m5)(2 or 1)} {(n1)(n3).(2 or 1)}.K

(m+n) (m+n2)(m+n4)2 or 1
Where K = / 2 when both m & n are even otherwise k = 1
Maxima & Minima :-
A function f(x) has maximum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) < 0

A function f(x) has minimum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) > 0
Constrained Maximum or Minimum :-
To find maximum or minimum of u = f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are connected by (x, y, z) = 0
Working Rule :-
(i) Write F(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z) + (x, y, z)

(ii) Obtain Fx = 0, Fy = 0 , Fz = 0
(ii) Solve above equations along with = 0 to get stationary point .

Laplace Transform :
L () = s n f(s) - s n1 f(0) - s n2 f (0) f n1 (0)

L { t n f(t) } = (1)n
f(t)
t
t
s f(s) ds
dn
dsn
f(s)
0 f(u) du f(s) / s .
Inverse Transforms :-
Pg.No. 4 of 45

s
1
t sin at
2
2 2 =
(s +a )
2a
s2
(s2 +a2 )2
1
(s2 +a2 )2
s
s 2 a2
a
s 2 a2
=
=
1
2a
[ sin at + at cos at]
1
2a3
[ sin at - at cos at]
= Cos hat
= Sin hat
Laplace Transform of periodic function : L { f(t) } =
0 est f(t)dt
Numerical Methods :-
1esT
Bisection Method :(1) Take two values of x1 & x2 such that f(x1 ) is +ve & f(x2 ) is ve then x3 =
+ve then root lies between x3 & x2 otherwise it lies between x1 & x3 .
x1 +x2
2
find f(x3 ) if f(x3 )
Regular falsi method :-
x x
0
Same as bisection except x2 = x0 - f(x 1)f(x
1
Newton Raphson Method :xn+1 = xn
Pi cards Method :x
Taylor Series method :dy

dx
= f(x, y)
Eulers method :y1 = y0 + h f(x0 , y0 )

(1)
h
2
f(x0 )
f(xn )
f (xn )
yn+1 = y0 + x f(x, yn )
0
0)
dy
dx
= f(x, y)
y = y0 + (x- x0 ) (y )0 +
dy
dx
y1 = y0 + [f(x0 , y0 ) + f(x0 + h, y1 )
(x x0 )2
2!
(y)
0 + .
(x x0 )n
n!
(y)n0
= f(x, y
Pg.No. 5 of 45

h
(2)
(1)
y1 = y0 + [f(x0 , y0 ) + f(x0+h, y1 ) ]
:
:
Calculate till two consecutive value of y agree

y2 = y1 + h f(x0 + h, y1 )
(1)
h
2
y2 = y0 + [f(x0 + h, y1 ) + f(x0 + 2h, y2 )
Runges Method :k1 = h f(x0 , y0 )

h
2
k 2 = h f( x0 + , y0 +
k1
2
k = h f(x0 +h , y0 + k1 )
1
6
finally compute K = (K1 + 4K 2 + K 3 )
k 3 = h ( f (x0 +h , y0 + k ))
Runge Kutta Method :k1 = h f(x0 , y0 )
h
2
k 2 = h f( x0 + , y0 +
h
2
k 3 = h f(x0 + , y0 +
k1
2
k2
2
)
)
1
6
finally compute K = (K1 + 2K 2 + 2K 3 + K 4 )
k 3 = h f (x0 +h , y0 + k 3 )
approximation vale
y1 = y0 + K .
Trapezoidal Rule :x +nh
x 0
0
f(x). dx =
h
2
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 2 (y1 + y2 + . yn1 )]
f(x) takes values y0 , y1 ..
@ x0 , x1 , x2 ..
Simpsons one third rule :-
Pg.No. 6 of 45

x +nh
f(x). dx
x 0
0
h
3
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + . yn1 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 + . + yn2 )]
Simpson three eighth rule :x0 +nh
3h
8
f(x). dx =
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 3 (y1 + y2 + y4 + y5 + . yn1 )+ 2 (y3 + y6 + . + yn3 ) ]
Differential Equations :Variable & Seperable :-
f(y) dy = (x) dx
General form is
Sol: f(y) dy = (x) dx + C .

Homo generous equations :dy
dx
General form
f(x,y)
(x,y)
dy
dx
Sol : Put y = Vx
=V+x
Reducible to Homogeneous :dy

dx
General form
(i)
a
a
b
b
Sol : Put
(ii)
dy
dx
a
a
Sol : Let
x=X+h
a
a
dy
dx
b
b
& solve
y=Y+k
Choose h, k such that
dy
dx
becomes homogenous then solve by Y = VX
1
m
ax+by+c
m(ax+by)+c
Put ax + by = t
dv
dx
ax+by+c
a x+b y+c
ax+by+(ah+bk+c)
a x+b y+(a h+b k+c )
b
b
f(x, y) & (x, y) Homogenous of same degree
dy
dx
/b
Pg.No. 7 of 45

Then by variable & seperable solve the equation .
Libnetz Linear equation :General form
dy
dx
+py = Q where P & Q are functions of x
I.F = e p.dx
Sol : y(I.F) = Q. (I. F) dx + C .
Exact Differential Equations :-
M f (x, y)
General form M dx + N dy = 0
If
M
y
N
x
N f(x, y)
then
Sol : M. dx
+ (terms of N containing x ) dy = C
( y constant )
Rules for finding Particular Integral :1

f(D)
eax =
= x
eax
1
f (a)
= x2
1
f(b2 )
1
f(D)
1
f(a)
eax
if f (a) = 0
1
f (a)
sin (ax + b) =
eax
1
f(a2 )
= x
x m = [f(D)]y x m
1
f(D)
eax f(x) = eax
Vector Calculus :-
sin (ax + b)
1
f (a2 )
= x2
if f (a) = 0
sin (ax + b)
1
f (a2 )
1
f(D+a)
sin (ax + b)
f(- a2 ) 0
f(- a2 ) = 0
Same applicable for cos (ax + b)
f(x)
Pg.No. 8 of 45

Greens Theorem :
C ( dx + dy) = x y dx dy
This theorem converts a line integral around a closed curve into Double integral which is special case of
Stokes theorem .
Series expansion :Taylor Series :f(x) = f(a) +
f(x) = f(0) +
f (a)
1!
f (0)
1!
(x-a) +
x +
(1 + x)n = 1+ nx +
x2
f (0)
2!
n(n1)
2
ex = 1 + x + 2 ! + ..
Sin x = x -
Cos x = 1 -
x3
3!
x2
2!
x5
5!
f (a)
2!
(x a)2 + +
x 2 + +
fn (0)
n!
x 2 + | nx| < 1
fn (a)
n!
(x a)n
x n + . (mc lower series )
- ..
x4
+ 4 ! - ..
Pg.No. 9 of 45

EDC & Analog
EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
G/si =1.21 3.6 104 .T ev

Energy gap depending on temperature
G/Ge =0.785 2.23 104 .T ev
EF = EC - KT ln = Ev + KT ln
No. of electrons n = Nc e(EcEf)/RT

(KT in ev)
No. of holes p = Nv e(EfEv )/RT
Mass action law np = n2i = Nc Nv eEG/KT
Drift velocity d = E (for si d 107 cm/sec)
B.I
Hall voltage H =
. Hall coefficient R H = 1/ .
charge density = qN0
we
Energy gap
= ne
Conductivity = ; = R H .
q
q
Max value of electric field @ junction E0 = - Nd . nn0 = - NA . np0 .
si
si
Charge storage @ junction Q + = - Q = qA xn0 ND = qA xp0 NA

EDC
dp
Diffusion current densities Jp = - q Dp

Jn = - q Dn
dx
Drift current Densities = q(p p + nn )E
p , n decrease with increasing doping concentration .
Dn
n
Dp
p
= KT/q 25 mv @ 300 K
Carrier concentration in N-type silicon nn0 = ND ; pn0 = n2i / ND

Carrier concentration in P-type silicon pp0 = NA ; np0 = n2i / NA

Junction built in voltage V0 = VT ln
dn
dx
Width of Depletion region Wdep = xp + xn =

2
xn
N
= A
xp ND
= 12.93
2s 1
q NA
1
(V0
ND
+ VR )
q.NA ND
. A . Wdep
NA +ND
s A
Cj0 =
Wdep / VR =0
Charge stored in depletion region qJ =

Depletion capacitance Cj =
Cj = Cj0 /1 +
VR m
V0
s A
Wdep
Cj = 2Cj0 (for forward Bias)
Forward current I = Ip + In ;
Ip = Aq n2i L
In = Aq n2i L
Saturation Current Is = Aq n2i L
Dp
p ND
+L
Dp
p ND
Dn
n NA
Dn
n NA
/ 1
/ 1
Minority carrier life time p = L2p / Dp ; n = L2n / Dn
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Minority carrier charge storage Qp = p Ip , Q n = p In
Q = Q p + Q n = T I
T = mean transist time
Diffusion capacitance Cd = I = .g Cd I.
carrier life time , g = conductance = I /

I02 = 2(T2 T1 )/10 I01
Junction Barrier Voltage Vj = VB = Vr (open condition)
= Vr - V (forward Bias)
= Vr + V (Reverse Bias)
1
Probability of filled states above E f(E) =
(EEf )/KT
Poisson equation
Drift velocity of e
d2 V
dx2
d 107 cm/sec
nq
Transistor : IE = IDE + InE

IC = ICo IE Active region
IC = IE + ICo (1- eVC /VT )
Common Emitter : IC = (1+ ) ICo + IB
dv
dx
1+e
=E=
nqx
Co
ICEO = 1
Collector current when base open
ICBO Collector current when IE = 0
ICBO > ICo .
V
0
VBE,sat or VBC,sat - 2.5 mv / C ; VCE,sat BE,sat
= - 0.25 mv /0 C
10
Large signal Current gain =

D.C current gain dc =
IC
IB
IC ICBo
IB + ICBo
= hFE
(dc = hFE ) when IB > ICBo

I
Small signal current gain = IC
Over drive factor =
R VCE
= hfe =
active
forced under saturation
Conversion formula :CC CE

hic = hie ; hrc = 1 ;
hfc = - (1+ hfe ) ;
hFE
h
1(ICBo + IB ) FE
IC
IC sat = forced IB sat
hoc = hoe
CB CE
h
hie hoe
h
hoe
hib = 1+hie ; hib = 1+h
- hre ; hfb = 1+hfe ; hob = 1+h
fe
fe
fe
fe
CE parameters in terms of CB can be obtained by interchanging B & E .

Specifications of An amplifier :-
AI =
hf
1+h0 ZL
AV =
Zi = hi + hr AI ZL
AI ZL
Zi
Y0 = ho -
hf hr
hi + Rs
Avs =
AIs =
Av .Zi
Zi +Rs
Av .Rs
Zi +Rs
AI .ZL
Zi +Rs
AIs .ZL
Rs
Avs .Rs
ZL
Choice of Transistor Configuration : For intermediate stages CC cant be used as AV < 1

CE can be used as intermediate stage
CC can be used as o/p stage as it has low o/p impedance
CC/CB can be used as i/p stage because of i/p considerations.
Stability & Biasing :- ( Should be as min as possible)
For S = I C
Co
S = V C
BE
VB0,
IC = S. ICo + S VBE + S
1+
dI
1 B
For fixed bias S =
Collector to Base bias S =
Self bias S =
R1 =
Vcc Rth
Vth
1+
1+
RE
RE +Rth
1+
1+
1+
R
; R 2 = V ccVth
cc
IC
BE,ICo
=1+
dIC
IC0,
S =
th
RC
RC +RB
Rth
Re
0 < s < 1+ =
R E > 10 R 2
1+
RC + RE
RC + RE + RB
1+
For thermal stability [ Vcc - 2Ic (R C + R E )] [ 0.07 Ico . S] < 1/ ;
VCE <
VCC
2
Hybrid pi()- Model :g m = |IC | / VT
rb e = hfe / g m
rb b = hie - rb e
rb c = rb e / hre
g ce = hoe - (1+ hfe ) g b c
For CE :g
f = 2(Cb +e C
e
c)
gm
hfe 2(Ce + Cc )

gbe
1
fT = hfe f ;
fH =
= 2C
C = Ce + Cc (1 + g m R L )
C
2 rbe
fT = S.C current gain Bandwidth product

fH = Upper cutoff frequency
For CC :
fH =
1+gm RL
2CL RL
For CB:
f = 2r
fT =
gm
2CL
1+ hfe
b e (CC + Ce )
fT Ce
CL
gm + gbe
2(CL + Ce )
= (1 + hfe ) f = (1 + ) f
f
1+
f > fT > f
Ebress moll model :IC = - N IE + ICo (1- eV/VT )
IE = - I IC + IEo (1- eV/VT )
I ICo = N IEo
Multistage Amplifiers : fH * = fH 21/n 1 ; fL =
0.35
0.35
=
fH
B.W
2
2
t r1 + t r2 +
Rise time t r =
t r = 1.1
fL
21/n 1
fL = 1.1 fL21 + fL22 +
1
fH
1
f H1
= 1.1 2 +
1
f2H2
Differential Amplifier :
Zi = hie + (1 + hfe ) 2R e = 2 hfe R e 2R e

gm =
0 |IEE |
4VT
= 4VC = g m of BJT/4
h R
CMRR = R fe+he
s
Darlington Pair :-
ie
0 DC value of
R e , Zi , Ad & CMRR

AI = (1 + 1 ) (1 + 2 ) ;
Av 1 ( < 1)
(1+hfe )2 Re2
fe hoc Re2
Zi = 1+h
R o = (1+hs
fe )
2h
+ 1+hie
[ if Q1 & Q 2 have same type ] = AI R e2
fe
g m = (1 + 2 ) g m1
Tuned Amplifiers : (Parallel Resonant ckts used ) :
f0 =
1
2LC
Q Q factor of resonant ckt which is very high
B.W = f0 /Q
BW
2
BW
f0 +
2
fL = f 0 fH =
For double tuned amplifier 2 tank circuits with same f0 used . f0 = fL fH .
MOSFET (Enhancement) [ Channel will be induced by applying voltage]
NMOSFET formed in p-substrate

If VGS Vt channel will be induced & iD (Drain source )
Vt +ve for NMOS
iD (VGS - Vt ) for small VDS
VDS = VGS - Vt channel width 0 pinch off further increase no effect
VDS channel width @ drain reduces .
For every VGS > Vt there will be VDS,sat

1
2
2
iD = K n [ (VGS - Vt ) VDS - VDS
] triode region ( VDS < VGS - Vt )
iD =
1
2
rDS =
2
K n [ VDS
] saturation
Kn
(VGS
Vt )
K n = n Cox
Drain to source resistance in triode region
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Device operates in similar manner except VGS , VDS, Vt are ve
iD enters @ source terminal & leaves through Drain .
VGS Vt induced channel
VDS VGS - Vt Continuous channel
1
2
2
iD = K p [(VGS Vt )2 - VDS
] K p = p Cox
VDS VGS - Vt Pinched off channel .

NMOS Devices can be made smaller & thus operate faster . Require low power supply .
Saturation region Amplifier
For switching operation Cutoff & triode regions are used
NMOS
PMOS
VGS Vt
VGS Vt
VGS - VDS > Vt
VGS - VDS < Vt
VDS VGS - Vt
VDS VGS - Vt
induced channel
Continuous channel(Triode region)

Pinchoff (Saturation)
Depletion Type MOSFET :- [ channel is physically implanted . i0 flows with VGS = 0 ]
For n-channel
iD - VDS characteristics are same except that Vt is ve for n-channel
VGS +ve enhances channel .

-ve depletes channel
Value of Drain current obtained in saturation when VGS = 0 IDSS .

IDSS =
1
2
K n Vt2 .
MOSFET as Amplifier :
For saturation VD > VGS - Vt

To reduce non linear distortion gs < < 2(VGS - Vt )
id = K n (VGS Vt ) gs
d
gs
= - gm RD
Unity gain frequency fT = 2(C
JFET : VGS Vp iD = 0 Cut off
g m = K n (VGS Vt )
gm
gs +Cgd )

Vp VGS 0, VDS VGS - Vp
iD = IDSS 2 1
Vp VGS 0 , VDS VGS - Vp
Triode
I
iD = IDSS 1 VGS = Vp 1
I
gm =
2IDSS
|Vp |
DSS
2I
I
1 = DSS
|V |
I
DSS
Saturation
Zener Regulators :
Vi Vz
Rs
Vsmin Vz0 IZmin rz
IZmin + ILmax
For satisfactory operation

R Smax =
IZmin + ILmax
Load regulation = - (rz || R s )

Line Regulation =
rz
Rs +rz
For finding min R L take Vs min & Vzk , Izk (knee values (min)) calculate according to that .
Operational Amplifier:- (VCVS)
Fabricated with VLSI by using epitaxial method

High i/p impedance , Low o/p impedance , High gain , Bandwidth , slew rate .
FET is having high i/p impedance compared to op-amp .
Gain Bandwidth product is constant .
A
Closed loop voltage gain ACL = 1 OLA
feed back factor
V0 =
OL
1
RC
Vi dt LPF acts as integrator ;
V0 =
R
L
i dt ;
i dt ;
Max operating frequency fmax =
slew rate
2 . V0
For Op-amp integrator V0 =

Slew rate SR =
V0
t
V0
t
Vi
t
= A.
Vi
t
V0 =
L dvi
R dt
(HPF)
Differentiator V0 = -
slew rate
2 Vi A
dvi
dt
In voltage follower Voltage series feedback
In non inverting mode voltage series feedback
In inverting mode voltage shunt feed back
V0 = - VT ln I
V0 = - VBE
= - VT ln I
0
Error in differential % error =
Power Amplifiers :
1
CMRR
100 %
B
Fundamental power delivered to load P1 = 21 R L =
12
Total Harmonic power delivered to load PT = 2 +
22
2
B21
2
RL
+ . .
= P1 1 + 2 + 3 +
1
Where D = +D22 + . . +D2n

D = total harmonic Distortion .
Dn = Bn
= [ 1+ D2 ] P1
Class A operation : o/p IC flows for entire 3600

Q point located @ centre of DC load line i.e., Vce = Vcc / 2 ; = 25 %
Min Distortion , min noise interference , eliminates thermal run way
Lowest power conversion efficiency & introduce power drain
PT = IC VCE - ic Vce if ic = 0, it will consume more power
PT is dissipated in single transistors only (single ended)
Class B:-
IC flows for 1800 ; Q located @ cutoff ; = 78.5% ; eliminates power drain

Higher Distortion , more noise interference , introduce cross over distortion
Double ended . i.e ., 2 transistors . IC = 0 [ transistors are connected in that way ] PT = ic Vce
PT = ic Vce = 0.4 P0
PT power dissipated by 2 transistors .
Class AB operation :-
IC flows for more than 1800 & less than 3600

Q located in active region but near to cutoff ; = 60%
Distortion & Noise interference less compared to class B but more in compared to class A
Eliminates cross over Distortion
Class C operation : IC flows for < 180 ; Q located just below cutoff ; = 87.5%
Very rich in Distortion ; noise interference is high .
Oscillators : For RC-phase shift oscillator f =
f=
For op-amp RC oscillator f =
Wein Bridge Oscillator :f=
1
2RC 6+4K
1
2RC6
1
2RC6
29
k
hfe 4k + 23 +
> 29
where k = R c /R
| Af | 29 R f 29 R1
hfe 3
3
A 3 R f 2 R1
2R R C C
Hartley Oscillator :f=
2(L1 +L2 )C
|hfe | L2
1
L
| | L2
1
L2
|A|
L1
Colpits Oscillator :f=
C C
2L 1 2
C1 +C2
Rf
R1
|hfe | C1
2
| | C1
2
| A | C1
2
Digital Electronics Formula Sheet
Digital Electronics
IOH
IIH
IOL
IIL
Fan out of a logic gate =
Noise margin : VOH - VIH or VOL - VIL

I
+I
Power Dissipation PD = Vcc Icc = Vcc
or
I Ic when o/p low

I Ic when o/p high .
TTL , ECL & CMOS are used for MSI or SSI

Logic swing : VOH - VOL
RTL , DTL , TTL saturated logic
ECL Un saturated logic
Advantages of Active pullup ; increased speed of operation , less power consumption .
For TTL floating i/p considered as logic 1 & for ECL it is logic 0 .
MOS mainly used for LSI & VLSI . fan out is too high
ECL is fastest gate & consumes more power .
CMOS is slowest gate & less power consumption
NMOS is faster than CMOS .
Gates with open collector o/p can be used for wired AND operation (TTL)
Gates with open emitter o/p can be used for wired OR operation (ECL)
ROM is nothing but combination of encoder & decoder . This is non volatile memory .
SRAM : stores binary information interms of voltage uses FF.
DRAM : infor stored in terms of charge on capacitor . Used Transistors & Capacitors .
SRAM consumes more power & faster than DRAM .
CCD , RAM are volatile memories .
1024 8 memory can be obtained by using 1024 2 memories
No. of memory ICs of capacity 1k 4 required to construct memory of capacity 8k 8 are 16
DAC
FSV = VR 1
Resolution =
2
step size
FSV
1
VR /2n
VR 1 n
2
1
= n+1
2
Accuracy = LSB
2
Analog o/p = K. digital o/p
2n 1
100%
ADC
* LSB = Voltage range / 2n
* Resolution =
FSV
2n 1
* Quantisation error = 2nR %
PROM , PLA & PAL :AND

Fixed
OR
Programmable
Programmable fixed
PROM
PAL
Programmable Programmable PLA

Flash Type ADC : 2n1 comparators
2n resistors
2n n Encoder
Fastest ADC :
Successive approximation ADC : n clk pulses

Counter type ADC : 2n - 1 clk pulses
Dual slope integrating type : 2n+1 clock pulses .
Flip Flops :
a(n+1) = S + R Q
=D
= JQ + K Q
= TQ + T Q
Excitation tables :-
0
0
1
1
0 0
1 1
0 0
1 x
1
0
1
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 1
0 x
1 x
1
0
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 1
1 0
1
1
For ring counter total no.of states = n

For twisted Ring counter = 2n (Johnson counter / switch tail Ring counter ) .
To eliminate race around condition t pd clock < < t pd FF .
In Master slave master is level triggered & slave is edge triggered
Combinational Circuits :Multiplexer :-

2n i/ps ; 1 o/p & n select lines.
It can be used to implement Boolean function by selecting select lines as Boolean variables
For implementing n variable Boolean function 2n 1 MUX is enough .
For implementing n + 1 variable Boolean 2n 1 MUX + NOT gate is required .
For implementing n + 2 variable Boolean function 2n 1 MUX + Combinational Ckt is
required
If you want to design 2m 1 MUX using 2n 1 MUX . You need 2mn 2n 1 MUXes
Decoder :
n i/p & 2n o/ps

used to implement the Boolean function . It will generate required min terms @ o/p & those terms
should be OR ed to get the result .
Suppose it consists of more min terms then connect the max terms to NOR gate then it will give the
same o/p with less no. of gates .
If you want to Design m 2m Decoder using n 2n Decoder . Then no. of n 2n Decoder
2m
required = 2n .
In Parallel (n bit ) total time delay = 2n t pd .
For carry look ahead adder delay = 2 t pd .
Microprocessors Formula Sheet
Microprocessors
Clock frequency = crystal frequency

2
Hardware interrupts
TRAP (RST 4.5)
RST 7.5
RST 6.5
RST 5.5
INTR
Software interrupts
RST 0
RST 1
2
:
:
7
S1
S0
Halt
write
Read
fetch
0000H
0008H
0010H
0018H
0024H
both edge level
Edge triggered
003CH
0034 H
level triggered 002C
Non vectored
Vectored
0038H
HOLD & HLDA used for Direct Memory Access . Which has highest priority over all interrupts .
Flag Registers :S
X AC X P X CY
Sign flag :- After arthematic operation MSB is resolved for sign flag . S = 1 -ve result
If Z = 1 Result = 0
AC : Carry from one stage to other stage is there then AC = 1
P : P =1 even no. of ones in result .
CY : if arthematic operation Results in carry then CY = 1
For INX & DCX no flags effected
In memory mapped I/O ; I/O Devices are treated as memory locations . You can connect max of
65536 devices in this technique .
In I/O mapped I/O , I/O devices are identified by separate 8-bit address . same address can be used
to identify i/p & o/p device .
Max of 256 i/p & 256 o/p devices can be connected .
Programmable Interfacing Devices :
8155 programmable peripheral Interface with 256 bytes RAM & 16-bit counter
8255 Programmable Interface adaptor
8253 Programmable Interval timer
8251 programmable Communication interfacing Device (USART)
8257 Programmable DMA controller (4 channel)
8259 Programmable Interrupt controller
8272 Programmable floppy Disk controller
CRT controller
Key board & Display interfacing Device
RLC :- Each bit shifted to adjacent left position . D7 becomes D0 .

CY flag modified according to D7
RAL :- Each bit shifted to adjacent left position . D7 becomes CY & CY becomes D0 .
ROC :-CY flag modified according D0
RAR :- D0 becomes CY & CY becomes D7

CALL & RET Vs PUSH & POP :CALL & RET
PUSH & POP
When CALL executes , p automatically stores

16 bit address of instruction next to CALL on the
Stack
CALL executed , SP decremented by 2
RET transfers contents of top 2 of SP to PC
RET executes SP incremented by 2
* Programmer use PUSH to save the contents

rp on stack
* PUSH executes SP decremented by 2 .
* same here but to specific rp .
* same here
Some Instruction Set information :CALL Instruction

CALL 18T states SRRWW
CC
CM
Call on carry
Call on minus
9 18 states
9-18
CNC Call on no carry


CZ
Call on Zero ; CNZ call on non zero
CP
Call on +ve
CPE
Call on even parity
CPO Call on odd parity
RET : - 10 T
RC
: - 6/ 12 T states
Jump Instructions :JMP 10 T

JC
Jump on Carry
7/10 T states
JNC Jump on no carry

JZ
Jump on zero
JNZ Jump on non zero

JP
JM
Jump on Positive
Jump on Minus
JPE Jump on even parity

JPO Jump on odd parity .
PCHL : Move HL to PC
6T
PUSH : 12 T ; POP : 10 T
SHLD : address : store HL directly to address 16 T
SPHL : Move HL to SP 6T
STAX : R p store A in memory 7T
STC : set carry
4T
XCHG : exchange DE with HL 4T
XTHL :- Exchange stack with HL 16 T
For AND operation AY flag will be set & CY Reset

For CMP if A < Reg/mem : CY 1 & Z 0
(Nothing but A-B)
A > Reg/mem : CY 0 & Z 0
A = Reg/mem : Z 1 & CY 0 .

DAD Add HL + RP (10T) fetching , busidle , busidle
DCX , INX wont effect any flags . (6T)
DCR, INR effects all flags except carry flag . Cy wont be modified
LHLD load HL pair directly
RST 12T states
SPHL , RZ, RNZ ., PUSH, PCHL, INX , DCX, CALL fetching has 6T states
PUSH 12 T ; POP 10T
Signals & Systems Formula Sheet
Signals & Systems
2
Energy of a signal |x(t)|2 dt =
= |[]|
1
Power of a signal P = lim
T |x(t)|2 dt = lim
2+1
x1 (t) P1 ; x2 (t) P2
x1 (t) + x2 (t) P1 + P2 iff x1 (t) & x2 (t) orthogonal
2
N
n=N |x[n]|
Shifting & Time scaling wont effect power . Frequency content doesnt effect power.
if power = neither energy nor power signal
Power = 0 Energy signal
Power = K power signal
Energy of power signal = ; Power of energy signal = 0
Generally Periodic & random signals Power signals

Aperiodic & deterministic Energy signals
Precedence rule for scaling & Shifting :
x(at + b) (1) shift x(t) by b x(t + b)

(2) Scale x(t + b) by a x(at + b)
x( a ( t + b/a)) (1) scale x(t) by a x(at)

(2) shift x(at) by b/a x (a (t+b/a)).
x(at +b) = y(t) x(t) = y
S (t) = h(t)
Step response s(t) = h(t) * u(t) = h(t)dt
h[n] = s[n] s[n-1]

S[n] = =0 []
1
ba
eat u(t) * ebt u(t) =
Rect (t / 2T) * Rect (t / 2T) = 2T tri(t / T)
[ eat - ebt ] u(t) .
A1 Rect (t / 2T1 ) * A2 Rect(t / 2T2 ) = 2 A1 A2 min (T1 , T2 ) trapezoid (T1 , T2 )
Hilbert Transform Pairs :
ex
/22
2 /22
dx = 2 ; x 2 ex
dx = 3 2 > 0

Laplace Transform :x(t) =
+j
1
X(s) est
2j j
ds
X(s) = x(t) est ds
Initial & Final value Theorems :

x(t) = 0 for t < 0 ; x(t) doesnt contain any impulses /higher order singularities @ t =0 then
x( 0+ ) = lim ()
x() = lim ()
0
Properties of ROC :-
1. X(s) ROC has strips parallel to j axis

2. For rational laplace transform ROC has no poles
3. x(t) finite duration & absolutely integrable then ROC entire s-plane
4. x(t) Right sided then ROC right side of right most pole excluding pole s =
5. x(t) left sided
ROC left side of left most pole excluding s= -
6. x(t) two sided
ROC is a strip
8. if x(t) stable
ROC includes j-axis
7. if x(t) causal
ROC is right side of right most pole including s =
Z-transform :x[n] =
1
2j
x(z) z n1 dz
n
X(z) =
n= x[n] z
Initial Value theorem :

If x[n] = 0 for n < 0 then x[0] = lim ()
Final Value theorem :lim [] = lim( 1) X(z)
Properties of ROC :-
1.ROC is a ring or disc centered @ origin

2. DTFT of x[n] converter if and only if ROC includes unit circle
3. ROC cannot contain any poles
4. if x[n] is of finite duration then ROC is enter Z-plane except possibly 0 or
5. if x[n] right sided then ROC outside of outermost pole excluding z = 0
6. if x[n] left sided then ROC inside of innermost pole including z =0
7. if x[n] & sided then ROC is ring
8. ROC must be connected region
9.For causal LTI system ROC is outside of outer most pole including
10.For Anti Causal system ROC is inside of inner most pole including 0
11. System said to be stable if ROC includes unit circle .
12. Stable & Causal if all poles inside unit circle
13. Stable & Anti causal if all poles outside unit circle.
Phase Delay & Group Delay :When a modulated signal is fixed through a communication channel , there are two different delays to be
considered.
(i) Phase delay:
Signal fixed @ o/p lags the fixed signal by (c ) phase
(c )
P = where (c ) = K H(j)
c
Frequency response of channel

d()
g =
for narrow Band signal
Group delay
Signal delay / Envelope delay
= c
Probability & Random Process: P (A/B) =
P(AB)
P(B)
Two events A & B said to be mutually exclusive /Disjoint if P(A B) =0

Two events A & B said to be independent if P (A/B) = P(A) P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
P(Ai / B) =
P(Ai B)
P(B)
B
Ai
P P(Ai)
B
Ai
n
i=1 P P(Ai)
CDF :Cumulative Distribution function Fx (x) = P { X x }

Properties of CDF :
Fx () = P { X } = 1
Fx (- ) = 0
Fx (x1 X x2 ) = Fx (x2 ) - Fx (x1 )

Its Non decreasing function
P{ X > x} = 1 P { X x} = 1- Fx (x)
PDF :Pdf = fx (x) =
d
dx
Fx (x)
Pmf = fx (x) =
i= P{X = xi } (x = xi )
Properties: fx (x) 0
Fx (x) = fx (x) * u(x) = fx (x) dx
Fx () = fx (x) dx =1 so, area under PDF = 1

x
P { x1 < X x2 } = x 2 fx (x)dx
Mean & Variance :-
Mean x = E {x} = x fx (x) dx
Variance 2 = E { (X x )2 } = E {x 2 } - 2x
E{g(x)} = g(x) fx (x) dx
Uniform Random Variables :
Random variable X ~ u(a, b) if its pdf of form as shown below

1
fx (x) =
Fx (x) =
Mean =
; <
0 ,
a+b
2
1 ; >
; < <
0 ;
Variance = (b a)2 / 12
E{ x 2 } =
Gaussian Random Variable :-
a2 + ab+ b2
3

2
2
1
fx (x) =
e(x) /2
2
X ~ N (1 2)
Mean = x
Variance =
22
22
2 /22
e(x)
x 2 e(x)
dx =
2 /22
Exponential Distribution :-
dx = 2
fx (x) = ex u(x)
Fx (x) = ( 1- ex ) u(x)
Laplacian Distribution :
fx (x) = e |x|
2
Multiple Random Variables :
FXY (x , y) = P { X x , Y y }
FXY (x , ) = P { X x } = Fx (x) ; Fxy ( , y) = P { Y < y } = FY (y)
Fxy (-, y) = Fxy (x, - ) = Fxy (-, -) = 0
fx (x) = fxy (x, y) dy ; fY (y) = fxy (x, y) dx

Y
X
FY/X x =
fY/X (y/x) =
P{Y y, X x}
P{X x}
fxy (x,y)
FXY (x,y)
FX (x)
fx (x)
Independence : X & Y are said to be independent if FXY (x , y) = FX (x) FY (y)

fXY (x, y) = fX (x) . fX (y)
P { X x, Y y} = P { X x} . P{Y y}
Correlation:

Corr{ XY} = E {XY} = fxy (x, y). xy. dx dy
If E { XY} = 0 then X & Y are orthogonal .
Uncorrelated :Covariance = Cov {XY} = E { (X - x ) (Y- y }

= E {xy} E {x} E{y}.
If covariance = 0 E{xy} = E{x} E{y}

Independence uncorrelated but converse is not true.
Random Process:Take 2 random process X(t) & Y(t) and sampled @ t1 , t 2
X(t1 ) , X(t 2 ) , Y(t1 ) , Y (t 2 ) random variables
Auto correlation
Auto covariance
cross correlation
cross covariance
R x (t1 , t 2 ) = E {X(t1 ) X(t 2 ) }

Cx (t1 , t 2 ) = E { X(t1 ) - x (t1 )) (X(t 2 ) - x (t 2 ) } = R x (t1 , t 2 ) - x (t1 ) x (t 2 )
R xy(t1 , t 2 ) = E { X(t1 ) Y(t 2 ) }
Cxy(t1 , t 2 ) = E{ X(t1 ) - x (t1 )) (Y(t 2 ) - y (t 2 ) } = R xy(t1 , t 2 ) - x (t1 ) y (t 2 )
CXY (t1 , t 2 ) = 0 R xy(t1 , t 2 ) = x (t1 ) y (t 2 ) Un correlated

R XY (t1 , t 2 ) = 0 Orthogonal cross correlation = 0
FXY (x, y ! t1 , t 2 ) = Fx (x! t1 ) Fy (y ! t 2 ) independent
Properties of Auto correlation :-
R x (0) = E { x 2 }
R x () = R x (-) even
| R x () | R x (0)
Cross Correlation
R xy() = R yx(-)
R2xy() R x (0) . R y (0)
2 | R xy()| R x (0) + R y (0)
Power spectral Density :
P.S.D
Sx (j) = R x () ej d
R x () =
1
(j)ej d
2
2
Sy (j) = Sx (j) |H(j)|

Power = R x (0) =
1
(j) d
2
R x () = k () white process
Properties :
Sx (j) even
Sx (j) 0

Control Systems Formula Sheet
Control Systems
Time Response of 2nd order system :Step i/P :
e n t
C(t) = 1-
e(t) =
ess = lim
12
e n t
12
12
(sin n 1 2 t tan1
12
sin tan1
e n t
12
sin tan1
12
Damping ratio ; n Damping factor

< 1(Under damped ) :-
C(t) = 1- =
e n t
12
Sin tan1
= 0 (un damped) :-
12
c(t) = 1- cos n t
= 1 (Critically damped ) :C(t) = 1 - en t (1 + n t)

> 1 (over damped) :C(t) = 1 T=
Tundamped > Toverdamped > Tunderdamped > Tcriticaldamp
Time Domain Specifications :
Rise time t r =
Peak time t p =
n
n
d
12
12
= tan1
2
Max over shoot % Mp = en/1 100

Settling time t s = 3T
5% tolerance

= 4T
2% tolerance
1+0.7
Delay time t d =
(ln Mp )2
Damping factor 2 2 =
2 + (ln Mp )2
2
Time period of oscillations T =
d
t
t
No of oscillations = s = s d
2/d
2
t r 1.5 t d t r = 2.2 T
Resonant peak Mr =
212
>
>
; r = n 1 22
Bandwidth b = n (1 22 + 4 4 4 2 + 2)1/2
r < n < b
Static error coefficients :
()
1+
0
Step i/p : ess = lim () = lim () = lim

ess =
1
1+KP
Ramp i/p (t) : ess =
(positional error)
1
Kv
Parabolic i/p (t 2 /2) : ess = 1/ K a
K p = lim () ()
0
K v = lim ()()
0
K a = lim s 2 ()()
0
Type < i/p ess =

Type = i/p ess finite
Type > i/p ess = 0
Sensitivity S =
A/A
K/K
sensitivity of A w.r.to K.
Sensitivity of over all T/F w.r.t forward path T/F G(s) :

Open loop:
S =1
Closed loop :
S=
1
1+G(s)H(s)
Minimum S value preferable
Sensitivity of over all T/F w.r.t feedback T/F H(s) : S =
Stability
RH Criterion :
G(s)H(s)
1+G(s)H(s)
Take characteristic equation 1+ G(s) H(s) = 0

All coefficients should have same sign
There should not be missing s term . Term missed means presence of at least one +ve real part root

If char. Equation contains either only odd/even terms indicates roots have no real part & posses only
imag parts there fore sustained oscillations in response.
Row of all zeroes occur if
(a) Equation has at least one pair of real roots with equal image but opposite sign
(b) has one or more pair of imaginary roots
(c) has pair of complex conjugate roots forming symmetry about origin.
Communications Formula Sheet
Communication Systems
Amplitude Modulation :
DSB-SC :
u (t) = AC m(t) cos 2fc t
Power P =
A2C
P
2 M
Conventioanal AM :
u (t) = AC [1 + m(t)] Cos 2fc t . as long as |m(t)| 1 demodulation is simple .

Practically m(t) = a mn (t) .
m(t)
m(t)
Modulation index a = (t) , mn (t) =
Power =
A2C
2
A2C a2
4
mn
max |m(t)|
SSB-AM :
Square law Detector SNR =
2
Ka m(t)
Square law modulator
K a = 2a2 / a1 amplitude Sensitivity
Envelope Detector R s C (i/p) < < 1 / fc
1
m 2
Rl C
1
R l C (o/P) >> 1/ fc
R l C << 1/
Frequency & Phase Modulation : Angle Modulation :u (t) = AC Cos (2fc t + (t) )
()
(t)
t
2K f m(t) . dt FM
K p & K f phase & frequency deviation constant
max phase deviation = K p max | m(t) |

max frequency deviation f = K f max |m(t) |
Bandwidth :
Effective Bandwidth BC = 2 ( + 1) fm
Noise in Analog Modulation :S
N 0
(SNR)Base Band = =
Pm
Pn
98% power
= N RB
0
Pg.No. 35 of 45

R = m(t) cos 2fc
PR = Pm / 2
(SNR)DSBSC =
(SNR)SSBSC =
S
N com AM
2 P
Pm /4
= 2
PnI/4
0
Pm /4
=
Pni/4
0
P
S
N
S
N 0
S
N 0
S
N Base Band
= 1+2 Pm . N RB =
m
= 2N RB = N RR = = (SNR)Base band
= N RB = = (SNR)Base band .
Noise in Angle Modulation :-
2P
2 P m
1+2 Pm
S
N b
S
3 f2 PMn N , FM
b
2 PMn , PM
PCM : Min. no of samples required for reconstruction = 2 = fs ; = Bandwidth of msg signal .
Total bits required = v fs bps . v bits / sample

Bandwidth = R b /2 = v fs / 2 = v .
SNR = 1.76 + 6.02 v
As Number of bits increased SNR increased by 6 dB/bit . Band width also increases.
Delta Modulation :-
By increasing step size slope over load distortion eliminated [ Signal raised sharply ]
By Reducing step size Grannualar distortion eliminated . [ Signal varies slowly ]
Digital Communication
Matched filter:
impulse response a(t) = P ( T t) . P(t) i/p
Matched filter o/p will be max at multiples of T . So, sampling @ multiples of T will give max SNR
(2nd point )
matched filter is always causal a(t) = 0 for t < 0
Spectrum of o/p signal of matched filter with the matched signal as i/p ie, except for a delay factor ;
proportional to energy spectral density of i/p.
0 (f) = Hopt (f) (f) = (f) *(f) e2fT
Pg.No. 36 of 45
0 (f) = |(f)|2 ej2fT
o/p signal of matched filter is proportional to shifted version of auto correlation fine of i/p signal
0 (t) = R (t T)
0 (T) = R (0) which proves 2nd point
At t = T
Cauchy-Schwartz in equality :
|g1 (t) g 2 (t) dt|2 g12 (t) dt |g 2 (t)|2 dt

If g1 (t) = c g 2 (t) then equality holds otherwise < holds
Raised Cosine pulses :
P(t) =
t
T
t
( )
T
Sin( )
t
)
T
2
14 t T2
Cos (
T , |f|
2T
1
1
2 t
P(f) = T cos |f|
;
|f|
2
2T
2T
1+
0, |f| >
2T
Bamdwidth of Raised cosine filter fB =

roll of factor
T signal time period
For Binary PSK Pe = Q = Q

2
4 PSK Pe = 2Q 1
0
FSK:For BPSK
1
2
1+
2T
1+
2T
1
2
Bit rate
1
T
2fB
1+
erfc .
Pe = Q = Q = erfc 2
2
2
0
All signals have same energy (Const energy modulation )
Energy & min distance both can be kept constant while increasing no. of points . But Bandwidth
Compramised.
Pg.No. 37 of 45

PPM is called as Dual of FSK .
1
For DPSK Pe = eb /N0
Orthogonal signals require factor of 2 more energy to achieve same Pe as anti podal signals
Orthogonal signals are 3 dB poorer than antipodal signals. The 3dB difference is due to distance b/w 2
points.
1
For non coherent FSK Pe = eb /N0
2
FPSK & 4 QAM both have comparable performance .
32 QAM has 7 dB advantage over 32 PSK.
Bandwidth of Mary PSK =
Bandwidth of Mary FSK =
2
Ts
M
2Ts
b
Bandwidth efficiency S = B.W
.
Tblogm
; S=
M
2Tb logm
2
logm
2
2
;S=
logm
2
m
Symbol time Ts = Tb log m

2
Band rate =
Bit rate
logm
2
Pg.No. 38 of 45

Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
Electromagnetic Fields
Vector Calculus: A. (B C) = C. (A B) = B. (C A)
A(BC) = B(A.C) C(A.B) Bac Cab rule
(A.B)
Scalar component of A along B is AB = A Cos AB = A . aB =
B = A Cos AB . aB =
Vector component of A along B is A
|B|
(A.B) B
|B|2
Laplacian of scalars : A. ds = (.) Divergence theorem

L A.dI = ( ) Stokes theorem
2 A = ( .A) - A
.A = 0 solenoidal / Divergence loss ; .A > 0 source ; .A < 0 sink
A = 0 irrotational / conservative/potential.
2 A = 0 Harmonic .
Electrostatics : Force on charge Q located @ r F =
Q
40
E @ point r due to charge located @
E due to line charge @ distance E =
Qk (rrk )
Q Q
12
; F12 = 41 R23 . R
|rrk |3
0
1
(rrk )
N
=
Q
40 K=1 |rrk 3 k
L
. a (depends on distance)
2
N
k=1
E due to surface charge s is E = 2s an . an unit normal to surface (independent of distance)

0
For parallel plate capacitor @ point P b/w 2 plates of 2 opposite charges is
E = s an - s ( )
20
20
E due to volume charge E =
Electric flux density D = 0 E

Flux = s D .ds
Q
40 R2
ar .
D independent of medium
Gauss Law : Total flux coming out of any closed surface is equal to total charge enclosed by surface .
= Q enclosed D . ds = Q enclosed = v . dv
v = . D
Electric potential VAB =

B
VAB = - A
Q
40 r2
w
Q
= - A E. dI (independent of path)
ar . dr ar = VB - VA (for point charge )
Potential @ any point (distance = r), where Q is located same where , whose position is vector @ r
Q
V=
|rr |
V(r) =
40
Q
40 r
+ C . [ if C taken as ref potential ]
E = 0, E = - V

1
1
For monopole E 2 ; Dipole E 3 .
r
1
V ;
V 2
r
r
Electric lines of force/ flux /direction of E always normal to equipotential lines .
1
1
1
Energy Density WE = N
Q V = D. E dv = 0 E 2 dv
2 k=1 k k
2
2
v
t
Continuity Equation .J = v = v 0 e
t/Tr
where Tr = Relaxation / regeneration time = / (less for good conductor )
Boundary Conditions :Et1 = Et2

Tangential component of E are continuous across dielectric-dielectric Boundary .
Tangential Components of D are dis continues across Boundary .
D
Et1 = Et2 ; D1t = 1 / 2 .
2t
Normal components are of D are continues , where as E are dis continues.
tan
D1n - D2n = s ; E1n = 2 E2n ; tan 1 = 1 = r1

H1t = H2t
B12 =
B1n = B2n
1
2
H1n =
B2 t
2
1
r2
H2n
Maxwells Equations : faraday law Vemf = E. dI = -
d
dt
B. ds
B
Transformer emf = E. dI = -
ds E = t
s
B
t
Motional emf = Em = ( B).

H=J+
D
t
Electromagnetic wave propagation :

H = J +
D = E
E = -
B = H
J = E
. D = v
.B = 0
Ey
Hz
=-
Ez
Hy
= / ; E.H = 0
For loss less medium 2 E - 2 E = 0
= 1 + 1
2
2 E =
2 H =
E H in UPW
= j( + j) = + j.
= 1 + + 1
2
E(z, t) = E0 ez cos(t z) ; H0 = E0 / .
|| =
=
+j
1+
| | <
tan 2 = /.
1/4
2

| Np | = 20 log10 = 8.686 dB
= + j
attenuation constant Neper /m .
For loss less medium = 0; = 0.
phase shift/length ; = / ; = 2/ .
Js
=
= / = tan loss tanjent = 2
Jd
If tan is very small ( < < ) good (lossless) dielectric

If tan is very large ( >> ) good conductor
Complex permittivity C = 1 = - j .
Tan =
Plane wave in loss less dielectric :- ( 0)

1
= 0 ; = ; =
;
= 2/ ; = r /r 0.
E & H are in phase in lossless dielectric
Free space :- ( = 0, = 0 , = 0 )
= 0 , = 0 0 ; u = 1/ 0 0 , = 2/ ; = 0 /0 < 0 = 120 0
Here also E & H in phase .
Good Conductor : > >
/ =
= 0 ; = 0 r
= = f ; u = 2/ ; = 2 / ; =
Skin depth = 1/
1
1+j
= 2 ej/4 =
Skin resistance R s =
Rs .l
w
l
R dc = .
s
R ac =
450
Poynting Vector :
1
(E H) ds = - [ E 2 + H 2 ] dv E 2 dv
dt
2
S
v
ave (z) =
1 E20 2z
e
2 ||
cos az
Total time avge power crossing given area Pavge = Pave (s) ds
S
Direction of propagation :- ( )
ak aE = aH
aE aH = ak
Both E & H are normal to direction of propagation
Means they form EM wave that has no E or H component along direction of propagation .
Reflection of plane wave :(a) Normal incidence
E

Reflection coefficient = Er0 = 2 + 1
E
i0
Txn coefficient = Et0 =

i0
22
2 + 1
Medium-I Dielectric , Medium-2 Conductor : > :>0 , there is a standing wave in medium & Txed wave in medium 2.
Max values of | E1 | occurs
n
Zmax = - n/1 = 2 1 ; n = 0, 1, 2.
Zmin =
(2n+1)
21
(2n+1)1
4
< :- E1max occurs @ 1 Zmax =
(2n+1)
2
1 Zmin = n Zmin =
H1 min occurs when there is |t1 |max

|E |
|H |
1+||
s1
S = |E1 |max = |H1 |max =
;||=
1 min
1||
1 min
n
1
Zmax =
n1
2
(2n+1)
21
(2n+1)1
4
s+1
Since || < 1 1
Transmission Lines : Supports only TEM mode

LC = ; G/C = / .
d2 Vs
dz2
- r 2 Vs = 0 ;
d2 Is
dz2
- r 2 Is = 0
= (R + jL)(G + jC) = + j
V(z, t) = V0+ ez cos (t- z) + V0 ez cos (t + z)
V
Z0 = I0 =
0
R+jL
G+jC
Lossless Line : (R = 0 =G; = 0)
R+jL
G+jC

= + j = jLC ; = 0, = w LC ; = 1/ f LC , u = 1/ LC
Z0 = L/C
Distortion less :(R/L = G/C)
G
R
R
G
= RG ; = L = C = LC
R
G
L
C
Z0 = = ; = 1/f LC ; u =
LC
i/p impedance : + Z tan hl

Zin = Z0 + Z 0 tan hl for lossless line
Zin =
0
L
+ Z0 tan l
Z0 + Z tan l
0
L
= j tan hjl = j tan l
Z Z
VSWR = L = ZL+Z0
L
CSWR = - L
Transmission coefficient S = 1 +
V
I
1+| L |
Z
SWR = Vmax = Imax =
= ZL
|
min
|Zin |max =
|Zin |min =
Vmax
Imin
Vmin
Imax
min
1|L
= SZ0
= Z0 /S
Shorted line :- L = -1 , S =
= Vp ; uz0 = 1/C , u /z0 = 1/L
L = -1 , S =
Z0
ZL
(ZL > Z0 ) (ZL < Z0 )
Zin = Zsc = jZ0 tan l
Zin = Zsc = j Z0 tan l.
Zin may be inductive or capacitive based on length 0
If l < / 4 inductive (Zin +ve)
< l < /2 capacitive (Zin -ve)

4
Open circuited line :Zin = Zoc = -jZ0 cot l

l = 1 s =
Zsc Zoc = Z02
l < / 4 capacitive
< l < /2 inductive
Matched line : (ZL = Z0 )

Zin = Z0 = 0 ; s =1
No reflection . Total wave Txed . So, max power transfer possible .

Behaviour of Transmission Line for Different lengths : =
=0
l = /4
l = /2 : Zin = Z0
impedance inverter @ l = /4
=0
impedance reflector @ l = /2
Wave Guides :TM modes : (Hz = 0)
Ez = E0 sin x sin y enz
m 2
h2 = k 2x + k 2y
n 2
b
+ 2
m no. of half cycle variation in X-direction

n no. of half cycle variation in Y- direction .
2
2
1
m + n
a
b
n 2
Evanscent mode
b
n 2
Cut off frequency C =
k2 <
m 2

a
m 2
k2 >
fc =
up
2
where k =
= 0; = 0 =
; =; =0
+ Propegation mode = j = 0
b
m 2
= k 2
n 2
b
m + n up = phase velocity =
a
c = u /fc =
is lossless dielectric medium
m
n
( a )2 +(b)2
f 2
f
= 1 c
= / W
= phase constant in dielectric medium.
up = / = 2/ = up /f phase velocity & wave length in side wave guide

E
TM = Hx = - Hy =
y
TM = 1 fc
TE Modes :- ( = 0)
Hz = H0 cos
f
= 1 fc
impedance of UPW in medium
enz
cos

TE =
= / 1 fc
TE > TM
TE10 Dominant mode
Antennas :jI dl
Hertzian Dipole :- Hs = 0
sin ej
Half wave Dipole :Hs =
4r
jI0 ej cos cos

2 sin
Es = Hs
Es = Hs

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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

Matrix : If |A| = 0 Singular matrix ; |A| 0 Non singular matrix

Properties :- (if A & B are symmetrical )

Hermition , Skew Hermition , Unitary & Orthogonal Matrices :

Eigen Values & Vectors : Char. Equation |A I| = 0.

1 , 2 n are Eigen values of A then

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

Eigen values of orthogonal matrix have absolute value of 1 .

Cauchy Rieman equations

Neccessary & Sufficient Conditions for f(z) to be analytic

[ f n (a) ] if f(z) is analytic in region C & Z =a is single point

+ + f n (z0 ) n!0 + . Taylor Series

Res f(a) = lim( ()

((Z a)n f(z) )

Rolles theorem :If f(x) is

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

Cauchys Mean value theorem :-

If f(x) & g(x) are two function such that

Then there exist atleast one value C in (a, b) such that

Properties of Definite integrals :-

a < c < b a f(x). dx = a f(x). dx + c f(x). dx

a f(x). dx = a f(a + b x). dx

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

{(m1)(m3).(m5)(2 or 1)} {(n1)(n3).(2 or 1)}.K

Where K = / 2 when both m & n are even otherwise k = 1

Maxima & Minima :-

A function f(x) has maximum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) < 0

Constrained Maximum or Minimum :-

To find maximum or minimum of u = f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are connected by (x, y, z) = 0

(i) Write F(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z) + (x, y, z)

(ii) Solve above equations along with = 0 to get stationary point .

L () = s n f(s) - s n1 f(0) - s n2 f (0) f n1 (0)

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

[ sin at + at cos at]

[ sin at - at cos at]

Laplace Transform of periodic function : L { f(t) } =

find f(x3 ) if f(x3 )

Regular falsi method :-

Newton Raphson Method :xn+1 = xn

Taylor Series method :dy

Eulers method :y1 = y0 + h f(x0 , y0 )

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

Calculate till two consecutive value of y agree

y2 = y0 + [f(x0 + h, y1 ) + f(x0 + 2h, y2 )