Week 1

Lecture 1.1

INTRODUCTION

Grading
Each week:
Video lectures
PDF reading material
Quizzes and peer-graded problems

Use the Forum!

There will be a final exam.
Videos are stand-alone: you can do this class without the PDF
material, but your score will be capped at 80%.
Passing grade is 60%. This is what you need to get your
certificate.

What we will learn this week:

What is the purpose of functional analysis?

What is a topology?
What is an open set and a closed set?
What is a compact set?
What is convergence?

Convergence?
un = 1/n
1

u1 = 1
u2 = 1/2
u3 = 1/3
u4 = 1/4
u10 = 1/10

10

Convergence?

Convergence?

fn defined from R to R by
fn(x) = |sin(x)|n

What we will learn this week

What is the point of functional analysis?

What is a topology?
What is an open set, a closed set?
What is a compact set?
What is convergence?
What is continuity?
What is the initial topology?
Trick your calculus instructor: every function can
be continuous!

Week 1
Lecture 1.2

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS?

Week 1
Lecture 1.3

OPEN SETS & TOPOLOGY

Definition: Topology
Let X be a set and T be a family of subsets of X.
T is called a topology on X if:
i. The empty set and X are elements of T
ii. Any union of elements of T is in T
iii. Any finite intersection of elements of T is in T
(X,T) is a topological space.
Elements of T are called open sets.

In-video Quiz
X = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 }
T = { {1,2} , {3,4} }
Is T a topology?

In-video Quiz
X = { 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }
Which ones are topologies?
T = { , {1,2} , {3,4} , {1,2,3,4}, X }
T = { , {1,2} , {2,3} , {1,2,3,4}, X }
T = { , {1,2} , {2,3} , {2}, X }
T = { , {1,2} , {2,3} , {2}, {1,2,3}, X }

Construction of a Topology
Let us answer this more general question
How do you turn a family of sets F into a topology?
(while adding the fewest possible sets)
Add and the whole space to F.
Add to F all finite intersections of elements of F
Add to F all unions of elements of (new) F
F is now stable by unions
It can be proved F is stable by finite intersections.

Construction of a Topology
Let us answer this more general question
How do you turn a family of sets F into a topology?
(while adding the fewest possible sets)
Add and the whole space to F.
Add to F all finite intersections of elements of F
Add to F all unions of elements of (new) F

Note: 2 and 3 cannot be permuted!

Definition: Topology
A set X is always a topological space
The trivial topology: T t = {,X}
The discrete topology: Td= {all subsets of X}
Given two topologies on X: T1 and T2 with T1 T2 .
T1 is coarser (or weaker or smaller) than T2
T2 is finer (or stronger or larger) than T1
If T is a topology then Tt T Td

In-Video Quiz
X = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 }
T1 = { , {1,2} , {1,2,3,4}, X }
T2 = { , {1,2} , {5} , {1,2,5} , {1,2,3,4} , X }
Which one is true?
T1 is coarser than T2
T2 is coarser than T1
None of the above

Definition: Usual Topology on R

X=R
T = { sets O s.t.
for every x in O, there exists >0,
]x-,x+[ O }
Examples:
]1,2[ is open
[1;2[ is not

x=1

Definition: Closed sets

Complements of open sets are called closed sets.
Example:
X={1,2,3,4,5}
T = { , {1,2} , {2,3} , {2} , {1,2,3} , X }
{1,2} is an open set
{3,4,5} is a closed set because {3,4,5} = X \ {1,2}

Definition: Neighborhood
Let X be a topological space
Let x X.
The set U is called a neighborhood of x if
There exists an open set V s.t.
i. x V
ii. V U
The set of neighborhoods of x is noted V(x).

Week 1
Lecture 1.4

COMPACT SETS

Definition: Compactness
Let X be a topological space.
We say that KX is a compact set if
K is not empty and
for any arbitrary open sets Ui X (i I)
whose union contains K,
one can find a finite number of these open sets
such that their union contains K.

Example: Compactness
Let X=R be equipped with the usual topology.
K=]0;1] is not compact
Ui = ]1/i, 2[ for (i N\{0})
The union contains K

1/n
Let x be in K
Un
Then 0<x1
Let n=[1/x]+1
0x
1
Then n>1/x
Therefore x>1/n
Therefore x is in Un
Thus K is in the union of Ui for i in N\{0}

Example: Compactness
Let X=R be equipped with the usual topology.
K=]0;1] is not compact
Ui = ]1/i, 2[ for (i N\{0})
The union contains K

Example: Compactness
Let X=R be equipped with the usual topology.
K=]0;1] is not compact

Ui = ]1/i, 2[ for (i N\{0})

The union contains K
But a finite number of these open sets is not
enough to cover K

Example: Compactness
Let X=R be equipped with the usual topology.
Is K=[0;+[ a compact set?
Ui = ]-1,i[ for (i N\{0})
The union contains K
But a finite number of these open sets is not
enough to cover K

Example: Compactness
Let X=R be equipped with the usual topology.
K=[0;1] is compact.
Let S be a set of open covers of K.
Let A be the set of x in [0;1] such that one can
extract a finite subcover of S for [0,x]
A is not empty (it contains 0)
A has a supremum M
A is bounded by 1

Example: Compactness
Let X=R be equipped with the usual topology.
K=[0;1] is compact.
[0,M] can be covered by a finite subcover of S
Suppose M<1
Let O be in S containing M
O is open, thus there exists >0 s.t. [M,M+[O
So we can build a finite subcover of [0,M+/2]

Example: Compactness
Let X=R be equipped with the usual topology.
K=[0;1] is compact.
[0,M] can be covered by a finite subcover of S
Suppose M<1
It leads to a contradiction, therefore it is wrong
Thus M=1

Week 1
Lecture 1.5

CONVERGENCE &
CONTINUITY

Definition: Converging Sequences

Let X be a topological space
and (xn) be a sequence of elements of X.
We say that (xn) converges to l if
V V (l), N N, n N x n V
(xn) may converge to several elements of X

Hausdorff Spaces
A topological space X is a Hausdorff space
(or a T2 space or a separated space) if:
Given two distinct points in X
one can find two open disjoints sets,
each containing a point

In a Hausdorff space,
the limit of a sequence is unique.

Definition: Converging Sequences

Let X be topological a space
and (xn) be a sequence of elements of X.
We say that (xn) converges to l if
V V (l), N N, n N x n V
(xn) may converge to several elements of X

Definition: Converging Sequences

Let X be topological a space
and (xn) be a sequence of elements of X.
We say that (xn) converges to l if
V V (l), N N, n N x n V
(xn) may converge to several elements of X
If the topology on X is stronger (larger/finer),
it is harder for (xn) to converge.

Definition: Converging Sequences

Let X be topological a space
and (xn) be a sequence of elements of X.
We say that (xn) converges to l if
V V (l), N N, n N x n V
(xn) may converge to several elements of X
If the topology on X is stronger (larger/finer),
it is harder for (xn) to converge.
If X is equipped with the discrete topology,
only sequences that become constant converge.

Definition: Continuous Mappings

Let X and Y be topological spaces
A mapping f : XY is continuous if
the inverse image of an open set is an open set.
If the topology on X is finer (larger/stronger),
it is easier for f to be continuous.
If X is equipped with the discrete topology,
any mapping is continuous.

Continuous Mappings and Sequences

The chosen definitions work well:
Proposition
Let X and Y be two topological spaces
Let f : XY is be a continuous mapping
Let (xn) be a sequence in X converging to l
Define yn = f(xn)
Then (yn) converges to f(l) in Y

Continuous Mappings and Sequences

f-1(W) is a neighborhood of l
Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).
Then there exists an open set U such that
f(l) U and U W
Since f is continuous, f-1(U) is open
(thanks to the definition of continuity)
Since f(l) U, we have l f-1(U)
We always have f-1(U) f-1(W)

Continuous Mappings and Sequences

Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).

f-1(W) is a neighborhood of l

Continuous Mappings and Sequences

Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).

V = f-1(W) is a neighborhood of l

Continuous Mappings and Sequences

Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).
Since (xn) converges to l:

V V (l), N N, n N x n V
V = f-1(W) is a neighborhood of l

Continuous Mappings and Sequences

Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).
Since (xn) converges to l:

V V (l), N N, n N x n V
V = f-1(W) is a neighborhood of l
Thus, there exists N N s.t. n N implies xn f-1(W)

Continuous Mappings and Sequences

Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).
Since (xn) converges to l:

V V (l), N N, n N x n V
V = f-1(W) is a neighborhood of l
Thus, there exists N N s.t. n N implies xn f-1(W)
n N implies yn = f(xn) W. Hence:

Continuous Mappings and Sequences

Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).
Since (xn) converges to l:

V V (l), N N, n N x n V
V = f-1(W) is a neighborhood of l
Thus, there exists N N s.t. n N implies xn f-1(W)
n N implies yn = f(xn) W. Hence:

W V (f(l)), N N, n N yn W

Continuous Mappings and Sequences

Proof
Let W be any neighborhood of f(l).
Since (xn) converges to l:

V V (l), N N, n N x n V
V = f-1(W) is a neighborhood of l
Thus, there exists N N s.t. n N implies xn f-1(W)
n N implies yn = f(xn) W. Hence:

W V (f(l)), N N, n N yn W
So (yn) converges to f(l). QED

Week 1
Lecture 1.6

INITIAL TOPOLOGY

Definition: Initial Topology

Let X and Yi be topological spaces (i I)
Let fi : XYi be given mappings.
We can equip X with a topology that makes every fi
continuous. If everything else fails, the discrete
topology will work!
We call initial topology the coarsest one that works.
We note it (X, {fi, i I}).

Example
Let X=R, Y=R and f be defined by
f(x) = 0 if x0
f(x) = 1 if x>0
Equip Y with the usual topology.
What is the initial topology on X for f?
(X,{f}} = { , ]-,0] , ]0, +[ , ]-,+[ }

Initial Topology and Sequences

Proposition
Let X be a set.
Let Yi be topological spaces (i I, finite or not).
Let fi : XYi be given mappings.
Let (xn) be a sequence of X.
In the topology (X, {fi, i I}),
(xn) converges to x if and only if
for all i I, fi(xn) converges to fi (x) in Yi

Initial Topology and Sequences

Proof
Direct statement:
Mappings fi are continuous for topology (X,{fi,iI})
We proved earlier that if (xn) converges to l then
fi(xn) converges to fi(l).

Initial Topology and Sequences

Proof
Converse:
Let U be a neighborhood of x. We can suppose
U is a finite intersection of inverse images of Vi
where Vi is a neighborhood of fi(x) in Yi.
There exist Ni N s.t. n Ni implies fi(xn) Vi.
Let N be the largest Ni (there is a finite number of Ni)
Then n N implies xn U.
QED

Week 1
Lecture 1.7

WHAT A TOPOLOGY SEES

AND DOES NOT SEE

The eyes of a Topology

X = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 }
T = { , {1,2} , {5} , {1,2,5} , {1,2,3,4} , X }
1

The topology does not distinguish between 1 and 2

nor between 3 and 4.