Taylor and Maclaurin Series

If a function f has derivatives of all orders at x = a (i.e. if f (k) (a) exists for all k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .)
then we can construct the following power series in (x a):
f (a) +

1
1
1
f (a)(x a) + f (a)(x a)2 + . . . + f (n) (a)(x a)n + . . .
1!
2!
n!

1 (r)
=
f (a)(x a)r .
r!
r=0

This series is called the Taylor series of f about x = a. If a = 0 then we usually call this the
Maclaurin series of f .
We write

1 (r)
f (x) =
f (a)(x a)r
r!
r=0

for

|x a| < R

to mean that for all x = c, such that |c a| < R, the sum

1 (r)
f (a)(c a)r
r!
r=0

is finite and equals f (c). We call R the radius of convergence. If R = then the Taylor series
equals f (x) for all x R.

1. Standard Maclaurin Series

For R, (1 + x) = 1 + x +

( 1) 2 ( 1)( 2) 3
x +
x + ...
2!
3!

x2 x3 x4
ln(1 + x) = x
+

+ . . . for 1 < x 1
2
3
4
x2 x 3 x4
ex = 1 + x +
+
+
+ . . . for x R
2!
3!
4!
x3 x5 x 7
+

+ . . . for x R
sin(x) = x
3!
5!
7!
x 2 x4 x 6
+

+ . . . for x R
cos(x) = 1
2!
4!
6!
x3 x5 x7
+
+
+ . . . for x R
sinh(x) = x +
3!
5!
7!
x 2 x4 x6
+
+
+ . . . for x R
cosh(x) = 1 +
2!
4!
6!

for |x| < 1

Example 1

Using the standard series, find the Maclaurin series for:

(i) f (x) = sin(3x),

(ii) f (x) = cos(x) + cosh(x),
(iii) f (x) = e2x ln(1 x).
Include all terms up to the fifth power.
(i) Use the series for sin(x) with x replaced by 3x:
(3x)3 (3x)5
+
...
3!
5!
9x3 81x5
= 3x
+
...
2
40

sin(3x) = 3x

The above series is valid for 3x R, i.e. for x R.

(ii) The series for cos(x) and cosh(x) can be added term by term to obtain the series for their
sum:
(
) (
)
x2 x4 x6
x2 x4 x6
cos(x) + cosh(x) =
1
+

+ ... + 1 +
+
+
+ ...
2!
4!
6!
2!
4!
6!
2x4
= 2+
+ ...
4!
x4
= 2+
+ ...
12
The above series is valid for x R.
(iii) The series for this product is obtained by multiplying the series for e2x and ln(1 x),
respectively:

=
=
=
=

e2x ln(1 x)
(
)(
)
(2x)2 (2x)3 (3x)4
(x)2 (x)3 (x)4 (x)5
1 + (2x) +
+
+
+ ...
(x)
+

+
...
2!
3!
4!
2
3
4
5
(
)(
)
4x3 27x4
x 2 x3 x4 x5
2
1 + 2x + 2x +
+
+ ...
x

...
3
8
2
3
4
5
x2 x 3 x4 x5
2x4 x5
2x5 4x4 2x5 27x5
x

2x2 x3

2x3 x4

...
2
3
4
5
3
2
3
3
3
8
5x2 10x3 13x4 649x5

...
x
2
3
4
120

The above series is valid for 1 < (x) 1, i.e. for 1 x < 1. Note that at each stage
of the above calculations we kept only enough terms to ensure that we could get all terms
with powers up to and including x5 .

Example 2

Find the first three nonzero terms in the Taylor Series of f about x = a if

8
(ii) f (x) = (x + 1)3 , a = 2
(i) f (x) = cos(2x), a =

(iii) f (x) = x ln(x), a = 1

(i) f (x) = 2 sin(2x), f (x) = 4 cos(2x)
( )
( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
)2
+ f
x
+ f
x
f
+ ...
8
8
8
2
8
8
( ) (
( )) (
( )) (
) 1 (
)2
= cos
+ 2 sin
x
+
4 cos
x
+ ...
4
4
8
2
4
8
(
1
) (
)2
= 2 x
2 x
+ ...
8
8
2
(ii) f (x) = 3(x + 1)2 , f (x) = 6(x + 1)
1
f (2) + f (2)(x 2) + f (2)(x 2)2 + . . .
2
1
= 33 + 3 32 (x 2) + 6 3(x 2)2
2
= 27 + 27(x 2) + 9(x 2)2 + . . .
1
1
, f (x) = 2
x
x
1
1
f (1) + f (1)(x 1) + f (1)(x 1)2 + f (1)(x 1)3 + . . .
2
6
1 1
1 1
= 1 ln(1) + (ln(1) + 1)(x 1) + (x 1)2 +
(x 1)3 + . . .
2 1
6
1
1
1
= (x 1) + (x 1)2 (x 1)3 + . . .
2
6

(iii) f (x) = ln(x) + 1, f (x) =

2. Error Estimation
The Taylor series of f about the point x = a can be truncated in order to provide an approximating polynomial for the function. We also obtain an expression describing the error between
this polynomial and f .
f (x) = f (a) + f (a)(x a) +

f (n) (a)
f (a)
(x a)2 + . . . +
(x a)n + Rn
2!
n!

= Pn (x) + Rn
Pn (x) is the approximating (or Taylor) polynomial of degree n
Rn is the truncating error
The truncating error can be written in various ways; we shall use Lagranges form
Rn =

f (n+1) (c)
(x a)n+1 ,
(n + 1)!

where c is some value that lies between a and x. We dont know the value of c, but we
can obtain upper and/or lower bounds for the error.
3


Example 3 Find the Taylor polynomial of degree 3 for sin(x) about x = . Hence estimate
3
sin 64 and find the maximum error in this approximation.
(

First note that 64 =

+
radians.
3 45
( ) 3
f (x) = sin(x) f
=
3
2
( ) 1
f (x) = cos(x) f
=
3
2

( )
3
(2)
(2)
f (x) = sin(x) f
=
3
2
( )
1
f (3) (x) = cos(x) f (3)
=
3
2

60 + 4
180

radians =

f (4) (x) = sin(x) f (4) (c) = sin(c)

Therefore

and so

(
3 1(
)
3
)2
)3
1 (
x

x
x
sin(x)
+

2
2
3
4
3
12
3

(
)
sin 64 = sin
+
3 45 ( )
3 1
3 2
1 ( )3
=

2 45 4 45
12 45
2
3

3 2
3
=
+
+
+
2
90
8100
1093500

The truncating error is

R3 =

f (4) (c) (
)4 sin(c) ( )4
x
=
,
4!
3
4!
45

. In order to estimate the maximum error we are required to find the

where 3 < c < 64
180
maximum value of sin(c) (as all other terms are known). The best we can say is that sin(c) 1
and so
1 ( )4
4
R3
=
.
4! 45
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