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Huawei Radio NetWork Planning User GuideV1.0
Huawei Radio NetWork Planning User GuideV1.0
Table of contents
T5-030010-20011110-C-1.0
Table of contents
Trademarks
Table of contents
Notice
The information in this document is subject to change without notice. Although
every effort has been made to make this document as accurate, complete, and
clear as possible, Huawei Technologies assumes no responsibility for any errors
that may appear in this document.
Table of contents
Copyright claim
(R)
(R)
M900/M1800(R),
Table of contents
Preface
1 Version Description
This book is about GSM radio planning optimization. Some of the methods discussed
here can serve as references for future mobile communications system.
2 Introduction
Radio Network Planning attempts to tell the commonly-adopted planning optimization
methods based on Huawei GSM equipment. This book covers radio propagation, preplanning, antenna-feeder knowledge, BSC algorithm, frequency planning, traffic
statistics, optimization, and some special topics. The last part of the book introduces
briefly the planning optimization methods on future mobile communications system.
We acknowledge the many efforts from our colleagues who have grown up together
with the companys network planning. We show our respect and salute for their
unswerving and unstinting contributions that have made the publication of this book
possible.
The editor in chief of this book is Zhao qiyong. The editors are Zheng shuhui, Si
fazhong, Cheng jing, Cheng xin, Li xia. Zhao qiyong is responsible for the final version
and check.
We wish to thank our colleagues who have added their discussion when they are the
most busy, in particular: Xiong yunxuan, Tan guanzhong, Miao jiashu, Li yuzhi, Wang
Mingming, Yang yajun, Li Chengfei, Dong xiaohong, Wang cheng, He qun, Li
zhongdong, Chen yongjian, Dong hengshang, Xiang lijing, and Bai xiaobing.
We also wish to extend our thanks to the colleagure in the Material Development
Department for their effort in compiling and proofreading, particularly Zhang jun,
Cheng lin, and Weng haishang.
Your critisms and recommendations are greatly appreciated.
3 Intended Readers
This manual is intended for the following readers:
Engineering technicians
Telecom administrators
Table of contents
Table of contents
Chapter 1 Network Planning Overview ..................................................................................... 1-12
1.1 Network Planning Flow .................................................................................................... 1-12
1.2 Network Pre-planning ...................................................................................................... 1-14
1.2.1 Outline of the Network Pre-planning ..................................................................... 1-14
1.2.2 Pre-planning Foundation....................................................................................... 1-15
1.2.3 Pre-planning Process............................................................................................ 1-16
1.2.4 Pre-planning Difficulties ........................................................................................ 1-24
Chapter 2 GSM Air Interface......................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 GSM System Introduction.................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2 Radio Channel Structure ................................................................................................... 2-3
2.2.1 Time Slot and Frame Structure ............................................................................... 2-3
2.2.2 Physical Channel .................................................................................................... 2-5
2.2.3 Logic Channel ......................................................................................................... 2-6
2.2.4 Allowed Channel Combination Type....................................................................... 2-8
2.2.5 The Frame Structure of the Logic Channel............................................................. 2-9
2.2.6 The Use of the Common Control Channel.............................................................. 2-9
2.2.7 The Early Timing of Uplink and Downlink as well as MS........................................ 2-9
Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theory.......................................................................................... 2-1
3.1 Basic knowledge of Radio Propagation............................................................................. 2-1
3.2 Radio Propagation Environment........................................................................................ 2-3
3.2.1 Frequency Division Introduction.............................................................................. 2-3
3.2.2 Fast Fading and Slow Fading ................................................................................. 2-3
3.2.3 Propagation Loss .................................................................................................... 2-6
3.3 Radio Propagation Model ................................................................................................ 2-10
3.4 Correction for propagation model .................................................................................... 2-16
3.4.1 CW Basics............................................................................................................. 2-16
3.4.2 CW Test Method ................................................................................................... 2-16
3.4.3 Correction for Propagation Model and Instance ................................................... 2-18
3.5 Doppler Effect and its Impact on Handover..................................................................... 2-19
3.6 Fresnel Zone.................................................................................................................... 2-22
3.7 ASSET Software Introduction .......................................................................................... 2-24
Chapter 4 About Antenna & Feeder cable .................................................................................. 4-1
4.1 Basics of Antenna .............................................................................................................. 4-1
4.1.1 Antenna gain ........................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.2 Directional Diagram................................................................................................. 4-2
4.1.3 Polarization.............................................................................................................. 4-3
4.1.4 Other technical indicators of antenna ..................................................................... 4-4
4.1.5 Antenna diversity..................................................................................................... 4-6
vi
Table of contents
Table of contents
viii
Table of contents
ix
Table of contents
Table of contents
xi
1-12
1-13
Predict the traffic according to the geographic location of each base station,
and look up into the ERL table to get the number of channels to be
configured for each base station according to the call lost ratio index
Estimate the type of the largest base station according to the frequency
bandwidth provided by the construction company. If it cannot meet the
capacity requirement of the local area, it needs to add the number of base
stations following the principle of cell splitting according to the real
conditions. It also needs to select the ideal station locations on the map and
estimate the base station channel number again.
(5) Predict the coverage area and decide the base station project data, namely
perform the preliminary emulation
z
Select the minimum input power and the penetration ratio index at the coverage area
edge.
z
Select the design parameters: antenna height (above the ground), antenna
azimuth angle and gain, antenna declination angle, base station height
above sea level, base station type, feeder line length and antenna feeder
system loss, combining and distribution methods, transmitter output power,
receiver sensitivity, base station diversity reception and diversity gains and
so on.
Predict the coverage area of each base station cell according to the
propagation models of different regions. Deliver the adjustment opinions for
1-14
the base station address, antenna direction, declination angle, and height
according to the potential blind area and weak signals. And get the project
data of the real base station in the end.
(6) Select the real station address and decide the station type.
z
Perform the field examination following the ideal station address, according
to the different construction conditions (including power supply,
transmission, electromagnetic background and land taken over, etc.).
Record the possible station address. Then propose a suitable address
scheme based on the integrating consideration of the deviation range from
the ideal address, effects on the future cell splitting, economic benefit and
coverage area prediction and so on.
After selecting the address, decide the real station type according to the
number of the base station channel.
1-15
Landform data: champagne, flat, hill, mountainous area and water, etc.;
The pre-planning is in the early stage of the radio mobile network construction and the
most important phase. It reflects the system design level of the network planning. The
pre-planning decides the layout, quality and development space of the future network
Description
With dense population, developed economy, large traffic. In the center of the
city, high buildings stand in great numbers, and the shopping cente is
flourishing.
With comparatively dense population, rather developed economy, fairly large
traffic. In the center of the city, stand the dense buildings. The shopping center
is rather flourishing and very promising.
With a big population, promising economic development, moderate amount of
traffic. In the center of the town, buildings stand rather densely. The shopping
center has a certain scale and rather promising.
With a population in low density, developing economy and rather low traffic.
In the connection area between the above-mentioned areas, there are various
transport arteries, including: speedway, national highway, major provincial highway,
railway and sea-route, common provincial highway, railway and sea-route, and so on.
It also includes some roads in the mountainous areas. These areas need covering too.
Generally, it is suggested to apply the Omnidirectional Coverage in the countryside on
the plain and the areas with limited landform, and the Directional Coverage in the big,
middle-sized and small cities and speedways.
(2) Define the Field Strength of the Edge of the Coverage Area.
The field strength defining of the falling edge of the service area concerns: mobile
sensitivity -102dBm, quick fading protection 4dB (3dB for countryside), slow fading
protection 8dB (6dB for countryside), and noise (environmental and interfering noises)
protection 5dB.In the big and middle-sized cities, consideration should be taken for the
indoor requirements; as to the outdoor requirement, the average insertion loss 15 dB;
and plus the indoor signal improvement storage, 5dB. Generally speaking, the
propagation fading of the GSM1800 signal is averagely more than that of the GSM900
signal by 8dB, the antenna gains of the GSM1800 system is averagely more than that
of the GSM900 system by 3dB Since the radio links have up and down directions, and
the coverage area is defined by the weaker direction, it needs to consider of the
balance of the uplink and downlink. Before constructing an ideal network, its
1-16
necessary to make a good power budget and keep the balance of the uplink and
downlink as much as possible.
(3) Define the Coverage Ratio
The defining of the coverage ratio is different according to different coverage areas,
and gradually improved along with the consecutive construction of the network. In
China, at the beginning, the outdoor full coverage is generally realized in cities,
national significant tourism areas, speedways, national roads, areas along the
railways with large traffic, as for other major roads, railways and sea-routes, the
network planning and construction should be performed for 90% of the object. Along
with the deeper network construction and the increasing subscriber number, the
requirement of the network service becomes higher and higher. At the same time of
network planning according to the traffic, it needs to gradually enhance the indoor
coverage construction of the significant areas (for example, government offices, press
centers, airport lounge buildings, subways, top grade commercial office buildings,
entertainment centers and large shopping malls. What needs to explain is that,
according to the domestic regulations, the network can be accessed from 90% of the
area and 99% of the time. This requirement should be enhanced in the outdoor areas
of the big cities and simplified in the countryside. As to the transport arteries, different
standards should be applied, and the consecutive covered blind areas should be
limited according to the different artery types.
1-17
should only be considered of and constructed, or changed from the original base
stations, in big cities and some special middle-sized cities with many high buildings.
The high layer station address selection should follow the principle of little but
extractive. The high layer station is constructed mainly to solve the coverage problem
of the high buildings in the cities.
Some high layer stations are also constructed in the suburb, road, small towns and
countryside because of the traffic direction control and wide coverage.
(3) Low Layer Station
The low layer station refers to the base station, whose antenna is less than 20 meters
high and lower than the average height of the buildings. The antennas are generally
installed on the outside wall of the lower floors of a building, building group, the top of
the low roof garden or somewhere, or the rooms of a building. The coverage area only
includes a street, part of a street or the rooms of a building. The low layer stations are
frequently used. But they have rather low capacity of absorbing the traffic, mainly
because the coverage area of the low layer station is small, when a station departs a
little from the hot traffic center, it can hardly have an ideal traffic. Therefore, the low
layer station construction needs you to consider if the purpose of construction is to
supplement the coverage or solve the problem of high traffic, which will affect the
address selection and the scale defining of the low layer station.
After the field investigation with the help of the map, the general network structure can
be decided. Generally, at the early stage of the network construction, single layer
network design is applied, most base stations are middle layer station, when the basic
network is established, the new base stations will be added of adjusted according to
the traffic and coverage requirement. In the extremely high traffic area of the dense
commercial areas, the low layer stations are constructed with the microcell layer and
distributed antenna system, which meets the requirement of the indoor coverage, and
at the same time avoids the interference and difficulties of station selection due to the
too short distance between stations. The low layer stations will develops into the
layered network structure.
/3600
In this way, the speech channel needed for a special base station can be predicted
according to the traffic prediction.
1-18
Caution:
Its necessary to consider of the effects of the cell splitting while calculating the speech
channel number.
In the GSM system, the ERL model is applied to calculate the density of the traffic,
which can be carried by the network. The call loss applies 2% or 5% depending on the
real conditions.
Limited by the cell coverage area and the bandwidth of the available frequency, the
cell capacity should be planned reasonably and the channel usage ratio should be
raised as much as possible without affecting the good voice quality. As to the traffic
share of the two bands in dual band network construction, the looser frequency
bandwidth can be used to realize the high usage ratio of the channels.
In the real networking, on the premise of guaranteeing the network quality at a certain
level, there are two capacity solutions, namely a few stations with high level
configurations and any stations with lower level of configurations. They have obvious
superiority and inferiority, which should be considered according to the different
conditions of each area.
In the network construction, the new base station construction and base station
capacity expansion are two methods to increase the capacity. Different capacity
expansion strategies, like adding 900M/1800M base station, sector capacity
expansion, microcell and indoor coverage and so on, are applied for the areas of
different traffic density.
After defining the total capacity, decide the number of the base station (cell) and the
base station configuration according to the frequency re-use pattern, integrate the
coverage requirements (appearing as the antenna interface EIRP requirements), and
finally select the suitable base station type and the combination of the
Combiner/divider unit, antenna and the feeder line.
(2) Cell Splitting
The cell splitting is an effective way of network capacity expansion. It includes the
performance of splitting a large omnidirectional base station into several sector cells
and splitting the sector cells into smaller cells. In another word, it means the planning
of different cell radius according to the traffic density of different areas. The cell
splitting means to construct more base stations and increase the system construction
investment. Its necessary to consider the following factors:
z
Since the cell splitting is fairly important, we hereunder make some more description
of the common cell splitting measure of 1 into 4.
The cell splitting is a way to split the congested cell into smaller cells. Each cell has its
own base stations. The antenna should be shortened and the transmitter power
should be reduced accordingly. Because the cell splitting increases the re-use time of
the channel, the system capacity is increased. The number of channels in a unit area
is increased through setting new cells with smaller radius than the original ones and
1-19
fitting these cells (called as microcells) among the original cells. And the system
capacity is increased accordingly. Suppose each cell is split by half of its radius, see
Picture 1-2:
1-20
original cells, and letting them equal. This needs to ensure that the frequency re-use
scheme of the new microcell is the same as that of the original cell. As to the Picture
1-2:
Pr[at the edge of the old cell]
P t1 R
and
Pr[at the edge of the new cell]
P t2 (R/2)
Here, Pt1 and Pt2 represent the base station transmission power of the larger and
smaller cells respectively, n represents the path attenuation index. If let n=4, and let all
powers received equal, then
Pt2=Pt1/16
That is to say, in order to cover the original coverage area with the microcells and
reach the S/I requirements, the transmission power should be reduced by 12dB.
In fact, not all cells split at the same time. Generally, its very difficult for the service
providers to find the exact period suitable for the cell splitting. So the cells in different
scales exist simultaneously. Under this condition, it needs to maintain the minimum
distance between the co-channel cells, therefore the frequency distribution becomes
even more complex. At the same time, attention should be paid to the problem of
handover so that the high speed and low speed mobile subscribers can enjoy the
service simultaneously. As shown in the Picture 1-2, when there are two scales of cells
in one area, the formula (3) tells that the original transmission power cannot be simply
applied for all of the new cells and the new transmission power also cannot be applied
for all of the original ones. If all cells apply the bigger transmission power, some
channels used by the smaller cells wont be able to separate from the co-channel cells.
On the other hand, if all cells apply the lower transmission power, part of the area of
the bigger cell will be excluded from the service area. Accordingly, the channels in the
original cell should be divided into two groups, one of which meets the re-use
requirement of the smaller cells, and the other one of which the bigger cells. When the
bigger cells are used for high speed mobile communication, the time of handover will
be reduced.
The size of the two channel groups is decided by the splitting progress. At the early
stage of the splitting progress, the channels in the low power group are less. However,
more channels of the lower power group are needed to meet the increasing demand.
The splitting progress will not stop until all channels in the area are used in the lower
power group, and then the cell splitting will cover the whole area and the radius of
each cell in the system becomes smaller. The antenna is often declined to focus the
emission energy toward the ground, instead of on the horizontal direction, in order to
limit the radio coverage of the newly formed microcell.
The above analysis tells that the coverage area design of the radio network will not
only solve the problem of the coverage area, but also meet the subscriber capacity
requirement. The problem of the coverage area will be solved through constructing
multiple base stations/cells. However, the construction of the base station is limited by
the investment and restricts with each other. While the subscriber capacity is decided
by the channel configuration, limited by the frequency resource and restricting each
other. Therefore a unified planning is necessary.
station on the map based on the principle of the cell mesh radius. Thus the ideal
station address is selected. In the areas of different traffic density, the space between
the base stations is different. Generally, in the area of high traffic density, the space
between stations should be small, and the microcell and distributed antenna are
applied in part of the hot spots to provide the multi-layer coverage and meet the
capacity requirement. In a real project, its difficult to select the address. This is firstly
because the irregularity of the landform and buildings causes the uneven signal
coverage figure. On the other hand, the interference has to be avoided. In other words,
not only the coverage but the interference should be considered before positioning the
antenna. As to the whole network, you cannot only think of the location of one base
station, instead, you should consider of the possibility of many addresses. Since the
change of one address will affect the location of other base stations, the address
selection of the base station should be based on a certain principle. After the address
has been selected, the real station type will be defined according to the traffic
distribution and the channel number of the base station.
Generally speaking, design a rather big declination angle for the cells near to the water
surface to avoid the interference to the opposite side of the water; the obliquity of 3~6
degree for the dense city center; no declination for the suburb and artery cell in order
to widen the coverage area.
In addition, the suitable feeder line, combiner and the tower amplification unit should
be selected according to the special conditions.
construct the layered network depends on the real condition. Its frequency re-use
coefficient is a little bigger than that of the big and middle-sized cities.
(3) In the towns and villages, which are rich in the resources, the standard 43
frequency re-use pattern can be applied. The stations, constructed on the mountains
for some geographic reasons, can be allocated some independent frequency bands.
At the pre-planning stage, the planners should present the application for the
frequency resource according to the scale and frequency planning pattern of the radio
network.
1-24
Chapter 2
DPPS
PCS
SEMC
NSS
OMC
BTS
BTS
MS
BSC
MSC/VLR
HLR/AUC
EIR
BSS
PSTN
ISDN
PDN
2-1
Chapter 2
2-2
Chapter 2
2-3
Chapter 2
Figure 2-4
2-4
Chapter 2
Several multiframes constitute a super frame, which contains 5126 1326 TDMA
frames. Each super frame may contain 51 26-multiframes or 26 51-multiframes. The
cycle of super frames is 6.12s.
Several super frames constitute a hyper frame, which contains 2048 super frames. Its
cycle is 12533.76s, that is three hours twenty-eight minutes fifty-three seconds and
760 milliseconds.In each cycle, a hyper frame contains 2715648 TDMA frames, which
are numbered from zero to 2715647.
Chapter 2
1710 1785MHz
1805 1880MHz
(4) Mobility distribution deviation and frequency hopping serial generating number
II. Time domain description
TN----time slot number
FN----TDMA frame number
I. Traffic Channel(TCH)
TCH carries speech or subscriber data, and the full rate TCH carries the information
with the rate of 22.8kbit/s. TCH include the following kinds of traffic channels:
z
2-6
Chapter 2
SCH: Synchronous Channel, which is used in the MS frame synchronization and BTS
identification;
BCCH: Broadcasting Control Channel, which is used to broadcast cell informaiton.
(2) Common Control Channel (CCCH)
CCCH is the one-point-to-many-points bidirectional control channel, which is mainly
used to carry signaling information necessary for the access management function,
and it can also carry other kinds of signaling. CCCH is commonly used by all MSs of
the network. It includes three parts:
PCH: Paging channel, which is used by BTS to page MS;
RACH: Random Access Channel, which is used by MS to randomly access the uplink
channel of the network;
AGCH: Access Grant Channel, which is used to assign the special control channel to
the connection with the successful access.
(3) Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
DCCH is point-to-point bidirectional control channel. Based on the requirement for the
communications control process, DCCH is assigned to MS to enable it to conduct
point-to-point signaling transmission with BTS. It can be divided into the following
kinds:
SDCCH/8: Separate Dedicated Control Channel;
SACCH/C8: Slow Associated Control Channel associated with SDCCH/8;
SACCH/TF: Slow Associated Control Channel associated with TCH/F;
FACCH/F: Fast Associated Control Channel/Full Rate;
SDCCH/4: Separate Dedicated Control Channel combined with BCCH/CCCH;
SACCH/C4: Slow Associated Control Channel associated with SDCCH/4.
(4) Cell Broadcasting Channel (CBCH)
CBCH is used to broadcast cell short message bit/s only with the downlink direction. It
carries cell broadcasting short message service information, and it uses the same
physical channel with SDCCH.
The summary for the logic channel supported by M900 BTS is shown as in Figure 2-6.
2-7
Chapter 2
A Note:
1. If the system supports SMSCB, the SDCCH (1/8) in the combination (5) and (7)
used as CBCH
2. The combination (5)(Combined CCCH) can only be adopted when there is no
other CCCH in the cell.
2-8
Chapter 2
Among all the carrier frequencies in a cell, there is only one carrier
frequency can support BCCH. Of course, it also supports CCCH.The
cell is uniquely labeled by this carrier frequency, which is called C0 in
the protocol.
TN0 with and only with C0 can support channel combination (4) and (5),
that is main BCCH and combined BCCH.
Parameter BS_AG_BLKS_RES.
Parameter BS_PA_MFRMS.
2-9
Chapter 2
from the MS perspective, the accurate deviation between the uplink and downlink is
three BPs less the early timing value.
The MS in the special mode must transmit using proper early timing value at any
time; otherwise, it will lose the synchronization with BTS. In the GSM system, the
method of self-adaptive timing adjustment is employed to ensure that the MS in
the special mode always uses proper early timing value.
2-10
Chapter 2
2-11
Table of Contents
xii
Chapter 3
2-1
Chapter 3
(a)
(b)
Scatterer
Ground wave
Ionization layer
(c)
(d)
(e)
(b) Stadia
communication
application
(c) Earth
wave propagation
(e) Radio
2-2
Chapter 3
to 30Hz
to 300Hz
300 to 3000Hz
3 to 30KHz
30 to 300KHz
300 to 3000KHz
3 to 30MHz
30 to 300MHz
300 to 3000MHz
3 to 30GHz
30 to 300GHz
300 to 3000GHz
Classification
Designation
ELF
Voice Frequency
VF
Very-low Frequency
VLF
30
Low Frequency
LF
Medium Frequency
MF
High Frequency
HF
VHF
UHF
SHF
EHF
2-3
Chapter 3
diffracted wave
forward wave
ground
All the signal components compose a multi standing wave, the signal level of which
increases or decreases with corresponding changes of the components. The
synthesis signal level fades 20 to 30dB in a few car bodies away, the difference
between the maximum and the minimum is about 1/4 wavelength. A great number of
propagation paths result in so called multipath phenomenon, whose synthesis
amplitude and phase will undergo great fluctuation with the movement of mobile
stations. Usually, such phenomenon is called multipath fading or fast fading, as shown
in Figure 3-3. Essentially, multipath fading is a fast change. Besides, such propagation
character causes time dispersion phenomenon. The distribution of deep fading point in
space is approximately half wavelength away (900MHz is 17cm, 1800 or 1900Mhz is
8cm). If the mobile antenna is at the deep fading point at that time (when mobile user
in a car stay at the deep fading point because of redlight, we call it Redlight Problem),
voice quality is very poor. Therefore, related technologies like hopping should be
applied to solve this problem.
Studies show that if the mobile cell receives the amplitude, phase and angle of
respective component at random, then the azimuth angle of the synthesis signal and
the probability density function of amplitude are as follows:
p() =
p(r) =
r
"2
1
2
e (
0
r2
2" 2
r0
(3-1)
(3-2)
Among them, r is the standard deviation. (3-1) and (3-2) represent the azimuth angle
Chapter 3
field abides by Rayleigh Distribution. Therefore, multi path is also called Rayleigh
fading. As to this fast fading, the base station adopts the methods of time diversity,
frequency diversity and space diversity (polarity diversity). Time diversity mainly
adopts the methods of symbol interleave, error code checking and correcting. Different
code has different anti-fading characteristics. As to the air channel coding of GSM
mobile communication, please see related GSM protocol. The basic of frequency
diversity theory is the correlation bandwidth, i.e. after more than an interval between
two frequencies, their space fading characteristics are considered irrelevant. A large
number of test data shows that such irrelevancy can be obtained if the interval
between the two frequencies is larger than 200 KHz; frequency diversity mainly adopts
spread spectrum. In GSM mobile communication, hopping is simply applied to obtain
hopping gain, while in CDMA mobile communication, each channel works in wide
band (narrow band CDMA is 1. 25 MHz), which actually, is a spread frequency
communication. Space diversity mainly adopts the master diversity antenna receiving
method. Signals the base station receiving from the master and diversity channels are
respectively combined after equalization through the Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Equalizer (MLSE). Such master diversity receiving effect is guaranteed by the
irrelevancy received by the master diversity. Irrelevance refers to the signals received
respectively by the master antenna and diversity antenna having no fading at the
same time. It requires that the spacing between the master and diversity antenna is 10
times more than the radio signal wavelength (the antenna spacing is more than 4
meters in GSM900), or adopting polarity diversity to guarantee the signals received by
the master and diversity antenna having different fading characteristics. Mobile station
(mobile phone) has no such space diversity function with only one antenna. The
equalizing ability to different ranges (time window) of the base station receiver is also a
form of space diversity. In CDMA communication, when soft switching is performed,
the mobile station and multi base stations communicate at the same time to select the
best signal for handover, such is also a form of space diversity.
A great number of studies shows that the average signal levels received by the mobile
station, except for fast Rayleigh fading in instantaneous value, appear slow changes
as changing position, such change is called slow fading, as shown in Figure 3-3. It is
caused by the shadow effect, and also called shadow fading. Buildings, forest and
topographical relief in the way of radio propagation will cause shadow in
electromagnetic field. The medium value of receiving signal level will change when
electromagnetic shadow is produced by different obstacles the mobile station
encounters. The change is depended upon the obstacle condition and working
frequency; changing rate has relations with obstacles and driving speed.
By studying this fading law, it shows that its medium value variation abides by
Logarithmic Normal Distribution.
Additionally, radio refraction coefficient changes as the climate conditions change with
times, as well as slow changes in vertical gradient of atmosphere dielectric constant,
which results in slow changes in signal level medium value in the same place as time
changing.
Statistics show that such medium value variation also abides by Logarithmic Normal
Distribution. The distribution standard deviation is rt. Variation of signal medium value
in a larger range of distribution with time and place all abides by Logarithmic Normal
Distribution, so that their synthesis distribution still abides by Logarithmic Normal
Distribution. When communicating in land, usually, signal medium value variation as
time changing is less than that as place changing, so that such slow fading can be
ignored, r=rL. However, in fixed-point communication, slow fading shall be considered.
2-5
Chapter 3
Received power
Fast fading
- 20
Slow fading
-40
-60
10
20
30
( m)
Distance
(3-3)
L p = L 0 + 10 lg(d km )
(3-4)
,
is called path loss slope. In the actual cellular system,
2
according to measurement result, value ranges from 3 to 5.
Of the equation,
Having the equation of path loss in free space, the actual propagation can be
considered between the two antennas on plain but imperfect surface. Suppose the
whole propagation path surface is absolutely plain (without refraction). The antenna
height of the mobile station is
represents
and
2-6
respectively (A represents
, and B
Chapter 3
A
B
(a)
A
B
(b)
A
B
A'
(a) multireflection
ground reflection
(c)
(b) simple reflection
L p = 10 lg d 20 lg h c 20 lg h m
(3-5)
Of which,
. This equation shows that if antenna height doubles, 6 dB can be
4 loss; while the receiving power of the mobile station changes with the
compensated for
fourth power of distance, i.e. if distance doubles, the power received reduced by 12
dB.
Various landforms and ground objects differ greatly, so the impact on radio
propagation loss in mobile communication also varies. It is impossible to have
absolutely plain landform in actual application. Such complex landforms can be
divided into two types: quasi smooth landform and irregular landform.
Quasi smooth landform refers to the landform with gentle rolling topography, rolling
height less than or equal to 20 meters as well as slight difference in average surface
height. Okumura defines the rolling height as the difference between 10% and 90% of
rolling topography 10 kilometers ahead of the mobile station. CCIR defines it as the
difference between over 90% and over 10% of rolling topography 10 to 50 kilometers
ahead of the receiver. Other landforms are generally called irregular landform, which
can be divided into the following types based upon their conditions: hills, separated
mountains, slopping landform and water-and-land mixed landform and so on.
2-7
Chapter 3
When analyzing propagation loss in urban areas and their nearby areas, we can also
classify irregular landform by congestion in regions as open area, dense urban area,
medium urban area and suburb area.
In general, we also analyze diffraction loss when analyzing propagation loss in
mountainous area or dense urban areas with close skyscrapers. Diffraction loss is
used to measure the height of obstacles and antenna. The obstacle height must be
compared with propagation wavelength. As to the same obstacle, the diffraction loss
to long wavelength is less than that to short one. When predicating path loss, we can
view these obstacles as pointed obstacles, i. e. knife-shaped. Loss can be calculated
by the method commonly used in physical optics. Two kinds of obstacles shown in
Figure 3-5. Under the first condition, no obstacles appear in stadium path at H. Under
the second condition, obstacles appear in radio path. In the first condition, we assume
that the height of obstacle is negative number, while positive number in the second
condition. Diffraction loss can be calculated through the diffraction constant v, which is
known from the following equation.
v = H 2/(1/d 1 + 1/d 2 )
(3-
6)
The approximate value of diffraction loss can be calculated from the following
equations:
F=0
vm1
= 20 lg
lg(0.5 + 0.62v)
0[v<1
= 20 lg
lg(0.5e 0.45v )
1[v[0
= 20 lg
lg(0.4 0.12 (0.1v + 0.38) 2 )
= 20 lg
lg(0.225/v)
2.4 [ v < 1
v < 2.4
2-8
(3-7)
Chapter 3
2-9
Chapter 3
Climate conditions;
2-10
Chapter 3
Scope of Application
Applied to 150-1000 MHz macro cellular predication
Applied to 150-2000 MHz macro cellular predication
Applied to 900 and 1800 MHz micro cellular
predication
Applied to 900 and 1800 MHz indoor predication
Applied to 900 and 1800 MHz macro cellular
predication
Cost231 Walfish-Ikegami
Keenan-Motley
Used in ASSET planning
(3-8-1:Okumura-Hata)
---Path loss from the base station to the mobile station, unit: dB
---Carrier wave frequency, unit: MHz;
f
h
h
(3-8-2:Cost231-Hata)
--The value is 0dB in medium-size cities or in suburb with medium woods density,
C
while
3 dB in big cities.
AOkumurahm
(1.1lg
lg f 0.7)hm (1.56lg
lgf 0.8)
Lps = Lp
Urban area
(3-9)
In open areas, the propagation is revised as
L po = L p
Urban area
10)
2-11
(3-
Chapter 3
In the actual radio propagation environment, various relief shall be considered, which
is considered in ASSET planning software to improve propagation model. Consider
various ground objects and relief having influence on radio propagation in actual
environment so as to guarantee the accuracy of prediction result.
The model expression is as follows:
L p = K 1 + K 2 lg d + K 3 (h m ) + K 4 lg h m + K 5 lg(H eff )
+ K 6 lg(H eff ) lg d + K 7
diffn
+ K clutter
In the above expression (the following expressions are applied to macro cell):
---the constant related to frequency;
The center of medium-size city:
K1=69. 55+(26. 16+1. 56lg(Fc))-0. 8 {Fc=150-1000MHz}
K1=46. 3+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8 {Fc=1500-2000MHz}
Center of big city
K1=69. 55+26. 16lg(Fc) {Fc=150-1000MHz}
K1=46. 3+Cm+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8 {Fc=1500-2000MHz}
Suburb area:
K1=69. 55+(26. 16+1. 56lg(Fc))-0. 8 -2(log(Fc/28))2 - 5. 4{Fc=150-1000MHz}
K1=46. 3+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8 -2(log(Fc/28))2 - 5. 4{Fc=1500-2000MHz}
Open area:
K1=69. 55+(26. 16+1. 56lg(Fc))-0. 8-4. 78(log(Fc))2+18. 33log(Fc)-40. 94 {Fc=1501000MHz}
K1=46. 3+(33. 9+1. 56)lg(Fc)-0. 8-4. 78[log(Fc)]2+18. 33log(Fc)-40. 94 {Fc=15002000MHz}
---Distance fading constant;
---The revision coefficient of mobile station antenna height;
---The revision coefficient of base station height;
---The revision coefficient of diffraction;
---The revision coefficient of ground object in the prediction is: the field density of
the prediction point is revised based upon the clutter type of that point, and has
nothing to do with the clutter type in the propagation path. And all the losses in the
propagation path lie in the medium value loss;
d
---Distance between the base station and the mobile station, unit: km;
---The available height of mobile station and base station antenna, unit: m.
h
h
As to the radio propagation in different areas and cities, K value will have different
value owing to different landform and relief as well as different city environment. K
2-12
Chapter 3
value and some clutter fading values used in radio propagation analysis in mediumsize cities are shown in Table 3-2.
2-13
Chapter 3
Parameter value
150/900MHz Urban, 160/1800MHz Urban
146/900MHz Large city, 163/1800MHz Large city
44. 90
-2. 54/900MHz Urban,-2. 88/1800MHz Urban
0/900MHz Large city,-2. 88/1800MHz Large city
0. 00
-13. 82
-6. 55
-0. 8
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
K7
Clutter fading value
Inland Water
Wetland
Open Areas
Rangeland
Forest
Industrial & Commercial Areas
Village
Parallel_Low_Buildings
Suburban
Urban
Dense urban
High Building
-3. 00
-3. 00
-2. 00
-1. 00
13. 00
5. 00
-2. 90
-2. 50
-2. 50
0
5
16
Loss in the area with window zone is generally less than that without
window zone.
Loss in the open area within buildings is less than that in the wall area
with corridors.
Fading in street wall with aluminum support frame is more than that
without aluminum support frame.
Loss in the building with isolation only added to the ceiling is less than
that in the building with isolation both added to the ceiling and inside
walls.
2-14
Chapter 3
&
is the
station antenna and the base station antenna respectively, the unit is m,
height of base station antenna, the unit is also m, then the battle-sight rangeh of radio
wave is
(unit: m).
Per contra, if the expectation coverage range is known (when path loss is not the
major factor), the base station height can be calculated.
2-15
Chapter 3
(3-11)
In which, x is distance, r(x) is incoming signal; r0(x) is Rayleigh fading; m(x) is local value, i. e.
the mixture of long-term fading and space propagation loss, which can be expressed
as follows:
m(x ) =
1
2L
x+L
r(y )dy
(3-12)
xL
In which, 2L is the average sample interval length, also called intrinsic length.
CW test is aimed to obtain the local average value of various locations in an area on
whole way, that is, the difference between r (x) and m(x) is as small as possible.
Therefore, The influence of Raleigh fading must be removed so as to obtain the local
average value. When a group of signal data r (x) is averaged, if the intrinsic length 2L
is too short, then the influence of Raleigh fading still exists; if 2L is too long, then the
normal fading will be averaged. Therefore, in CW test, to determine 2L has great
influence on the degree of approximation between the tested data and the actual local
average, as well as on the accuracy of the propagation model prediction corrected
through CW test. Li Jianye, a famous communication expert, has proved that, in GSM
system, the intrinsic length is 40 wave lengths; the difference between the tested data
and the actual local value is less than 1 dB by sampling 50 sampling points (the test
equipment and the error of digital map are ignored).
2-16
Chapter 3
5m
(2) The antenna height is above 5 meters over the nearest obstacle.
(3-13)
III. CW test
There are three sampling ways of the professional CW test equipment: sampling by
time, pulse and distance. General test equipment samples by time only. Test by
distance sampling can meet the Theorem of Lees requirement of sampling 36~50
sampling points with 40 wave lengths. The measure accuracy is very high. Speed is
2-17
Chapter 3
not strict in distance sampling, but there exists an upper speed limit. The upper speed
limit (Vmax) has relation with the maximum sampling speed of CW equipment:
(3-14)
During the test, test paths with various ground objects are selected as random drive
test. When the mobile station is within the distance of 3km away from the test base
station, the receiving signals are affected greatly by the building structure around the
base station, and the antenna height. The intensity difference between the signal level
parallel to the signal propagation direction and that vertical one is around 10dB.
Therefore, when testing on the street within 3km in radium of the base station, it is
better to sample the same amount of samples in longitudinal and lateral streets to
remove their effects. Test paths should not be selected on highways and on the wide
and flat streets, but on the narrow streets. Sample as much data as possible in each
test base station. Generally, it is better to test in each station over 4 hours. Stop
recording when the car stops for redlight.
The landform and ground objects are fixed within a period of time, so that in a
deterministic base station, the local average value is determined in a deterministic
location. The local average value is the data tested through CW test expectation,
which is also the closest value to propagation model predication value.
2-18
Chapter 3
(3-15)
In the formula, v is the travel speed of MS, c is the radio signal propagation speed
(3E8 m/sec)
Select + when MS moves towards the base station and select - when it is away
from the base station.
(2) MS is the frequency source f, and the frequency freceived by the base station is
f=f/(1U/c)
(3-16)
In the formula, u is the travel speed of MS, c is the radio signal propagation speed
(3E8 m/sec)
Select - when MS moves towards the base station and select + when it is away
from the base station.
Below are several special conditions discussed:
(1) MS moves towards BTS at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-7.
f1
f3
f2
V(km/h)
2-19
Chapter 3
(3-17)
(1) MS moves away from BTS at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-8.
f3
f1
f2
V(km/h)
(3-18)
The travel speed of MS is slow as compared with signal propagation speed; therefore
relative frequency change is almost the same in these two conditions except for the
opposite direction. Frequency increases in the first condition, while decreases in the
second one.
The relation between the relative frequency and MS speed can be illustrated in Figure
3-9.
Figure 3-9 Graph of relation between the relative frequency and MS speed
The graph shows that when MS speed is 100km/h, the relative frequency change is 0.
19ppm. As to 900M frequency, the deviation is 171Hz, while 342Hz as to 1800M.
2-20
Chapter 3
(3) MS moves between the two base stations at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 310. When handover is performed, the deviation is the superimposition of the above
two conditions. MS obtains the monitoring information of the BCCH channel of the
neighboring cells through BA table, controls MS to adjust its frequency and a certain
number of kHz to monitor the neighboring cell level. Thus, it might appear Doppler
frequency changes, which make MS unable to receive the signals of the neighboring
cells correctly. Take the Figure 3-10 as an example, MS monitors BTS1 level, the
signal f2 received by MS might appear between the two MS adjustment frequencies.
So that MS cannot correctly monitor BTS1 signal level. On the other hand, RXlev
information reported from SACCH shall be transmitted at least once every 30s. Such
long time information report will also result in abnormally monitoring the neighboring
cells level, which causes unsuccessful handover. The frequency change caused by
the Doppler Effect will effect the signal frequency f1(c+v)/(c-v) received by the base
station, which will receive data by f1 sampling clock. Receiving data error might be
another reason for effecting handover.
f3'
f3
f1'
f1
f2
f2'
V(km/h)
BTS1
MS
2-21
BTS2
Chapter 3
=
4h t h r
d ,
h t ,h r
2h t h r
d , the
receiver above the ground respectively, d is the horizontal distance from the
transmitter to the receiver, as shown in Figure 3-11.
2 l 4 sin( 2
) = 4 sin 2
2h t h r
d
(3-19)
is
2n 1 , it can
In the actual propagation environment, the first Fresnel zone definition contains some
ellipsoids of reflection points, on these reflection points, the path difference between
the reflected wave and direct way is half a wavelength, say, less than , as shown
2-22
Chapter 3
in Figure 3-12. The first Fresnel zone is the main propagation zone, when obstacles
dont block the first Fresnel zone, the diffraction loss is least. As to a point in the path
d in length, its radium of the first Fresnel zone (the distance to the transmitter is
d t , and d r is the distance to the receiver) is:
with
h 0 (m) =
d t d r
d
Figure 3-12
= 548
d tkm d rkm
d km f MHz
(3-20)
Take an example to illustrate that: in typical cities, a point in the path with the coverage
range is 2km; suppose that the distance from this point to the transmitting antenna is
100m, as to the frequency of 900MHz, this points first Fresnel zone is
h 0 l 5m.
On the definition basis of the first Fresnel zone, define the nth Fresnel zone as the
reflection-point set, in which its propagation is half wavelength more than the n-1th; the
phrase difference between the two reflection paths is 180 degree. The radium of the
nth Fresnel zone is:
h n (m) =
nd t d r
d
= 548
nd tkm d rkm
d km f MHz
(3-21)
If the direct path jumps over the wavy terrains and ground buildings, then the reflected
wave will have positive effect on direct wave; otherwise it might become the
obstructive multi-path interference. The obstructive effect grows as the frequency
increases. Therefore, the height of antenna shall be built as high as possible above
the ground. This conclusion will be applied to the below-mentioned antenna project
designing. As a matter of fact, according to experience, if 55% of the first Fresnel zone,
used for stadia microwave link designing remain unobstructed, then the conditions of
other Fresnel zones wont affect the diffraction loss.
2-23
Chapter 3
ASSET network planning is carried out on the basis of digital map. Digital map is a
map for record and storage in digital form; digital map is convenient to store, transmit
and update, which can be transformed into paper map by processing in computer, or
displayed on the computer screen by visual processing. Owing to different storage
structure, digital map can be divided into vector digital map and grid digital map (such
as scanning map). In order to cover prediction, we usually use vector digital map. Map
data usually is composed of three data types: digital elevation model (DEM), digital
object model (DOM) and linear vector model (LDM). Construction vector data is also
applied to micro cellular prediction. Digital ground elevation model and ground object
disaggregated model has related to prediction. Digital ground elevation model is used
to describe the basic relief of this area and directly participate in the calculation of
radio propagation model; ground object disaggregated data is used to describe planar
ground coverage, such as forest, lakes, open area, industrial area, downtown, high
building area and so on, and used to calculate radio propagation path loss; LDM is
used to describe the relation between the plane distribution and the space of linear
ground objects, including highway, streets, rivers and so on. DEM data and DOM data
adopts the grid data format, each grid represents a sampling point; while LDM adopts
vector data.
Before officially beginning planning, the following work needs to be done:
(1) Define the parameters related to propagation model and feeder system, and input
antenna database
(2) Define layer, determine the frequency reuse mode
(3) Add network element with multi methods (MSC, BSC, BTS and cell layer)
(4) Improve various parameters in the database
2-24
Chapter 3
Thus, we can make use of ASSET software to complete the entire planning process.
2-25
Chapter 3
2-26
Chapter 4
directional antenna
dBd
dBi
4-1
Chapter 4
4-2
Chapter 4
Zero power lobe width refers to the included angle between the two zero
radiation directions on both sides of maximum major lobe;
Half power point lobe width refers to the included angle after the
maximum electric field falls by 0.707 (the gain falls by 3dB);
Front-to-back ratio;
4.1.3 Polarization
Polarization is one radiation feature describing the space direction of electromagnetic
wave field strength vector. The electromagnetic wave with the space direction of
electric field vector unchanged at any time is called straight line polarized wave.
Normally, antenna polarization refers to the polarization of electric wave radiated by
the antenna in the maximum radiation direction (for transmitting antenna) or the
polarization of incident plane wave (for receiving antenna) in the maximum receiving
power (polarization match) direction. Take transmitting antenna for example, if the
electric filed direction of the antenna radiation wave is within the radiation plane (made
up of incident ray and the normal line of reflection plane), as the incident plane is
aways perpendicular to the tangent plane of the reflection plane, this is known as
vertical polarization; when the electric direction of antenna radiation wave is
perpendicular to the incident plane (made up of incident ray and the normal line of
reflection plane), it is parallel to the tangent plane of the reflection plane, thus it is
called horizontal polarization, as shown in Figure 4-3:
vertical polarization
incidental plane
incidental wave
reflection plane
horizontal plane
incidental plane
incidental wave
incidental plane
Chapter 4
field vector forms a plane together with the transmitting direction, known as polarized
plane.
The space dirction of electric field vector is not aways the same. The locus of electric
field vector end points is a circle, known as circular polarized wave; if the locus is a
ellipse, it is called ellipse polarized wave. Both the circular polarized wave and ellipse
polarized wave feature rotating phase.
Both circular polarized wave or ellipse polarized wave is composed of two linear
polarized waves perpendicualr to each other. If the two waves are of the same size,
they will make up circluar polarized wave; if not, they will form ellipse polarized wave.
Antenna may possibly radiate energy it does not need via polarization not preset. The
energy of this kind is called cross polarized radiation component. For linear ploarized
antenna, the cross polarization and preset polarization is perpendicular in direction.
For circular polarization antenna, the cross polarization and the preset polarization are
opposite in rotating direction, so cross polarization is called quadrature polarization.
Z A Z 0
, VSWR =
1+
, where
is 50 ohm. The return loss may also be
used to indicate the match characteristic of the port, R.L.(dB) = 20 lg , if
VSWR=1.5:1, R.L.=13.98dB.
Z A +Z 0
When antenna input impedance is not consistent with its characteristic impedance, the
reflection wave and incident wave will overlap on the feeder cable to form standing
wave. The ratio of maximum and minimum value of their neighboring voltages is the
voltage standing wave ratio. If this ratio is too high, it will shorten the communication
distance, and the reflection power will return to the power amplifier of the transmitter,
so that the power tube will get damaged easily.
4-4
Chapter 4
X. Wind loading
Base station antenna is normally installed on top of high buildings and iron towers,
especially in coastal areas, where the wind is very strong all year round, thus it is
requested that antenna be able to work properly against the wind at a speed of 36m/s,
and get undamaged when the wind blows at a speed of 55m/s.
4-5
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
It can be seen that the above diversity only improves the quality of uplink signals, while
the limit of mobile station in terms of volume, price and battery capacity etc makes it
possible to implement speace diversity of multiple antenna. To improve the
transmitting quality of downlink signals, whether it is possible to use the principle of
reciprocity for linear system to implement the diversity technology for receiving end of
mobile station larged limited in volumn shifted equally to the transmitting end. And this
is so-called transmitting diversity technology. Such technology is with a problem:
principle of reciprocity can not be applied unless the mobile communication channels
are simplified into an approximate linear time variation system. Moreover, the
implementation of principle of reciprocity for receiving and transmitting of this system
also requires that the transmitting and receiving are done within the same frequency
band with the same fading characteristics. But in fact, most mobile communication
systems resort to FDD work mode, where the interval between receiving and
transmitting is far greater than the related bandwidth. To reduce the effect of
deterioration on transmitting diversity out of FDD work mode, we usually adopt closed
loop control to send diversity. The transmitting diversity technology is applied widely in
3G.
S(t ) = k 1 S 1 (t ) + k 2 S 2 (t ) + ... + k q S q (t )
where k 1 , k 2 , ..., k q refers to weight coefficient. To select different weight coefficients will
produce different synthesis method. There are four synthetic techniques in common
use: maximum ratio compound (MRC), equal gain compound (EGC), selective
compound (SEC) and switch compound (SWC).These compound techniques are an
important part of antenna technology. As it goes beyond this textbook, its details will
not be mentioned herein. Mobile communication usually adopts space diversity and
polarization diversity with the diversity gain of around , 5dB. These two methods are
discussed as follows.
4-7
Chapter 4
3 meters will get better diversity gain. In addition, the vertical antenna interval is
greater than the horizontal antenna interval.Up to date, the space diversity antenna
commonly seen in the project is made up of two sets (receive/transmit, receive) or
three sets (receive, transmita and receive).
Chapter 4
lobe of directional antenna; but r is often used to indicate the cell radius in cellluar
layout. In a celluar cell, for the area whose included angle with the major lobe direction
of the cell antenna, this cell is requried to cover a range of r=R/2. If calcualted from
path loss, it will be around 10dB less than that in the direction of major lobe (deduction
is as follows), that is, the effective radiated power in this direction as required may be
about 10dB less than that in the direction of major lobe.
If R indicates the cell radius, then the cell area is S=0.6495 R R. However, people
sometimes call r as the cell radius. At this point the cell area is S=2.5981 r r.
Therefore, while discussing a problem of this kind, we need to make clear what to be
used as the cell radius.
Lets deduce the theoretic basis for the difference of 10dB between R direction and r
direction in terms of path loss. As shown in Figure 4-5, in this standard cell of 120
degrees, the distance covered in r direction is half that in R direction, i.e. r=R/2. To
4-9
Chapter 4
keep balanced coverage, the field intensity on the edge of this cell should be basically
equal, that is, RxlvelB=RxlevelC. Suppose
EIRP transmitted from Cell A is EIRPR in R direction and is EIRPr in r direction.
We choose urban HATA model for the path loss and the path loss from Point A to Point
B is expressed in Equation (1):
EIRPR-RXLEVB=69.55+21.66lgf-13.82lgh1+(44.9-6.55lgh1)lgR
(1)
(2)
The two equations subtract each other and the following equation will appear after
coordination:
EIRPR-EIRPr=(44.9-6.55lgh1)(lgR-lgr)=(44.9-6.55lgh1)
lg(R/r)
Put R=2r in the result and you will get the following:
EIRPR-EIRPr=0.3(44.9-6.55lgh1)
Through computer simulation, as the height h1of base station increases from 5m to
100m, and (EIRPR-EIRPr) decreases from 12 to 9.5, it may be roughly treated as
10dB as shown in Figure 4-6.
Series 1
Figure 4-6 Diagram of relation between the height of base station and value of EIRPR-EIRPr
Chapter 4
When the antenna at a fixed height illuminates a limited horizontal plane, the antenna
vertical directional diagram indicates that the existance of side lobe zero point may
possibly lead to blind zone within the area to be covered. Using the cosecant square
shaped beam power directional diagram of the vertical plane may eliminate the zero
points below the major lobe, so that the area to be covered has equal receiving signal
level. This is also known as zero point filling technology.
In addition, the global celluar system around is basically using a processing
technology known as beam downtilt.The said technology mainly aims to decline the
major beam so as to compress the FR level towards the directio and increase the
carrier-to-interference ratio.In this case, although the carrier wave level on the edge of
area falls, the interference level drops more than the carrier level, so the total carrierto-interference ratio increases. Strictly speaking, beam downtilt is not really the
shaped beam technology, but they are for the same purpose.To date, there are two
ways to decline the beam.One is electric adjustment downtilt to adjust the beam
downtilt by changing the excitation coefficient of antenna array; and the other is
mechanical adjustment to change the downtilt angle of the antennal.
Corresponding to different methods for beam downtilt, antenna is divided into electric
adjustment antenna and mechanical antenna. After electric adjustment antenna
adopts the methods combining mechanic and electronics to decline by 15 , the
directional diagram of the antenna will not change greatly with the coverage distance
shortened obviously in the direction of major lobe. The overall antenna directional
diagram is within the local base station sector. To increase the downtilt degree will
reduce the sector coverage, but will not produce interference. We simply need such a
directional diagram. Electric adjustment antenna is of two types: one is the preset fixed
electric downtilt angle antenna, and the other is antenna to make adjustment of
electric downtilt angle one the site according to practical needs. The latter is described
as follows. When the mechanical antenna declines by 15 , the form of antenna
directional diagram changes greatly from the shape of juicy pear (grown in Hebei
Province) to the shape of spindle. Although the coverage distance in the major lobe
direction is obviously shortened, the overall antenna directional diagram is not within
the sector of base station and the sector in the neighboring base station will also
receive the signals from the said base station, thus resulting in interference. This is
attributed to the following reasons: the electric antenna is installed perpendicular to the
ground (mechanical downtilt of 0
5 is optional). Once the antenna is installed, in
the course of adjusting antenna downtilt angel, the antenna itself will not move.
Through electric signal the antenna dipole phase is adjusted, thus changing the
breadth of horizontal and vertical component as well as the component field intensity,
so as to change antenna coverage distance. At the same time the filed intensity in
each direction of the antenna increases or decreases, so as to ensure the antenna
directional diagram will not change greatly after the change of downtilt angle. After the
mechanical antenna is installed perpendicular to the ground, while adjusting the
downtilt angel of antenna, the antenna itself will move too. It is necessary to change
the antenna downtilt angle by adjusting the position of the rear rack of antenna, and
changing the downtilt angle. Although the coverage distance in the major lobe
direction of the antenna undergoes no obvious change, the vertical component and
horizontal component of the antenna will remain unchanged in terms of breadth.
Therefore, the antenna directional diagram will be transformed seriously. As a result,
the advantage of electric antenna is: in the event of great downtilt angle, the coverage
distance is obviously shorten in the major lobe direction with antenna directional
diagram changing not so much, so as to bring down the call loss and reduce the
interference. In addition, in the event of network optimization, management and
maintenance, to adjust the antenna downtilt angle, you do not have to shut down while
using electric antenna. In this way, you may use special test equipment for mobile
communication to monitor the adjustment of antenna downtilt angle, so as to ensure
the antenna downtilt angle is at its best value.
4-11
Chapter 4
The step degree of downtilt angle for electric antenna is 0.1 , while the step degree
for mechanical antenna is 1 . Therefore, electric antenna is highly precise and yields
good result. When electric antenna is installed, while adjusting antenna downtilt angle,
the maintenance personnel do not have to clime to the place where the antenna is
installed but adjust the downtilt angle on the ground. They may also perform remote
monitoring adjustment on the base station antenna on top of high mountains and in
remote areas. While adjusting the downtilt angle of mechanical antenna, it is required
to shut down the entire system. And monitoring cannot be conducted when the
antenna downtilt angle is being adjusted. The downtilt angle of mechanical antenna is
a theoretical value through calculation by computer simulation analysis software, and
it will differ form the actual best downtilt angle to some extent. Besides, it takes much
trouble to adjust the downtilt angle for mechanical antenna. Normally, the maintenance
personnel shall have to clime to the place where the antenna is installed at night
before making adjustment. Furthermore, it is rather difficult to adjust some antennas
after they have been installed, such as mountaintop or special buildings.
In addition, the index for Level 3 normal intermodulation of electric antenna is -150dBc,
while such index for mechanical antenna is -120dBc. Thus, the difference of the two is
30dBc. However, the Level 3 intermodulation index is very important to eliminate
adjacent frequency interference and scattering interference. In particular, in the area
of high traffic intensity with small distance between base stations but much carrier
frequency, it is requested that the index for Level 3 intermodulation should reach
around -150dBc. Otherwise, large interference will occur.
Currently, China Mobile Communication Network is suffering much call loss and large
interference in the areas with high traffic intensity. One of the important reasons is that
the downtilt degree of mechanical antenna is too large, so antenna directional diagram
gets distorted seriously. To solve the problem of insufficient capacity in areas with
much traffic, it is necessary to shorten the station distance and increase the antenna
downtilt angle. But while using mechanical antenna, when the downtilt angle is more
than 10 , the antenna directional diagram will be distorted quite seriously. Therefore,
it is very different to solve the problem of high call loss and large interference in areas
with high user intensity through mechanical antenna. It is recommended that the
mechanical antenna be replaced by electric antenna in traffic-intensive areas. The
replaced antennas may be installed in the rural areas and suburbs where the traffic
intensity is relatively low.
Chapter 4
but also interference noice from other signals. It is not the case with intelligent antenna.
It is able to receive the signals from a specified user and transfer the signal enegy to
the said user in a more effective way. Different from traditional TDMA, FDMA or CDMA,
intelligent antenna introduces the fourth dimension multiple access: SDMA. With the
same time slot, frequency or address code, the user is still able to differentiate them in
light of the space transmitting paths of the signals. Intelligent antenna is equal to a
time space filter, which works to notably reduce the interference of user signals with
each other under the control of parellel antenna beams directed to different users. To
be specific, intelligent antenna will improve the performance of future mobile
communication system in the following aspects:
(1) Enlarge system coverage;
(2) Reduce interference and raise system capacity;
(3) Improve utilization rate of high frequency spectrum;
(4) Raise the sensitivity of base station;
(5) Reduce transmitting power of base station, so as to lower system cost and reduce
interference between signals and environmental pollution of electromagnetism.
Intelligent antenna is of two major types: multi-beam intelligent antenna and adaptive
array antenna, known as multi-beam antenna and adaptive antenna; the latter is the
main type of intelligent antenna.
Multi-antenna uses multiple parallel beams to cover the entire user area with each
beam pointing to a fixed place. The beamwidth varies with the number of array
elements. With the users moving in the cell, the base station will choose different
beams accordingly, so as to make the signals received the strongest. As user signals
are not necessarily at the center of fixed beams, when the user is at the edge of beam
with the interference signal at the heart of beam, the receiving effect will be the worst.
Therefore, multi-beam antenna cannot achieve best reception of signals. It is generally
used as receiving antenna. However, compared with adaptive array antenna, multibeam antenna has such advantages as simple structure and no need for judging the
direction where the user signal reaches.
Normally, adaptive antenna adopts an array element structure of 6 16 antennas with
a interval of 1/2 wavelength between array elements. If such interval is too large, the
correlativity of received signals to each other will be reduced; if such interval is too
small, there will arise unnecessary grid slobes. Thus, the interval is generally half
wave length.
Adaptive array antenna system adopts digital signal processing technology to identify
the direction where the user signals reach and then form major beam of the antenna in
this direction. Adaptive array antenna provides different space channels tantamount to
the cables for wire transmission in light of different user signals, so as to ward off the
effect of interference on the system. The general structure of intelligent antenna is
shown in Figure 4-7(a):
4-13
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
transmitted are connected by a group of high-speed digital buses and baseband digital
signal processor.
From Figure 4-7(b), lets first study the signals from multiple user terminals. These
upsteam signals have such effects as multi-address interference, fading, multi-path
transmission and doppler frequency shift, and have other interferences and noises.
Use Si(n) for the output of Receiver i as shown in the figure at n time point. Through
deamplification and the corresponding digital siganl processing, you may get the data
received from each code channel. If we use Xji( ) to indicate the array elements of
Symbol
of Code channel j received at Antenna i , then after beam shaping
(composition) on the baseband, the total data received from the intelligent antenna
should be:
).
Next, the intelligent antenna will shape its downlink beams. Use Yj( ) to indicate
Symbol tranmitted to this user from code channel j. The signals transmitted from
antenna array element i via the downlink beam shaping of intelligent antenna (adjust
the amplitude and phase of the signals transmitted from each transmitter in the base
station) can be expressed as:
).
Obviously, to get the best receiption, we must find out a good algorithm for uplink
beam shaping, or a method for obtaining W matrix; in order for the user to get the best
signals, it is necessary to find out a good algorithm for downlink beam shaping, or a
method for obtaining U matrix. It must be pointed out that the only thing already known
is the geometric structure and the signals received by various receivers of the antenna
array in finding this beam shaping matrix. In this respect, the researchers have done a
lot of work, and there are several algorithms available, mainly limited to the processing
capacity of baseband processor and the requirements on real-time work.
Intelligent antenna technology will bring much good to radio communicaiton, especially
in improving CDMA system performance and reducing its cost. However,
consideration must be given to the problems arising from the application of intelligent
antenna to CDMA system. At the same time, the following problems should be solved
in respect of standard, produce and network design:
Chapter 4
transmitted is done on the basis of geometric structure, system requirements and the
user signals received with respect to the base station antenna. Under mobile
communication system, the intelligent antenna uses shaped beams on the uplink
signal of each user, which serves to improve the system performance directly.
However, when the user is not transmitting but only receiving signals and moving
within the area covered by the base station (idle status), it is impossible fo the base
station to know exactly where the user is. In this case, the base station will use
omnidirectional beams for transmission (such physical channels in the system as Pilot,
synchronization, broadcast and paging). For the base station with omnidirectional
coverage as shown in Figure 4-8, different beams are transmitted from different code
channels. That is to say, the base station must provide omnidirectional and directional
shaped beams. In this sense, an omnidirectional channel requirs much higher
transmitting power (the maximum power possible is 101gN dB higher than the
dedicated channel,where N is the quantity of antenna array elements. This must be
taken into account in system design.
4-16
Chapter 4
4-17
Chapter 4
4-18
Chapter 4
4-19
Chapter 4
For the base stations distributed in downtown areas, when the antenna has no downtilt
or the angle is very small, the service range of each cell is subject to the height,
azimuth angle, gain, transmitting power and land forms and ground objects with regard
to the antenna. In this case, the coverage radius may be calculated through
Okumura-Hata or COST231 formula; when the antenna downtilt is relatively large, as
the above formula fails to consider the downtilt, thus it is impossible to work out the
coverage radius (if there is an accurate transmission model and digital map, ASSET
may be figured out). At this point, direction estimation can be done in accordance with
the size of vertical half power angle and the downtilt of the antenna on the basis of
triangle geomety formula as follows:
Suppose the radius to be covered is D(m) with antenna height as H(m), downtilt as
and the vertical half power angle as , then the relation between the antenna major
lobe beams and the ground as shown in Figure 4-9.
Figure 4-9 Relation between Antenna Major Lobe Beams and the Ground
It can be seen that when antenna downtilt is 0 degree, antenna beam major lobes or
major energy radiate horizontally; when antenna declines by degrees, the extension
line in the direction of major lobes will ultimately intersect a point on the ground (Point
A). As antenna is of certain beam width vertically, much energy will be radiated in the
direction from Point A to Point B. According to technical performance of the antenna,
within the scope of half power angle, antenna gain will come down slowly; beyond the
half power angle, antenna gain (especially the upper lobe) will fall sharply. Therefore,
while considering the size of antenna downtilt, the scope ranging from the extension
line of the half power angle to the intersection point on the ground (Point B) may be
regarded as the actual coverage area of this antenna.
According to the above analysis and the theories for triangle geometry, it can be
deduced that the relationship between antenna height, downtilt, and coverage
distance is as follows:
= arctan(H/D)+ /2
The above formula may be used to estimate the coverage distance after the downtilt
has been adjusted. The actual result of practical application on the optimism site
reveals that this formula is of great guiding significance. However, the application of
this formula is limited by the following conditions: the downtilt must be greater than half
of the half power angle; the distance D must be less than the distance worked out
according to the formula in absence of a downtilt. For vertical beam width in the above
formula, pleaes refer to the specific antenna technical index or work out the rough
value.
In a situation where the vertical beam width is 17 degrees and the base station
antenna is 40 meters high, the relationship between the coverage distance and
antenna downtilt is shown in Figure 4-10. When the vertical beam width is 6.5 degrees
4-20
Chapter 4
and the base station antenna is 40 meters high, the relationship the coverage distance
and antenna downtilt is shown in Figure 4-11.
distance (meter )
coverage distance-declination
angle
declination angle
(degree)
Figure 4-10 Relation between Coverage Distance and Downtilt (vertical beam width as 17 degrees,
and antenna height as 40 meters)
distance (meter )
coverage
distance-declination angle
declination angle
(degree)
Figure 4-11 Relation between Coverage Distance and Downtilt (vertical beam width as 65 degrees,
and antenna height as 40 meters)
Seen from the above two figures, when the antenna height and downtilt are specified,
the relation between the coverage distance and the vertical beam width of the antenna
is as follows: The smaller the vertical beam width, the coverage distance will be
shorter. As a result, to control trans-regional coverage in a better way, we should
choose an antenna of small vertical beam width with zero point filling function while
selecting antennas in the planning stage. In this way, it will prevent trans-regional
interference and improve the coverage in the vicinity and indoor coverage. However,
4-21
Chapter 4
when the vertical beam width grows smaller, the horizontal lobe or gain will get larger,
thus causing new trans-regional interference or excessive cross coverage between
neighboring cells. As a result, antennas of medium gain are usually chosen in urban
areas. For example, GSM900 selects antenna of 65 degrees and 15dBi. At this time,
the width of vertical lobe ranges between 11-15 degrees. It must be noted that the
adjustment of downtilt may serve to control the coverage area in addition to improve
the indoors coverage in the vicinity of the base station, but the coverage far from the
base station will get worse.
Vertical half
power angle of
antenna
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
Antenna height
Downtilt angle
200
250
250
250
250
500
500
500
500
800
1000
50
50
40
30
25
50
40
30
25
30
30
20
17
15
13
12
12
11
10
9
8
2
From this we can see that when the cell radius is too small, antenna mechanical
downtilt cannot ensure control of coverage area. At this time, we cannot but reduce the
antenna height; if it is difficult to reduce the height, it is necessary to adopt the
combination of electric downtilt and mechanical downtilt. In application, for a base
station with its antenna of 40-50 meters in height, the minimum cell radius is 250
meters. Normally, the ideal height for macro cellular antenna in downtown areas is
4-22
Chapter 4
50
The above method for calculating downtilt angle is mainly applicable to the dense
base station networking with an interval of less than 1200 meters (i.e. R=800m)
between stations.
When the base station is over 800 meters away from the coverage destination, the
most concern is still the coverage of a large area. It is not necessary to consider the
effect of vertical half power angle in working out the antenna downtilt angle. At this
time, the angle of downtilt is normally 1 4 degrees; under special circumstances, for
example, if the base station has been installed in a higher position, its angle of downtilt
may also be large.
However, the surroundings around the base station are quite complex. The downtilt
angle must also take the reflection from the neighboring mountains, water surface and
tall glass walls into consideration in that such reflection will easily cause unexpected
adjacent frequency interference with other base stations and even its own time
dispersion effect; consideration should also be given to shadow effect caused by the
buidling roof, dense architectural complex and slope on electric waves. However, in
practical networking, the surrounding geographical environment around the base
station will be combined to use the obstruction of tall building or mountain to control
the coverage area. It is required to consider the downtilt angle at this time.
Networking in populous downtown area should also consider the street effect and
unexpected trans-regional coverage arising from the antenna major lobe right directed
to the street. In general, the major lobe should avoid being directed to a straight street.
When a cell needs to cover an area higher than the antenna, it is possible to adopt
inverse directional antenna or negative angle of downtilt. The antenna is required to
proof against water.
If the base station is placed too high and thus necessitating the coverage of valleys far
lower than the base station ( more than 50 60 meters or depression angle more than
5 degrees) and only omni-antenna can be used, it is necessary to consider using
omni-antenna characterized by electric downtilt angle (3 degrees or 5 degrees etc.),
wide vertical lobe (low gain), zero point filling or improvement on the gain of lower
secondary lobe in order to improve the coverage near the base station and avoid
possible signal fluctuation caused by blind under tower and unequal coverage.
We must also give consideration to the direction after the antenna back lobe declines
on the major lobe of the antenna, because the front-to-back ratio for general antenna
nowadays only stands at 20dB. The back lobes with strong signals will easily cause
much interference against high buildings. Therefore, it is recommended to adopt
electric downtilt while selecting antenna in populous urban areas, and take note of the
effect of upper secondary lobes.
Normally, the vertical power angle of omni-antenna is symetric vertically along the
plane, and thus the inverse and upright installation will have equal effect; in practial
project, the vertical directional diagram of specific omni-antenna should still be taken
into consideration to check if the electric downtilt angle is already available. In this
case, careful consideration should be given to inverse installation.
4-23
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
antenna can be made wider, so as to enhance the coverage effect within the area to
be covered. At the same time, the size and weight of antenna can become smaller
instrumental to the installation and reducing cost. According to the current antenna
models, it is recommended to select a gain of 15dBi (900MHz) or 15-18dBi (1800MHz)
for antennas in urban areas.
For a base station on the outskirt of a city, if the coverage distance is required to be
long, antenns with higher gains such as 17dBi 18dBi can be selected.
In principle, while designing base station coverage in urban areas, we should select an
antenna with fixed electric downtilt angle, whose size is subject to practical conditions
(6-9 preferred).
Inside a city, in order to raise the frequency multiplexing rate, reduce trans-regional
interference and improve D/U value (the ratio of useful signal level to useless signal
level), it is allowed to select an antenna with its first upper secondary lobe suppressed
and the first lower zero point filled (shaping technology). However, the antenna of this
kind usually has no fixed angle of downtilt.
As it is different to select a site for an urban base station, the installation space for
antenna is limited. Generally, it is recommended to select dual poluarization antenna.
Under indentical or similar electric indicators, it is better to select an antenna of small
size.
Chapter 4
directional antenna with horizonal half beam width of either 90 or 120 . Another
thing requiring attention is that vertical polarization antenna has more diversity effect
and stronger capacity against slow fading than dual polarization antenna. As required
for large coverage in rural areas, if conditions permit, we may substitute two pieces of
vertical polarization antenna for dual polarization antenna.
For high stations in mountaineous areas (the relative height of antenna is over 50
meters), we should generally select antennas with zero point filling function to solve
the problem with blind under tower in short range. While solving this problem via an
angle of downtilt, we should note the reduction of coverage area.
directional diagram
town
highroad
base station
mountain
210-degree Antenna
4-26
Chapter 4
Base station
Highroad
Mountain
4-27
Chapter 4
With regard to 8-shaped and 210 antennas, it is recommended to give top priority to
them in respect of expressway coverage.
If a base station installed on top of a mountain is required to cover the areas at the foot
of the mountain, it is recommended to select an antenna with wide vertical half power
beam for the coverage, such as omni-antenna with a gain of 8.5dBi or a directional
antenna of 14dBi with vertical beam width of around 20 .
4-28
Chapter 4
Statoin type
Urban area
Directional
station
Suburb
Directional
station
Directional
station
Omnidirectional
station
Exressways
Directional
station
Directional
station +
omnidirectional
station
Mountainous
areas
Omnidirectional
station
Directional
station
4-29
Remark
While installing an
antenna, make sure that
the mechanical downtilt
angle is no more than 10
degrees.
If mechanical downtilt
angle is to be installed, the
angle should not be too
large.
Generally no downtilt
angle is added.
Generally no downtilt
angle is added.
Generally no downtilt
angle is added.
Generally no downtilt
angle is added.
Generally no downtilt
angle is added.
Generally no downtilt
angle is added.
Chapter 4
4-30
Chapter 4
TX2
Combiner
TX3
TX4
TX-DUP
Figure 4-14
4-31
Combiner
Combiner
TX1
Chapter 4
Different combining and distribution units have different losses, which are configured
and used in light of different station types. The following indexes are specified: for
each combination (two combined into one), in theory, insertion loss is 3dB and
duplexer insertion loss is 1dB or so.
Regular configuration
plan
7 8TRX
2CDU 2SCU
5 6TRX
CDU+CDU+SCU
4-32
Large coverage
configuration plan
CDU+CDU+SCU
Remark
Large station is mostly
located in the urban area,
which is basically applicable
to large coverage.
In applying large coverage
configuration plans, it is
necessary
to
combine
Huaweis concentric circle
Chapter 4
technology
3 4TRX
1 2TRX
CDU+SCU
CDU
Dual CDU
EDU or dual CDU
4-33
Chapter 4
4-34
Chapter 4
II. Technical indexes for the insertion loss of several feeder cables
Feeder cable type
890MHz
SYFY-50-22(7/8 inch)
LDF5-50A (7/8 inch)
LDF6-50 (5/4 inch)
M1474A (7/8 inch)
HFC22D-A (7/8 inch)
FSJ4-50B(1/2 inch)
Standing wave
(Any length)
4.03
4.03
2.98
11.2
4-35
1,000M
Hz
4.3
3.17
4.3
4.47
11.9
1,700M
Hz
5.87
5.87
4.31
16.1
2,000MHz
6.46
6.46
4.77
6.6
6.7
17.7
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
Chapter 4
4-36
Chapter 4
The downlink signals from the base station go to the distributed antenna system via
the interface. These signals form multiple tributaries via the power splitter, each of
which can be divided into smaller tributaries via the power splitter. The end of each
tributary is connected with a small antenna. Each small antenna covers a certain area.
When the signal is not strong enough, it will be amplified by bi-directional amplifier with
certain gains; on the contrary, the uplink signals in each tributary area, via small
antenna, power splitter and bi-directional amplifier, will reach the base station through
interface.
In the above system, the transmission and distributiojn of signlas can be performed
through coaxial cable and FR power splitter or through optical link. In addition, it can
also be a mixture of coaxial cable, power splitter and raditation antenna: disclosure
cable.
4-37
Chapter 4
4-38
Chapter 4
IV. Summary
Distributed antenna type
Coaxial feeding
Disclosure cable
Fiber feeding
Advantages
Flexible design
Low cost
High reliability
Flexible design
Disadvantages
Large loss
High cost
High cost
Poor design flexibility
The equipment at overage terminal requires
power
Low loss
Easy for installation
GSM1800
1710 1880MHz
Port imbalance
0.25dB
Insertion loss
Port standing wave
Power capacity
3.6dB
1.5dB
300W
1 to 2
1 to 4
800
4-39
2000MHz
Chapter 4
1:1
3.5dB
1:1:1:1
6.5dB
1.5dB
N_Female
The insertion loss as defined in the above table includes the distribution loss.
7dB coupler
10dB coupler
2000MHz
10dB
0.5dB
1.5
N_Female
15dB coupler
800
7dB
1.2dB
15dB
0.3dB
As we stipulate that this system is a small-sized one for simple indoor coverage, the
above three types of couplers can basically meet the requirement for project design. In
the system design of distributed antenna, we should try to avoid the existence of more
than two power dividion components (or coupler) along the path from the base station
to each antenna, so as to ensure power balance of uplink signals.
<2
900M directional
antenna
1800M directional
antenna
960MHz
1710 1880MHz
890
7
90
Vertical
300W
<1.5
N_Female
8
90
<1.5
V. Coaxial connector
As the length of the feeder cable for indoor distribution system is not specified, it is
necessary to specify the length in light of practical needs and make connectors. The
system selects two types of coaxial connectors.
Type
N type
4-40
N type
Chapter 4
Description
SYV-50-7-1
50
1.2
50
900MHz 0.051dB/m 1800MHz 0.076dB/m
900MHz 72dB 1800MHz 84dB; ( the loss 2 meters away from the
coupling hole with an error of 10dB)
7/8"
14040121
Able to prevent flaming and proof against ultraviolet
SYV-50-7-1
50
900MHz: 0.22dB/m
1800MHz: 0.31dB/m
LDF5-50A-7/8"
50
1000MHz: 0.0446dB/m
2000MHz: 0.0659dB/m
14040184
14040121
Good
Poor
VIII. Load
While using disclosure cable, its end may either use a small antenna as load or use
the load directly for match. The load index as defined in the list is:
Work frequency band
Characteristic impedance
Port standing wave ratio
Connector type
Power capacity
0 2GHz
50
<1.15
N_Male
300W
4-41
Chapter 4
4-42
Chapter 5
5.1
Chapter 5
antenna in adjacent sectors should not exceed 10% in depth; the overlapping depth of cover
between the coverage areas in suburbs and towns with the directional included angle of
the sectors no less than 90. Attention should also be paid to the correspondence
between the carrier wave number and the cell in designing. A larger number of carrier
wave should be configured for a cell of high density.
In designing an azimuth angle, it should be determined not only based on the
distribution of traffic around each base station but also from the perspective of the
overall network. In general, it is recommended to adopt, if possible, the same azimuth
for each urban base station, in order not to make it complicated to plan the network
when the cell breaks apart in the future; to avoid trans-regional coverage, the major
antenna lobe in populous downtown area should be kept from facing a straight street.
In places such as outskirts and trunk roads, the antenna bearing should be adjusted in
light of the objects to be covered.
(4) Generally, high mountains in urban areas or suburbs(over 200 300 meters higher
than the urban areas in altitude above sea level ) are not regarded as station
addresses in order to prevent co-frequency interference and avoid areas with weak
signals within their respective coverage areas, and to ease the difficulty in engineering
construction and make it easy for maintenance;
(5) New base stations should be installed in places, where traffic is convenient, electric
supply is available, the environment is safe without occupying much fertile land; such
places should not be near high-power radio transmitting station or other interference
sources, whose intensity should not exceed the indexes for the shield of base station
equipment against useless radiation;
(6) The designed station address should be kept far away from the forest so as to
avoid the fading of receiving signals;
(7) The designed station address must ensure the transmission link between it and the
base station controller is connected well;
(8) Attention must be paid to the effect of time dispersion in choosing an address from
mountainous areas, limnological regions with steep banks or many lakes, hills, cities
and an environment with high buildings. The address for a base station should be a
place near reflecting objects or put the directional antenna back on to the reflecting
objects when the base station is far away;
Note:
Time dispersion mainly refers to the problem of cofrequency interference arising from
the time difference between master signals arriving at the receiver and other multipath
signals in terms of time for transmission in space (transmission distance); according to
GSM protocol, the receiver equalizer must be equipped with a time window of 16 ms
(equivalent to 4.8 Km). Multipath signals with a time window less than 16 ms are
harmless and even instrumental; but those with a time window of over 16 ms are
regarded as the cofrequency interference signals against the master signals. In this
case, it is required to consider whether the level difference between them meets C/I
value, that is, master signals are over 12dB greater than the multi-path signals. The
time window of Huawei receivers is more than 20ms.
(9) While choosing an address form urban high buildings, the height of building may be
wisely used to classify the network structure; the antennas for major base stations
should be a litter taller than the average height of buildings. In general, the base
station antenna in populous urban areas should be as high as 25 30 meters but it is
40 50 meters in the suburbs (or pointing to suburb cells);
4-2
Chapter 5
(10) In choosing an address for highroads or mountain coverage, we should make the
most of land features, such an open area as the turn of a highroad.
4-3
Chapter 5
4-4
Chapter 5
no more than 15
antennas direction
vertical direction
Figure 5-1 Included Angle Between the Antenna and the Wall in Installation
To get a most desirable coverage, the headroom around the antenna is required to be 50
100m. For 900M GSM, the radius of first fresnel zone within this range is about 5m, which
means that the base of the base station antenna should be 5 meters higher than its environment.
By making a wise use of the height of the buildings around it, we are able to attain the base
station coverage as we have expected.
The requirement on the headroom around the antenna is shown in Figure 5-2.
antenna
5
(a)
antenna
<50-100m <50-100m
<5m
(b)
Figure 5-2 Headroom Requirement for Antenna
In installing antennas for a base station, we should also make sure if the antennas will
produce a large shadow in its coverage area. The huge barriers near the base station
such as high buildings and mountains often cause shadows. Thus, we should try to
avoid these barriers in installing the antennas. When a directional antenna is installed
on top of a building, attention must be paid to keeping the edges of the building from
holding up beam radiation. The antenna should be installed close to the building
edges, so as to reduce or eliminate shadows. As the building roofs are diversified and
complex, when the antenna is to be installed away from the building edges, the
antenna should be placed higher than the roof. At this moment, consideration must be
given to the bearing of the roof and the antenna under stress against the wind in terms
of engineering. Without regard to the effect of the antennas declination angle, the
following two tables give the recommended height of the antenna from the roof in the
case of GSM900 and GSM1800.
z
GSM900
4-5
Chapter 5
GSM1800
requirements:
z
Directional antenna
In the same system, the horizontal interval between the two antennas in the same
sector is equal to or more than 4m; the horizontal interval between the two antennas in
the same sector is equal to or more than 0.5m;
Between the two systems, when the two antennas of the same sector are in the same
direction, the horizontal interval between the antennas is equal to or more than 1m;
The vertical interval of antenna is equal to or more than 0.5 meters; the distance from
the antenna base to the enclosing wall on the roof is equal or more than 0.5 meters;
The included angle between the line connecting the lower antenna edge with the
antenna face pointing to the roof and the horizontal direction is more than 150;
The included angle between the connecting line of two antenna mounts and the
antenna direction should fall within the following range:
Antenna horizontal plane lobe width
60-70
Included angle between the connecting line of two antenna >40 45
mounts and the antenna direction
90
>55
120
>70
Omni-antenna
antenna horizontal interval 10 meters or antenna vertical interval 0.5 meter; the
distance from the lower antenna edge to the enclosing wall on the building roof 0.5
meter.
4-6
Chapter 5
935-960
890-915
870-880
825-835
As the two are too close to each other, interference against each other will easily occur.
Mostly, the transmission from CDMA2000 1X will interfere with GSM900, which
receives disclosure signal beyond the CDMA band and fall within the channels of GSM
receiver, thus raising the noise level of GSM receiver only to worsen GSM uplink,
reduce the coverage of the base station, and worsen the network quality. If there is no
enough separation between two base stations or the send filter interfering the base
station fails to provide enough outband attenuation, then the signals falling into the
band width of the interfered base station might be very strong, and thus increase the
noise threshold of the receiver. The degree in system performance fall depends on the
intensity of interference signals, which in turn remain subject to the performance of the
sending unit of interfering base station, the performance of receiving unit of interfered
base station, frequency band interval and antenna separation.
The diagram of an interference model is shown as follows:
Ib
PTXAMP
Pattenuation
I isolation
10 lg
4-7
Chapter 5
where, Ib refers to the interference level (dBm)received at the receiving terminal of the
interfered base station, PTX-AMP is the power (dBm) output from the interference source
amplifier, Pattenuation is the outband suppressed attenuation of the send filter, Iisolation
refers to the separation (dB) between base station antennas, WBinterfered is the signal
bandwidth of interfered base station, and WBinterfering refers to the measurable
bandwidth of interference signals, also understood as the defined bandwidth of the
scattering radiation. In figuring out the interference level of the interfered base station,
the difference and conversion between the two should be taken into consideration.
Regulate the above formula, and we will get:
I isolation
PTXAMP
Pattenuation
Ib
10 lg
If the CDMA2000 1X transmitting frequency band is the last one at high end, that is 878.49MHz.
CDMA2000 1X amplification output with the scattering falling within 890-915MHz
13dBm/100kHz. The specific measures for realization is to filter and combine each transmitting
frequency band using a band-limiting filter with a bandwidth of only 1.23MHz. The band-limiting
filter of this kind has great outband attenuation, and attenuates at 890MHz up to 56dB and at
909MHz up to 80dB. All things considered, the worst of all is that the high end of CDMA system
interferes with the frequency at the lowest end of GSM system.
Then,
Iisolation = (-13dBm/100kHz)- 56 - Ib
10lg (200kHz/100kHz)
Ib is the maximum interference level (dBm) received by interference base station allowed at its
receiving antenna terminal. To ensure that the sensitivity is not affected, the external
interference level is required to be lower than the bottom receiver noise by 10dB. In this case,
the affected sensitivity amounts to around 0.5 dB. The bottom noise of GSM receiver is: noise
noise coefficient. Suppose the receiver noise coefficient is 8, the
density bandwidth
bottom noise is expressed in logarithm as follows:
174
noise coefficient
scattering interference is:
lg(200000)=-174+53+8
-113-10 -123dBm/200kHz
This requires the scattering interference or intermodulation of other systems falling on GSM
receiver should be less than this value. Only in this way will it cause serious interference against
GSM system.
Thus, we can get the following:
Iisolation =
(-13dBm/100kHz)- 56 - Ib
10lg (200kHz/100kHz)
= 57
In other words, whether CDMA antenna and GSM900 antenna share a station address, there
should be a separation of 57dB between them.
There are many ways to reduce the interference: make the spatial distance between
the antennas enough; filter outband channel noises of receiver with the receiver
placed on different equipment, such as receiver, multiplexer and separator.
I. On equipment interference
As stipulated in IA/EIA-97 protocol, the scattering interference of CDMA antenna
interface falling with the receiving frequency band of GSM900 should be less than -13
dBm/100kHz, that is, CDMA system will cause serious interference against GSM900.
On this basis, we consider the problem of interferences between the two and sharedaddress construction in the initial design. To be specific, at each transmitting frequency
band, use a band-limiting filter with a bandwidth of 1.23MHz for filtering and
4-8
Chapter 5
combination. This band limiting will attenuate greatly outside the band, so as to reduce
the requirement for spatial distance.
(10+10)
180m
57
57
180
569
2) CDMA and GSM900 antennas share a station address (antennas placed on the
same platform and separated horizontally), directional antenna.
Suppose GSM900 and CDMA20001X antennas are placed horizontally and both
adopt 65 degree antennas; Suppose the antenna gains of GSM and CDMA20001x in
the direction of radiation are both 15dBi.
65antenna plane side lobe is about -18dB in the direction of 90 degrees and then the
effective gains in the said direction are 15-18 -3dBi.
57=22 20lg(Dh/)
According to the above formula, we conclude that the horizontal interval between the
antennas is d 9m.
Effective antenna gain in the
direction of radiation (dBi)
10
15
57
57
3
9
3) CDMA and GSM900 antenna share a station address (antennas are scattered on
different platforms of the iron tower and vertically separated), omni-antenna and
directional antenna.
57=28+40lg(k/)
From the above formula, we come to an conclusion that the vertical interval between
the antennas is d 1.7m.
4-9
Chapter 5
Note:
Omni-antenna:
Separation requirement: TX-TX, TX-RX: 30dB
Vertical interval
Horizontal interval
(recommended)
4-10
Remark
Chapter 5
0.5m
Gain=10dBi: 10m
0.25m
Gain=10dBi: 5m
GSM900+GSM1800:
TX-TX, TX-RX
0.5m
Gain=10dBi: 1m
Diversity requirement:
GSM900: RX-RX
------
4m(recommended 6m)
GSM1800: RX-RX
------
2m(recommended
3m)
Antenna from
tower2m
Antenna from
tower2m
Directional antenna:
Required separation between TX-TX, TX-RX: 30dB
Antenna of the same sector
Vertical interval Horizontal interval
GSM900: TX-TX, TX-RX
0.5m
4m
0.25m
2m
Horizontal interval
Remark
No effect of the iron
tower structure in
antenna forwarding
direction
No effect of the iron
tower structure in
antenna forwarding
direction
Remark
0.5m
0.5m
GSM900: RX-RX
------
4m
(recommended 6m)
GSM1800: RX-RX
------
2m
(recommended 3m)
GSM900 and GSM1800 are installed in flexible forms, but whatever the form, GSM900
antenna and GSM1800 antenna shall meet the aforementioned requirements for
their respective interval.
4-11
Chapter 5
4-12
Chapter 5
In terms of technical principle, the tower amplification is to reduce the noise coefficient
of base station receiving system so as to improve the service quality inside the service
area. In this way, it functions to improve the receiving performance of the base station.
The contributions made by the power amplifier to the uplink shall be distinguished in
light of the performance of its own low noise amplifier rather than only based on the
gains. Normally, the uplink and downlink balance with amplifier added should be
modified and worked out according to the test method for its practical sensitivity.
I. No tower amplifier
Without a tower amplifier, the input interface of the multiplexer on top of the cabinet
should be taken as the reference point for sensitivity.
For a downlink signal link, the power of base station transmitter is Poutb, the combiner
loss is Lcb, feeder line loss is Lfb, base station antenna gain is Gab, the loss of space
transmission is Ld, the mobile station antenna gain is Gam, the receiving level of the
mobile station is Pinm, its fading margin is Mf and the noise deterioration at the side of
mobile station is Pmn. Then it follows:
Pinm+Mf=Poutb-Lcb-Lfb+Gab-Ld+Gam-Pmn
(1)
For uplink signal link, the output power of the mobile station transmitter is Poutm, base
station diversity receives a gain of Gdb, the receiving level of the base station is Pinb
and noise deterioration at the side of mobile station is Pbn. In accordance with the
principle of reciprocity, the gain received and sent by the antenna is equal. Then it
follows:
Pinb+Mf=Poutm+Gam-Ld+Gab+Gdb-Lfb-Pbn
Normally, Pmn
(2)
( 3)
Poutb=Poutm+Gdb+(Pinm-Pinb)+Lcb
(4)
4-13
Chapter 5
this is usually caused when the Fire code (FIRE) or other group codes detect errors.
No definition of FER is available for data services.
RBER is defined as the bit error rate of those not announced as deleted frames. That
is the ratio of number of bit errors in the fame detected as good to the total number of
bits transmitted in good frames.
Bit error rate (BER) is defined as the ratio of bit errors received to all the data bits
transmitted.
As channel bit error rate is random, we normally measure the receiver bit error rate by
statistical measurement. That is, conduct several sample measurements on each
channel. When the number of sample measurements is definite, and the bit error rate
gained from every measurement falls within a certain range of test errors, it is deemed
that bit error rate of this channel has met the requirement on bit error rate as stipulated.
The limit value of sampled number and test bit error should meet the following
requirements:
(1) For each independent sample test, the times through a bad unit should be kept as
low as possible (probability lower than0.2%);
(2) For each independent sample test, there is a high possibility of passing through a
bad unit probability higher than 99.7%};
(3) The measurement involves the statistical characteristic of height;
(4) The time for test should be reduced to the minimum.
As a result, we can measure the receiver sensitivity by measuring if the receiver bit
error rate meets the requirements as stipulated while inputting sensitivity level to the
receiver.
In light of different transmission conditions, the requirements for reference sensitivity
level under two conditions are stipulated with respect to receiver sensitivity: static
reference sensitivity level and multi-path reference sensitivity level. Lets talk about the
requirements and measurement for these two kinds sensitivity level in GSM system as
follows.
Static reference sensitivity level
Static reference sensitivity level of a receiver is the signal level added by a standard
test signal to the receiver input terminal. At this point, of the data produced after
receiver demodulation and channel decoding, its FER, RBER or BER is better than or
equal to the value stipulated under static transmission condition for a specified type of
channel (such as FACCH, SDCCH, RACH and TCH).
Multi-path reference sensitivity level
Multi-path reference sensitivity level of a receiver is the signal level of a standard test
signal at the receiver input terminal. At this point, of the data produced after receiver
demodulation and channel decoding, its FER, RBER or BER is better than or equal to
the value stipulated under multi-path transmission condition for the specified type of
channel (such as FACCH, SDCCH, RACH and TCH). Typical multi-path transmission
conditions include TU50 (at a urban car speed of 50km/h), RA250 (at a speed of
250km/h in rural areas) and HT100 (at a speed of 100km/h in hill environment) etc.
Besides, attention should be paid to the following differences in defining the sensitivity:
without diversity sensitivity, with diversity sensitivity; the difference in bit error and error
frame indicator under the status of frequency hopping and no frequency hopping.
4-14
Chapter 5
4-15
Fi
5.4
Chapter 5
Minimum receiving
power (dBm)
-70
-80
Outdoors
-90
Other indexes
Mobile phone sensitivity -102 dBm, fast fading protection
3dB, slow fading protection (indoors) 7dB (slow normal
divergency, indoor 7dB, outdoors 8dB, reachability of
90% within the coverage area), penetration loss of
18dB, interference noise of 2dB, environmental noise
fading protection 2dB.
Mobile phone sensitivity -102 dBm, fast fading protection
3dB, slow fading protection 5dB, penetration loss of
10dB, interference noise of 2dB, environmental noise
protection 2dB.
Mobile phone sensitivity -102 dBm, fast fading protection
3dB, slow fading protection 5dB, interference noise of
2dB, environmental noise protection 2dB.
Suppose:
z
GSM900 and GSM1800 base station antennas are both 30 meters high;
The mobile station antenna is as high as 1.5 meters with a gain of 0dB;
When M900 uses CDU, its sensitivity is -110dBm; and M1800 sensitivity
is -108dBm;
4-16
Chapter 5
So d = 5.4km
It is obvious that in terms of the same configuration of base station, the coverage
radius base station in the suburb is better than that in the urban area.
(4) M1800 outdoor coverage radius in the urban area
mobile phone minimum receiving level Pmr min = 90dBm. As the maximum transmitting
power of M1800 TRX amounts to 40W(46dBm), the coverage radius should be the
maximum transmitting power of TRX.
Chapter 5
Application environment
M900
M1800
TRX transmitting
power (W)
Mobile phone
minimum receiving
power (dBm)
Coverage radius
(km)
40
-70
0.75
40
-90
2.80
40
-90
5.40
40
-90
1.70
40
-70
0.46
From the table, it is clear that the coverage of M1800 is less than that of M900 and the
coverage of an urban base station is less than that in the suburb.
5.5
Capacity Distribution
4-18
Chapter 5
(5) Using the data for user density, we may find out the coverage area of this base
station;
(6) When a region with different user density are specified, we can work out the
number of base stations to be configured through the area of the region with this user
density and the actual coverage area of the base station as known above;
(7) For important places, it is necessary to consider the backup of base station and the
realization of CF mutual aid function; at least two base stations are needed for an
important county and at least two CF for an important sector;
(8) For areas with possible bursting traffic (competition venues and seasonal tourist
resorts etc.), the resources for equipment (carrier frequency, microcell etc.) and
frequency resources should be reserved in advance;
(9) Such dynamic factors as roaming ratio, user mobility factor, new service
development (GPRS, WAP and SMS etc.), industry competition, rate change, one-way
toll and economic growth should be taken into account;
(10) To configure a base station, it is necessary to consider ABIS interface
transmission, such as the use of ABIS interface at 15:1 and 12:1 and cascading etc.,
and save transmission while meeting the capacity;
(11) Actively adopt cellular system plus distributed antennas to meet the urban
coverage and capacity; use economical micro base stations to provide coverage for
rural areas and high roads and use HDSL for transmission in these areas;
(12) Reserve in advance some CF, micro cells and micro base stations to cover newly
developed areas and for the selection in the optimization period;
(13) In some special areas, base stations made up of omni-directional/directional
mixed cells can be used to give full reign to their respective edges in coverage and
capacity. In this case, attention should be paid to the separation between the omniantenna and directional antenna. Installation in light of layers is preferred; in terms of
traffic control, algorithm in light of layers can be used for control;
(14) For some highroads requiring little traffic but large coverage, we may resort to
0.5+0.5 cell networking mode with single CF micro base station + power divider + two
sets of directional antennas.
Erl traffic model is used to work out the traffic density a network is capable of bearing.
Call loss may be 2% or 5% in light of practical conditions. Erl B table is shown as
follows:
CF number for each
cell
TCH
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
6
14
21
29
36
44
52
59
67
75
Traffic (Erl)
2%
2.27
8.2
14.03
21.03
27.33
34.68
42.1
48.7
56.25
63.9
5%
2.96
9.73
16.18
23.82
30.65
38.55
46.53
53.55
61.63
69.73
From the above table, we can see that the larger the number of cell CF, the large the
call loss rate. The larger traffic each TCH is able to bear, the higher utilization rate of
TCH channel is. Channel utilization rate is an important indicator for assessing the
quality of planning and design. If the number of users in a base station is too small, the
construction unit will generally consider delaying the construction of this base station.
4-19
Chapter 5
I. Example:
The capacity of local network requires expansion. In accordance with service
development and in combination of population growth and network popularization,
users will reach 100,000 in 2 years; considering roaming factor (according to traffic
statistics and development trend) 10%, mobile factor (It mainly refers to the users
moves within the local network instead of roaming) 10%, dynamic factor 15% (with
bursting traffic considered), then we know that the network capacity as required is 10*
(1+10%+10%+15%)=135,000; however, in consideration of congestion, we generally
use 85% of the traffic as given in Erl B table as the reference for the traffic density that
the computer is able to bear; as a result, the designed network capacity is
13.5/(85%)=158,800, i.e. 160,000.
In GSM system, most of the time during the general call creation process and position
update process, the mobile station works on SDCCH channel. The following table is
the configuration principles recommended for SDCCH.
TRX number
General configuration
(SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
SDCCH/4
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4
SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8+SDCCH/4
3*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8 + SDCCH/4
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8+SDCCH/4
3*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8
General configuration
(use Immediate ass. on
TCH)
SDCCH/4
SDCCH/4
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4 + SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4 + 2 * SDCCH/8
It is very difficult to sum up a traffic model for SDCCH channel. In particular, it even
becomes almost impossible to do so after the large-scale application of layered
network and short messages. Fortunately, the equipment of some manufactures at the
present supports SDCCH dynamic allocation. SDCCH channel dynamic allocation
enables the dynamic adjustment of SDCCH capacity, so as to reduce the congestion
of SDCCH channel congestion, reduce the effect of SDCCH channel initial
configuration on system performance and increase the system capacity. This function
mainly involves the following aspects: dynamic allocation from SDCCH to TCH
channel and restoration from SDCCH to TCH channel. Use dynamic allocation
algorithm, and determine whether to perform dynamic configuration according to the
input parameters: at a point when the cells SDCCH chancel is busy and the number of
idle TCH channels exceeds a certain value, then the idle TCH channels will be
4-20
Chapter 5
5.6
Chapter 5
information of these users (specific information about location area). When a mobile
station is in service, after locked to a broadcast channel, compare the location
information, that is, compare to check if the location area information stored in SIM
card is consistent with that delivered by the broadcast channel. If inconsistent, the
mobile station will start up location update. The task of location update is to register
new location area in the current MSC/VLR. If MSC/VLR is discovered to have changed,
it is then necessary to send signaling to the registration place to modify MSC/VLR
information in HLR and delete old MSC/VLR information. When the mobile station is in
standby state, it will continuously intercept the location area information of broadcast
channels. Once it discovers the location information in SIM card is inconsistent with
the location information delivered by the broadcast channel, it will start up location
update without delay. When the mobile station is in communication state, it will
intercept the location information delivered by an associated channel. When it
discovers the location information stored in SIM card is inconsistent with the
information delivered from the associated channel, after the communication is over, it
will start up location update immediately. To ensure the paging to mobile subscriber is
not lost, it is requested that the location information kept in HLR, VLR and SIM card is
consistent with each other at any time.
Location area is a basic unit underlying GSM system, that is, the paging message will
be delivered on the basis of location area with the paging messages of one mobile
user in the location area delivered to all the cells. One location area may include one
or multiple BSC but it belongs to a single MSC, as shown in Figure 5-8.
PLMN
MSC
MSC
CELL
LA
CELL
CELL
CELL
LA
CELL
CELL
CELL
CELL
CELL
CELL
CELL
CELL
LA
CELL
CELL
LA
CELL
CELL
4-22
Chapter 5
is around 300. In the initial stage where the network is first constructed, as there is no
much traffic, the number of TRX one LAC is able to accommodate may be greater than
this value; however, it is very necessary to monitor PCH load and traffic growth in the
long run. Of course, to add a slave BCCH channel may increase PCH capacity
effectively at a sacrifice of one voice channel.
(2) Perform LAC area division in light of the geographic distribution and action of
mobile subscribers, so as to reach the goal that there is fewer location updates on the
edge of the location area.
In the event of discontinuous coverage between the suburb and the urban area, it is
likely that mobile phone fails to perform location update when the update time is due at
the cyclic position. After the protection time (generally set in MSC) the system will
consider IMSI undergoes hidden separation. If this goes to the urban area, the LAC in
the urban area is consistent with that in the suburb, and then some mobile phones will
not perform normal location update immediately. Thus there arise some signals, which
are not in the service areas. As a result, in allocation of location arrears, the location
areas used for ordinary suburbs (counties) are different from those in urban areas. For
this reason, the location areas are distributed in the way of a concentric circle (the
urban area in the inner circle may be divided into several location areas due to
capacity factor. Inside the circle, the division may adopt the method in light of sections
or another inner and external ring or mixed way), so as to avoid the above phenomena.
Practice has proved that the LAC division in this way may not only decrease users not
in the service area but also improve the completion rate and call successful rate, as
shown in Figure 5-9:
4-23
Chapter 5
the streets but in oblique crossing. In the areas where the urban area meets the
suburb, the boundary of a location area should be located at the place of base station
on the outskirts, instead of at the place where the city proper adjoins the suburb with
dense traffic, so as to avoid the users in this area updating their locations very
frequently.
A dual-frequency network requires more in respect of location area division. Here is
some experience in the construction of a dual-frequency network with regard to the
division of location area:
(1) If M1800 and M900 use a MSC separately, their location areas will surely differ. It is
required to make the mobile station stay in M1800 cell, which absorbs traffic by setting
parameters, so as to reduce the switch and repeated selection between the two
frequency bands. At the same time, the load brought to the system arising from
location update should be taken into full account in designing signaling channels.
(2) If M1800 and M900 share in one MSC, in the initial period of network construction,
as long as the system capacity permits, it is recommended to use the same location
area; if it is necessary to divide it into two or more location areas due to limited paging
capacity, there are two ways of design: divided in light of geographic locations and
frequency bands. Refer to Figure 5-10 and Figure 5-11 for details.
1800 Cell
900 Cell
900 Cell
900 Cell
1800 Cell
900 Cell
1800 Cell
1800 Cell
LA2
LA1
4-24
Chapter 5
paging sub-block = 4
X=4(Y+1)/(Y+2)
2 IMSI pages;
2 TMSI and 1 IMSI page;
4-25
Chapter 5
4 TMSI pages
z
If some CF does not aim to improve traffic but to meet its coverage, the
number of CF it can support can be improved;
If short messages burst suddenly, then the paging amount will increase
with supported users on the decline, which may require flow control
protection;
(4) Example
If the number of reserved access grant blocks is 2, then 1 multiframe has (9-2)=7
paging block and 4.257=29.7 paging blocks can be sent within 1 second.
Suppose IMSI and TMSI paging occupies half, then each paging block is able to send
8/3 pages.
Then a maximum of 29.78/3 = 79.2 pages may be delivered within 1 second.
That is, 79.2360030%=85536 pages can be delivered within 1 hour.
Suppose MSC paging resend ratio is 1.1, i.e. it supports 85536/1.1 = 77760 pages.
Suppose the duration of each call is 60S, then the traffic for 1 call is
60/3600=0.017ERL.
Suppose caller: called: short message (received) = 5:5:1,
Then 0.017ERL corresponds to 6/10 page, and it may support 57024 calls.
77760/0.60.017=2203.2ERL
If the traffic for each user when busy is 0.03, it may support 2203.2/0.03=73440 users,
And supports CF of 2203.2/7.2=306TRX.
4-26
Chapter 5
4-27
Chapter 5
Direct station mode requires much on source level and both the
intermodulation interference and co-frequency interference are serious
in bad communication quality at high rate of call drops.
To improve the service level, it is urgently needed to solve the problem of indoor
coverage. In the design intended for a solution to indoor coverage, we need to
consider the following problems:
z
Here is an analysis in terms of design of indoor antenna system, capacity design and
frequency plan.
Pant = MS sens + RFm arg + IFm arg + BL + LNFm arg + L path G ant
P a n t = antenna input interface power
MS sens = 104dBm
RFm arg =
4-28
Chapter 5
: Loss of other objects, floor and impediments; here are values of some typical
penetration loss:
z
Floor block:
Thick glass:
Loss of signals from fixed signal source at the track curve of tunnels:
10~40dB /km
The loss of column tunnel is 35~40dB/km, and thus tunnels usually use
disclosure cables for coverage
20dB
2~15dB
6~10dB
During the course of link budgeting, it is necessary to take the following key factors
into account: in an indoor multi-antenna system, the link budget for test points is
usually based on the link with minimum path loss; in the same coverage area, it is
ensured if possible that the effective radiation power (EIRP) of each antenna interface
is consistent with its error kept within 10dB; the level of designed level is quite high,
and thus it is not necessary to use antenna diversity to improve the density of uplink
signals; to reduce uplink interferences, it is necessary to configure the maximum
transmitting power for mobile phone and meanwhile enable the function of dynamic
power control of the mobile phone; in link budgeting, it is necessary to preserve some
margins in preparation for design error correction and the extension of antenna system
in the future; in estimating and designing interference margins, the margins will differ in
light of the distance away from the external walls of the building. The closer to the
external wall, the designed interference margins will be larger.
(2) Service quality design (degree of being interfered)
The degrees of being interfered in respect of an indoor cell are described as follows:
The building where the indoor cell is located is at the same height as the surrounding
buildings;
Frequency multiplexing 12
The outdoor system covers the area where indoor cells are located not effectively;
The indoor system possesses dedicated frequency involving little cell frequency
multiplexing.
4-29
Little interference
Chapter 5
The actual interference level will vary with the change of network layout and the fresh
planning of frequency; the actual interference level can be obtained through field test.
(3) Service quality design (interference design margin)
The higher the interference degree is, there are more interference design margins
(IFmarg) within the said area, and the higher the level that mobile phone needs to
receive, as shown in the following table. What needs to be noted is, in adopting indoor
dual-frequency system, the mobile phone will receive the designed level according to
the indexes as defined in 1800 system.
Actual level interference degree
Major interference degree
Medium interference degree
Minor interference degree
Chapter 5
should be configured likewise to ensure the equal distribution of signals within the
coverage area of the cell. If it involves compact frequency multiplexing, to ensure
sound service quality, it is generally recommended to install the antennas between
different layers in the same position, as shown in Figure 5-13.
4-31
Chapter 5
Figure 5-16
4-32
Figure 5-17
Chapter 5
Chapter 5
(8) Supermarket
Such areas as supermarkets have some requirements in terms of both coverage and
capacity, and the antenna system in these places may be set in light of the actual
building structure, as shown in Figure 5-19.
Figure 5-19
III. Survey
Finalize the installation and wiring of antenna through survey, involving the following
aspects:
z
The topological structure, wiring diagram of the final output system, list of materials In
particular, it should be stressed that omni-antennas are generally installed at the
center of the ceiling, while the small directional antennas are installed, hung on the
exterior wall with its near side radiating indoors, so as to minimize its effect on outdoor
system, and meet the C/I requirement on outdoor system.
4-34
Chapter 5
4-35
Example
Chapter 5
with the outdoor cells.
The utilization rate of the previous fixed
telephone network stands high, where
the traffic is relatively fixed easy for
estimation, but the service quality is
required to be high. Generally, GOS is
1%, and the traffic of each user is also
high, up to 0.1Erl.
Distributed
antenna system
Power
divider
Distributed
antenna system
Distributed antenna system
Power
divider
Distributed
antenna system
As shown in Figure 5-21, the current distributed system is organized in two cell ways:
single cell and vertical split. The former is applicable to indoor coverage requiring
small capacity, while the latter is applicable to areas with dense indoor traffic.
Likewise, when the capacity for indoor single cell falls short of requirement, it is also
necessary to perform cell split. But this is vertical split way. In the event of vertical cell
split, the original single cell is required to split into at least 3 cells so as to ensure
frequency multiplexing; co-frequency cell is generally to be separated at an interval of
four layers, as shown in Figure 5-22. To avoid frequency interference, indoor cell
should be prevented from splitting.
Frequency A
Frequency B
Frequency A
4-36
Chapter 5
4-37
Chapter 5
4-38
Chapter 5
4-39
Table of Contents
xl
I. GSM900
It has total 124 frequency bands, the sequence numbers (ARFCN) are 1-124, with
200kHz of protective band on each end. According to the national regulation, the
Mobile occupies 890-909/935-954MHz, while Unicom occupies 909-915/954-960MHz.
The relation between the frequency and the sequence number (n) is as follows:
Base station receiving: f1(n)
Base station sending: f2(n)
890. 2
f1(n)
(n-1)0. 2 (MHz)
45 (MHz)
II. DCS1800
It has total 374 frequency bands, the sequence numbers (ARFCN) are 512-885. The
relation between the frequency and the sequence number (n) is as follows:
Base station receiving: f1(n)
Base station sending: f2(n)
1710. 2
f1(n)
(n-512)0. 2
(MHz)
95 (MHz)
D
R
= 3&K
(1)
C
Ik
(2)
where
(q k )
(3)
=3-5, generally it is 4.
For the base station with the omnidirectional antenna, the first level of the interference
source includes six (since the interference over the second level is small, it may be
omitted), if the conditions of the six interference cells are the same, the one with the
largest interference is to be taken into consideration, then
C
I
q 1 = (6 &
)
(4)
For the 120 degrees of directional base station, it is theoretically thought that there are
two interference sources, however, considering the influences of the antenna side and
back lobes, the interference sources are still calculated by six (the worst condition), it
can be obtained from the expression (4)
C
I
(q 1 )
6
(5)
The relation between C/I and q can be obtained from the above expression, and
further the relation between C/I and K. If the cellular arrangement is not proper, each
base station will undertake more interference sources.
GSM is an interference limited system, according to the demodulation requirements of
the signal in the air interface, GSM specifies that the common adjacent frequency
protective ratio should meet the following requirements:
Common frequency C/I: C/I 9dB; it has 3dB allowance in engineering, i. e. , C/I
12dB;
Adjacent frequency suppression ratio: C/A -9dB; it has 3dB allowance in engineering,
i. e. , C/A -6dB
Second adjacent suppression ratio: C/A2
-41dB.
(4) In non 13 reuse pattern, the direct adjacent base stations should avoid
cofrequency (even though the directions of their antenna main lobe are different, the
influences of the side lobes and back lobes may be difficult to be estimated due to the
reasons of the antenna and environment);
(5) Considering the complexity of the suspending antenna and propagation
environment, the base stations with closer distance should prevent from the opposite
cofrequency (including diagonal opposite) as possible;
(6) Generally, for the 13 reuse, it is ensured that the frequency hopping band should
double the number of the hopping carrier frequencies or over;
(7) Pay attention to the cofrequency reuse, the case that there are the same BCCH
6-4
For the 12 cells shown in the figure, their frequencies are different, covering other cells
in the figure, and reusing one grouplink of frequencies in the 12 frequency cluster. An
example is used to describe the 43 frequency reuse. It is assumed that the available
bandwidth is 12. 2MHz, the channel number is 34-95, the assignment of the 12
channel groups is shown in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1 43 frequency reuse assignment table
A1
B1
C1
D1
A2
B2
C2
D2
A3
B3
C3
D3
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
It can be seen from the table, in the case of 12. 2MHZ, the average largest site type is
S5/5/5. When allocating the frequencies to the base stations, the rule {A1, A2, A3} or
{B1, B2, B3} or {C1, C2, C3}, or {D1, D2, D3} is selected, the co-frequency or adjacent
frequency may not occur in the same cell and the adjacent cell.
6-5
In the case of the non-uniform network site types, as not each of cells is
to utilize TRXs of the last layer or layers, TRXs of the last layer or layers
of TRXs may realize the more compact reuse degree (even though in
the case of no frequency hopping).
If there are the frequency band with smaller interference and the
frequency band with larger interference simultaneously in a cell, after
6-6
BCCH
n1
TCH1
n2
6-7
TCH2
n3
.....................
TCHm-1
nm
For example, assuming that the available frequency bandwidth is 10MHz and the
signal channel numbers are 46-94, the rules of the BCCH and TCH carrier layers may
utilize the continuous grouping pattern. For the continuous grouping pattern, the
BCCH frequency band is preferably added with 1-2 additional frequency bands for
planning, i. e. , total 12-14 frequency bands for planning. Table 6-2 has no reserved
frequency band.
6-8
It can be seen from the above table, the above frequency bands are thus divided into 6
groups, the carrier layer where the broadcasting channel (BCCH) is located has 12
frequency bands for reusing, the service channel is divided into TCH1-TCH5, total 5
groups of the carrier layers, each grouplink is assigned with different numbers of
frequency bands for reusing.
Thus, in the case of 10MHz of the bandwidth, the base station configuration is made to
S6/6/6. According to the above assignment of the frequency bands for various carrier
types, the frequency plan is carried out in the entire network. In the case of the
traditional 4/12 reuse pattern, the maximum configuration of the base station can be
made to S4/4/4.
With regarding to the continuous grouping pattern, there may be the
cofrequency/adjacent interference in the base station frequency layer, and the
interference between the base station frequency layers occurs at the frequency
boundary point.
In addition to the continuous assignment, the interval assignment may be utilized,
Figure 6-4 shows the schematic diagram of the interval assignment. In the figure, it is
assumed that the frequencies that may be assigned to BCCH are 1, 3, 5, , 37, from
which, 12 frequency bands are obtained for BCCH, the rest frequencies are assigned
to TCH1, THC2, THC3 and MICRO, each layer of frequencies are selected at regular
intervals. In the case that there are the adjacent frequency interference within the layer
instead of between the layers, when the traffic is not very busy, this pattern is useful for
reducing the network interference.
6-9
The reason that MRP may realize the frequency compact reuse layer by layer so as to
realize the increase of TRX is: since not every cell needs the last layer of TRX during
the initial stage, the last layer of TRX may realize the more compact reuse. Further,
after MRP is utilized, while the interference is increased, TRXs are also increased in
the cell, so that the frequencies participated in the hopping is increased, increasing the
gains. If there are the frequency point with smaller interference and the frequency
point with larger interference simultaneously in a cell, after the hopping technology is
utilized, the frequency point with smaller interference and the frequency with larger
interference will be merged. The Viterbi decoder can still demodulate the code
element correctly. The interference appears in the concept of the average value, which
does not affect the normal operation of the base station.
It should be mentioned here, when the MRP frequency assignment is carried out, the
minimum frequency reuse degree of the TCH layer is recommended not less than 6;
and the average frequency reuse degree of the TCH layer is at least between 7-8. If
the frequency resources are available, in the initial frequency planning, it is very
effective to reserve a given frequency bands for the microcell and for settling the
troublesome problems in optimization.
Cell B
Cell A
Interference
Signal
Big
circle
Small
circle
Figure 6-5 Schematic diagram of the compact frequency reuse in the concentric circle cell
6-10
If the inner circle is overlapped with the excircle or inner circle of the other cell, the
inner circle can be switched to another cell directly, which can effectively reduce the
congestion condition in the excircle.
When the ordinary concentric circle technology is utilized, as the inner circle of the
concentric circle can utilize the more compact frequency reuse pattern, comparing to
MRP, it can increase the network capacity to the larger extent, and the network quality
is also guaranteed. In some special case, for example, when the excircle of the
concentric circle cell is configured with only one carrier BCCH, using 43 frequency
reuse pattern, and other TCH carriers are all configured on the inner circle with the
13 frequency reuse pattern, the concentric circle cell is just the same as the 13, and
the average frequency reuse degree is the same as the 13, therefore, the concentric
circle in this case can effectively reduce the interference in the entire network without
reducing the network capacity, so as to realize the network quality higher than 13.
The problem caused by the use of the ordinary concentric circle is that the traffic
control, i. e. , the handover control, between the inner circle and the excircle. Based on
the feature that the coverage ranges of the inner circle and excircle are different, the
signal level threshold and TA value threshold are generally regarded as the handover
basis; based on this feature, this technology may be used to guide the traffic in the cell
in which the coverage ranges of some carriers are different.
It is seen from the figure, the IUO philosophy is to divide the base station frequencies
into two parts, or so-called two layers, one layer is called "REGULAR layer", and the
other "SUPER layer". For "REGULAR layer", the interval of the frequency reuse is
larger, utilizing the incompact frequency reuse pattern; for "SUPER layer", the interval
of the frequency reuse is smaller, utilizing the compact reuse pattern. The frequency
assignment of IUO is described by way of an example, assuming that the assignable
frequency band is 10. 4MHz. Figure 6-7 shows the example of IUO frequency
assignment.
6-11
reuse: 15
TCH
TRX
TCH
TRX
reuse: 12
reuse: 6
BCCH selects 15 frequency bands, utilizing the 43 reuse pattern. REGULAR layer
utilizes 24 frequency bands. The 43 reuse pattern is utilized. SUPER utilizes 12
frequency bands and the 23 reuse pattern. After the IUO technology is utilized, the
maximum site type is S5/5/5, if the 43 reuse pattern is utilized, the maximum site type
is only S4/4/4.
The problem caused by the use of IUO is that SUPER interference is larger, the
specific handover algorithm is needed to be provided by the equipment to judge the
interference in the network; once it is found that C/I goes beyond a given standard, the
system will switch the user to the REGULAR layer. Both of the judgment and handover
are completed automatically. When C/I>good threshold, the frequencies of the S layer
are used; when C/I<bad threshold, the frequencies of the R layer are used. For
example: when the frequency hopping is not used, C/I>17db, the frequencies of the S
layer are used, C/I<12db, the frequencies of the R layer are used; when the frequency
hopping is used, C/I>11db, the frequencies of the S layer are used, C/I<7db, the
frequencies of the R layer are used. The traffic of the R/S layers can be controlled by
adjusting the threshold value.
C/I detection is based on the RXLEV and RXQUAL of the BCCH channel in the
adjacent cell reported by MS, the cofrequency reuse cell is predefined in the system,
forcing it as the adjacent cell. The mobile phones report the best and strongest signal
of the six measurements, the base station judges the component of the cofrequency
cell, calculates the C/I, and obtains the criterion for the R/S layer handover.
reuse degree is not less than 6, which is the bottom line of the current frequency reuse
degree.
In this reuse pattern, the interference may be expressed as the collision probability of
the common adjacent frequencies; the result of the simulation shows that the collision
probability is only relative to FR, independent from how much the available
frequencies are and how much the available TRXs are.
It should also be mentioned, when this pseudo spread spectrum pattern is used, if the
initial plan is incorrectly made, comparing to the small traffic, the quality is seriously
deteriorated when the traffic increases. The preferred method is to simulate the
interference conditions with the large traffic by sending the idle Burst function when the
network is initially established, and perform the adjustment for optimization.
Figure 6-9 shows the base station frequency arrangement in the case of the 13
fractional reuse pattern visually. Total N (>12) BCCH frequency bands and 18 TCH
frequency bands. The frequency bands assigned in a cell is to be described now,
TRX1 utilizes one of the N BCCH carriers, at a certain time, TRX2, TRX3 and TRX4
that are using the 13 pattern are assigned to the 3 frequency bands of the 6 TCH
carriers. Each TRX (2-4) is configured with the same MA and HSN, but MAIO is
different.
Now the specific application of the 13 reuse pattern will be described by an example
of the Unicom GSM900 network somewhere.
z
reuse pattern: 43
reuse pattern: 13
111
112
113
114
116
117
118
119
121
122
123
124
HSN of the site A is 1, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in each cell are 0
and 2 respectively, HSN of the site B is 2, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2
are 0 and 2 respectively, and so on; in this way, the cofrequencies among the three
different cells in the same site are avoided; comparing to the TCH interval grouping,
the possible collision of the cofrequencies in the adjacent cells opposite to the different
sites are reduced; however, comparing to the TCH interval grouping, the possible
collision of the cofrequencies between the cells parallel to the different sites in
direction is increased.
(2) Interval grouping solution
TCH utilizes the interval grouping, the three cells in the same base station utilize the
same HSN, the different sites utilize the different HSNs, and the carriers of the same
layer in the same base station utilize the different MAIO. Assuming that the frequency
hopping groups are allocated as follows:
Grouplink one: 110113
116
119
122
117
120
123
115
118
121
124
HSN of the site A is 1, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in the grouplink one
cell are 0 and 1 respectively; MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2 in the
grouplink two cell are 2 and 3 respectively, MAIOs of the two carriers TCH1 and TCH2
in the grouplink three cell are 4 and 0 respectively, HSN of the site B is 2, and so on. In
this way, the cofrequencies among the three different cells in the same site are
avoided; comparing to the TCH sequence grouping, the possible collision of the
cofrequencies in the adjacent cells opposite to the different sites are increased;
6-14
however, comparing to the TCH sequence grouping, the possible collision of the
cofrequencies between the cells parallel to the different sites in direction is reduced.
With respect to the question how to grouplink TCH so that the 13 frequency hopping
interference is relatively smaller, both sequence grouping and interval grouping
patterns have some defects; however, generally, the adjacent frequency influence of
the adjacent cell opposite to the central area where the base stations are compact
dense and are regularly distributed is larger than that of the adjacent cell parallel to the
central area in direction, it is obviously advantageous to utilize the sequence grouping
pattern; however, in the areas around the dense base stations, as the irregularity of
the base station distribution, it is useful for homogenizing the influence caused by the
interference by utilizing the interval grouping pattern. Therefore, which grouping
pattern being utilized should be considered together with the actual environment
situations. After the new channel allocation algorithm in the compact reuse pattern is
realized, it is recommended that the sequence grouping solution is to be utilized, thus,
the better guarantee of the service quality in the entire network will be actually
implemented.
6-15
Slot hopping: every slot frequency band of every TDMA frame changes
once, the TCH in the TRX where the BCCH is located during the slot
hopping may participate in the hopping, however, it is currently realized
only during the baseband hopping.
CA: cell allocation table, it is the set of the frequencies used in the cell;
6-16
MA: a set of the radio frequenc channels numbers used for the mobile
station, it is a subset of CA. MA includes N frequency channel
numbers, 1 N 64
Only after the actual functions of various parameters in the hopping algorithm and the
hopping mechanism are well understood, the relative parameters may be reasonably
set, so as to put the system in the optimized operation. Figure 6-9 is the flow chart of
calculating the actual operation frequency of the carrier at every hopping slot. Among
them: MAI=(S+MAIO) MOD N,RFCHN=MA (MAI); S is obtained by calculating
according to the frame number and hopping sequence number, and MAI is obtained
from S plus S hopping offset moding the number of the carriers in the MA set.
6-17
MAI
(m0 mN-1)
MAIO
(0 N-1)
FN
T3(0 50)
NBIN bits
HSN
(0 63)
6bits
FN
T1(0 2047)
FN
T2(0 25)
11bits
6bits
T1R=
T1 MOD 64
5bits
Represent
in 7 bits
6bits
7bits
Exclusive OR
6bits
Addition
7bits
Look-up table
7bits
Addition
8bits
T=T3 mod
2^NBIN
NBIN bits
S=(M'+T) mod N
NBIN bits
MAI=(S+MAIO) mod
NBIN bits
RFCN=MA MAI
Figure 6-10 Hopping algorithm
In Figure 6-10:
mod: mode
^: power
NBIN: INTEGER (log2N+1)
Table:
6-18
M'<N
NBIN bits
Y
S=M'
Address
Contents
000-009
48
98
63
36
95
78
102
94
73
010-019
64
25
81
76
59
124
23
104
100
020-029
101
47
118
85
18
56
96
86
54
030-039
80
34
127
13
89
57
103
12
74
040-049
55
111
75
38
109
71
112
29
11
88
050-059
87
19
68
110
26
33
31
45
060-069
82
58
40
107
32
106
92
62
67
070-079
77
108
122
37
60
66
121
42
51
126
080-089
117
114
90
43
52
53
113
120
72
090-099
16
49
79
119
61
22
84
97
46
39
93
105
65
70
100-109
91
15
21
24
110-113
125
99
17
123
6-19
Distance
6-20
damaged by the interference in the same manner, and the original data can be
recovered from other part of the receiving stream through the correction coding and
interleaving of the system. Obviously, the frequency hopping may obtain a certain gain
only when the interference is distributed in a narrow band; if the interference is
distributed in a wide band, all the burst pulses will be damaged, and the original data
can not be recovered, so that no gain can be obtained. In the actual network, the
interference is generally distributed in a narrow band.
In the state of the hopping, it is found that the error bit ratio tends to upward in the test,
however, people subjectively feel that the voice quality is improved. The reason is that,
though the error bit ratio is increased, but the index of the voice frame erase ratio (FER)
is improved, in the view of the voice communication, it is understood that the voice
quality is improved; however, in the view of the data service, it may have some defects,
especially, when the data speed rate is very high, the frequency hopping becomes
harmful. This result will be seen from the simulation of the GPRS later.
The difference between the initial stage power control and the stable stage power
control is that the expected uplink receiving level and receiving quality in the initial
stage is different from that in the stable stage, the length of the filters are also different,
and only the downward adjustment is performed in the initial stage.
6-22
by the users to reduce the interference level, so as to increase the efficiency of the
system.
Whether the downlink DTX in the network is used is to be set by the network operator
in the switching side, generally, it is controlled taking BSC as the unit, the control
message is transmitted to the base station baseband processing part through the
special signaling channel, and then to TC through the inband signaling of the TRAU
frame, notify whether the downlink DTX is used. Whether the downlink DTXs of some
manufacturers are used may also be set taking the cell as the unit.
The uplink DTX is set by the network operator in the radio side, i. e. , setting the DTX
parameter in the system message, this parameter is composed of 2 bits, its coding
mode is shown as the follows:
DTX
0
1
10
11
Meaning
The mobile station may use DTX
The mobile station must use DTX
The mobile station is not allowed to use DTX
Reserved
The parameter DTX is included in the information unit "Cell options", and transmitted
regularly in the system message of each cell broadcast, the mobile phone is to
determine whether the uplink DTX function is enabled according to this message.
To implement this mechanism of the DTX, the source must be able to indicate when
the transmission is required and when is not. When the DTX mode is activated, the
voice encoder must detect it is either voice or noise, which uses the voice detection
VAD technology. By calculating some signal parameters and according to some
thresholds, VAD can determine whether the receiving signal is either voice or noise.
This judgment is based on a energy law: the energy of the noise is less than that of the
voice. The VAD technology is to generate a group of thresholds in every 20ms voice
block time, determining whether the next 20ms voice block is either voice or noise.
However, when the background noise is very high, the noise signal will be regarded as
the voice by the VAD and be encoded for sending. The downlink VAD is in TC, while
the uplink VAD is in the mobile phone.
DTX may be used in both uplink and down link, but they are two programs that is no
relative to each other. They may be activated by the system parameter according to
the respective situations, whether the other party activates this function. There are two
measuring methods in the GSM: one is called global measurement, which is to
average the level and quality in the 104 slots of the entire measuring period (26 multiframes of 4 TCHs); the other is called the local measurement, which is to measure and
average the level and quality of the 12 slots, including the 8 continuous TCH burst
pulses (for the TCH/F channel, 0-103 TDMA frames are taken as a circulation, these 8
burst pulse frame numbers are 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 respectively; when no
voice and signaling are transmitted, they have the description information of the
comfortable noise, called SID) and 4 SACCH burst pulses carrying the measurement
report (0-103 TDMA frames are taken as a circulation, these 4 burst pulse frame
numbers are 12, 38 , 64, 90 respectively). For the conformity, whether the
uplink/downlink of the system activate the DTX function, the base station and mobile
station will complete both measuring methods; and whether the discontinuous
transmission mode is utilized during the last measurement report period is indicated in
every SACCH measurement report of the BTS ad mobile station, according to this
indication, BSC is to decide that either global measuring or local measuring is used for
judging.
6-23
The discontinuous transmission is applicable for the voice as well as the opaque data
transmission, however, the carrier where the BCCH is located does not use this
technology. DTX should be realized in every cell.
The main functions of the DTX technology in the uplink/downlink are: the uplink can
save the mobile phone battery and reduce the interference in the system; the downlink
can reduce the power consumption of the base station, reduce the interference and
reduce the crosstalk in the base station.
When the downlink DTX is utilized together with the uplink DTX, the C/I cofrequency
interference ratio of the system will be improved. This improvement may be applied to
the cell planning with the compact frequency reuse, especially, when it is used
together with the frequency hopping, larger system capacity may be obtained.
6-24
6-25
Table of contents
26
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
I. System message 1
System message 1 mainly describes Random Access Control information (RACH) and
Cell frequency Allocation table (i.e., CA table), transmitted in BCCH channel.
System message 1 mainly includes information of the following parameters: CA table,
maximum retransmission times (MAX retrans), number of expanded transmission
timeslots (Tx_interger), cell access barred (CELL_BAR_ACCESS), Access level
Control (AC), Call reestablishment enabled (RE), Emergency Call enabled (EC), etc.
6-2
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
6-3
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
There are two network selection modes: Automatic mode and manual mode.
(1) Automatic mode
The mobile station automatically select available network of the highest priority.
(2) Manual mode
The mobile station provides a network list and the subscriber selects the network to be
accessed. This network list includes PLMN not allowed.
The mobile phone stores a PLMN not allowed list in the SIM card. When the mobile
phone conduct the location updating of location registration in the VPLMN and
receives the location updating rejection including PLMN not allowed, it will add the
network (VPLMN) to the list. After successful location update in manual network
selection mode, the network (VPLMN) will be deleted from the list. After power-off or
pulling out the SIM card, the list is still reserved. The HPLMN is not included in the list.
6-4
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
(4) The radio path loss between MS and BTS is under the threshold set for the
network.
The cell priority is determined by both CBQ(CELL_BAR_QUALIFY) and CBA(CELL_
BAR_ACCESS).
CELL_BAR QUALIFY
0
0
1
1
CELL_BAR ACCESS
0
1
0
1
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Where all the parameters have the same unit dBm. The meaning of each parameter is
as follows:
RLA_C: Average received level of mobile station
RXLEV_ACCESS_MIN: Minimum accessible received level of mobile station
MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH: Maximum CCH power level
P: Maximum transmitting power level of mobile station.
POWER OFFSET: Power offset used by DCS 1800 3 mobile phones, which is related
to MS_TXPWR_MAX_CCH
The so-called appropriate cells should meet the requirement: C1>0.
6-6
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
The mobile station in resident state will keep on selecting cell better than the current
cell. Corresponding to the parameter C1 applied to cell selection, the path loss criteria
parameter C2 is used for cell reselection. C2 is determined by the following formula:
C2=C1+CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET-TEMPORARY_OFFSET*H(PENALTY_TIME-T)
When PENALTY_TIME< >31,
C2 = C1-CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET When PENALTY_TIME =31,
where:
CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET: Cell Reselection Offset (CRO) is used to manually
correct C2.
TEMPORARY_OFFSET: Temporary Offset (TO),
PENALTY_TIME: Penalty Time (PT), determining the action time of the TO.
T: A timer with the initial value of 0. When a certain cell is recorded in the list of the six
neighboring cells with the highest signal level by the mobile station, the counter T
corresponding to this cell starts to count to the accuracy of a TDMA frame (about 4.62
ms). When this cell is deleted from the list of the six neighboring cells with the highest
signal level by the mobile station, the corresponding cell will be reset. If cell reselection
is needed, the previous service cell enters the list of the six neighboring cells with the
highest signal level, and the T value is PENALTY_TIME.
H(x) :
For non-service cells (neighboring cells): H(x) = 0 when x < 0
= 1 When x > 0
For service cell: H(x) = 0
If CELL_RESELECT_PARAM_IND in system messages 3 and 4 broadcast in BCCH is
set as 1, then the cell reselection parameters CELL_RESELECT_OFFSET,
TEMPORARY_OFFSET and PENALTY_TIME are also broadcast in BCCH system
messages 3 and 4. If CELL_RESELECT_PARAM_IND is set as 0, then the mobile
phone will think that all cell reselection parameters are 0, therefore, C2=C1.
At least every 5s, the mobile phone will calculate C1 and C2 of the service cell. The
mobile phone will calculate C1 and C2 of all cells not in service (neighboring cells)
again if necessary. The mobile phone will keep on checking the following conditions:
(1) The path loss (C1) of the current service cell is decreased to a value less than 0
within 5s. It indicates that the path loss of the cell is too great.
(2) The C2 value of an appropriated non-service cell keeps on exceeding C1 value of
the service cell in 5s and also meets the following conditions:
(a) If the new cell is in different location area, C2 value of the new cell subtracted
by cell reselection hysteresis (CELL_RESELECT_HYSTERESIS, broadcast in
system messages 3 and 4 in BCCH channel of the service cell) keeps on
exceeding C2 value of the service cell.
(b) If cell reselection occurs in recent 15s, then the C2 value of the new service
subtracted by 5dB keeps on exceeding C2 value of the service cell in 5s.
A new cell meeting the above condition is the better cell. If the better cell is available,
then the mobile phone will perform cell reselection.
After finding the better cell and cell reselection, the mobile phone should not reselect
the previous resident cell in 5s, although the cell may meet the cell reselection
conditions.
6-7
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
).
).
6-8
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
(LOCATION UPDATE ACCEPT) to the mobile station. After this, it releases the
channel location update end.
(2) Extra-VLR Location update and the TMSI number is transmitted
When a mobile station enters a cell, if it finds that the stored LAI number is different
from the current LAI number, then in the location updating request, it will send its old
LAI number and the stored TMSI number to the VLR through the MSC. When the VLR
finds that the LAI number does not belong to itself, it will educe the previous VLR
address according to the old TMSI and LAI numbers and also it will request the old
VLR to send the IMSE and authorization parameters (MAP_SEND_IDENTIFICATION).
The old VLR will return the IMSI and authorization parameters of the mobile station to
the new VLR. If the new VLR cannot obtain the IMSI due to certain reasons, the VLR
will send identity request message to the MS to ask for the IMSI number. After the VLR
obtains the IMSI number, it will send location updating message to the HLR of the MS.
The location message includes MS identifier and relevant information so that the HLR
can query data and set up path. After the HLR receives this message, if the new
MSC/VLR has normal service authority, then the HLR will store the current VLR
number and will also send Cancel location message to the old VLR
(MAP/D_CANCEL_LOCATION). The old VLR will delete all the information of the MS
after receiving the message and will also send cancel location confirmation message
back to the HLR (MAP/D_CANCEL_LOCATION_RESULT). The new VLR will
continue the process of authorization encryption and TMSI re-allocation. After that, the
HLR will provide the VLR with necessary subscriber information through originating
message of inserting subscriber data (MAP_INSERT_SUBSCRIBER_DATA),
including information such as authorization parameters, etc. When the HLR receives
the response of the VLR, it will send location updating confirmation message to the
VLR.
(3) Extra-VLR Location update and the IMSI number is transmitted
The location updating process is the same as the above one and is simpler, since it
directly request authorization parameters from the HLR through the IMSI number.
6-9
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
It the mobile station wants to power off, it will define to trigger the IMSI detachment
process through a key. During this process, only one command is sent from the MS to
the MSC/VLR. This is a piece of unconfirmed message. When the MSC receives the
IMSI detachment request, it will notify the VLR to add the Detach mark to the IMSI,
but the HLR is not informed of the message that the subscriber has detached from the
network. When this subscriber is paged, the HLR will request the roaming number
(MSRN) from the VLR where the subscriber is located. In this case, the HLR will be
informed that the subscriber has detached from the network. Thus, the paging
program will not be executed and the paging message will be directly treated, such as
playing the announcement The subscriber is powered off, etc. After the MS sending
out this message, the RR connection will be abandoned automatically.
6-10
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
decreased, which will exert some influence upon the processing capacity of MSC,
BSC and BTS; on the other hand, the power consumption of the mobile phone will be
severely increased, so the standby time of the mobile phone in the system is greatly
shortened. Therefore, please take the actual conditions into integrated consideration
in T3212 setting.
GSM 900
GSM900
Cell
GSM 900
GSM1800
Cell
GSM1800
GSM 900
GSM 900
GSM1800
GSM1800
GSM900
GSM900
GSM900
GSM900
GSM1800
GSM1800
GSM1800
GSM1800
Micro Cell
To widen the coverage range and to improve the signal quality of hot
spots and large-traffic areas.
6-11
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
I. M criteria
Firstly, determine whether the received levels of the neighboring cells are higher than
the minimum received level, since only the neighboring cells whose received lever is
higher than the minimum received level can enter the candidate cell list, i.e., the
neighboring cells are tailored according their received levels.
For the service cell:
RXLEV(o) >MSRXMIN(o) + MAX(0,Pa(o))
For neighboring cells:
RXLEV(n) > MSRXMIN(n)+ MAX(0,Pa(n))
Where,
RXLEV(o) and RXLEV(n) are MS received levels of the service cell and the
neighboring cell respectively, while MSRXMIN(o) and MSRXMIN(n) are the minimum
received levels of the MS required by the service cell and the neighboring cell.
Pa(o)=MS_TXPWR_MAX(o)-P;
Pa(n)=MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)-P;
P =max_power_of_ms;
MS_TXPWR_MAX(n) is maximum transmitting power of mobile phone limited by the
BSS.
6-13
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
II. K criteria
The sequencing of candidate cells is based upon the received level. A hysteresis
exists among the cells, i.e., the K hysteresis, which is equivalent to a threshold
between different cells and plays the function of handover stabilizer. The actual
received level of the downlink of a neighboring cell subtracted by a virtual offset (K
hysteresis) is the received level of the neighboring cell finally obtained by the service
cell. All neighboring cells are sequenced according to this value and the priorities of
the neighboring cells are reduced from front to back.
15
14
13
12
11
10
6-14
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Bit 13: Adjustment bit sharing the same MSC. When the level of the neighboring cell or
service cell is lower than relationship between the inter-layer handover threshold and
hysteresis, they will be screened and set as 0.
Bit 14: Inter-layer handover threshold adjusting bit. Whether the level of the
neighboring cell is higher than the inter-layer handover threshold + hysteresis or the
level of the service cell is higher than the inter-layer handover threshold hysteresis.
The bit is set as 0 or 1.
Bit 15: Cell type adjusting bit (mainly used for 70KM extended cell).
Where, C(nT) (when j=0) is the measured value of the current signal strength and
C((n-j)T) is the corresponding measured result in the Jth period (T) before the current
period.
6-15
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Normal handover
boundary
Cell A
Cell B
CONF_HO_RXLEV+CLSOFFSE
CONF_HO_RXLE
T
V
CONF_HO_RXLEV+CLSRAM
P
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
B is controlled by classified load handover step (ClsRamp). When the load handover is
allowed, the system allows the subscribers within CONF_HO_RXLEV and
CONF_HO_RXLEV+ClsRamp to be handed over to Cell B and in the meantime, the
system will start the load handover timer (TimerTCLS). When the timer reaches a
certain time (ClsPeriod), the system allows the subscribers within CONF_HO_RXLEV
and CONF_HO_RXLEV +2*ClsRAMP to be handed over to Cell B. This process
continues until all subscribers in the load handover area are handed over to Cell B.
Hereafter, all subscribers in the load handover area can be handed over to Cell B.
Functions such as CRO, leveled traffic control, load handover and direct reuse, etc.
are applicable to abnormal traffic peak in local area of the radio network as emergency
measures or real hierarchical implementation, so they should not be regarded as the
main solutions to traffic congestion, since such means will change the normal cell
layout and will cause accidental network quality problems such as strong signal
fluctuation, etc. If a local area of the network always needs load handover or direct
reuse, then please consider adjusting the sector TRX configuration of the base station
and the network layout.
6-17
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
In addition, the PBGT handover can only be performed between cells of the same
level and priority and also can only be triggered in TCH channel.
6-19
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Min(MS_TXPWR_MAX(n), P)
MS_TXPWR(n)
BTS1
HO
BTS2
6-20
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
To guarantee the calculated power is not beyond the MS capability and to set the
lower limit (MSTX_LIM_MIN(n)) of the MS transmitting power so as to prevent too low
MS transmitting power due to improper parameter setting, then
MS_TXPWR(n) Max( Min( A, P ), MSTX_LIM_MIN(n) )
Where, A=MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)-Max(0,(RXLEV_NCELL(n) - MsOptLevel(n)))
MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)
RXLEV_NCELL(n)
MS_TXPWR(n)
MsOptLevel(n)
BTS1
HO
BTS2
6-21
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
excircle does not share the same antenna, then please select three test points and
test according to the previous method, and finally average the difference.
In the figure, the TA threshold and path loss threshold are the thresholds preset by the
system and the broken line stands for the actually configured threshold. There is a
hysteresis between the value of the real limited area and the configured value.
The inner circle area can be expressed as:
received level > Received level threshold + Received level Hysteresis and
threshold - TA Hysteresis
TA<TA
or
TA
TA
Obviously, there is a blank segment between the inner circle and excircle expressed
by the formulas, i.e.:
Received level threshold- Received level Hysteresis < Received level Received
level threshold+Received
TA< TA level Hysteresis and TA threshold - TA Hysteresis
threshold - TA Hysteresis
This area is the hysteresis area of the concentric circle. It is the same as the hysteresis
concept of ordinary handover algorithm. Its main function is to prevent the ping-pong
handover.
If the TA value is 63 and the TA Hysteresis value is 0, then the border of the inner
circle is completely determined by the received level parameter; if the received level
threshold is 63 and the received level Hysteresis is 0, then the border of the inner
circle is completely determined by the parameter TA.
Excircle
Receiving level
threshold
Receiving level
hysteresis
TA threshold
nner circle
TA hysteresis
Figure 7-6 Division of inner circle and excircle for concentric circle cell
6-22
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
6-23
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Rxlev
Received level threshold -Received level Hysteresis Downlink power control
compensation
or
If TA threshold + TA Hysteresis
then the handover from the inner circle to the excircle will be triggered. When the
handover from the inner circle to the excircle is triggered, the direct handover to the
neighboring cell is not allowed.
In this case, if the excircle does not have any available channel, then it will directly
return the handover rejection message (the cause value is no available channel).
Where, the meaning of each parameter is as follows:
Rxlev:
6-24
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
6-25
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Is MR compensation allowed
Yes
MR queue compensation
No
MR queue compensation
No
MS power processing
No
Yes
Yes
MS power
processing
Uplink MR prediction filtering
MS power processing
MS power Control
MS power processing
Figure 7-7 Flow diagram of the second generation of Huawei power control algorithm
7.4.1 MR Preprocessing
I. MR compensation
Every time when an MR is received, the MR will be placed in the MR queue to serve
as the original materials for power control and handover decision. To make decision,
take integrated consideration of certain number of new MRs. We had such an
assumption before that these MRs were obtained in the condition of constant
transmitting power. Thus, if we found that the average received level had changed, we
thought that the path loss had changed, so the change would be compensated on the
basis of the current transmitting power. However, the present situation is that, these
latest MRs possibly are obtained in different transmitting power conditions. Thus, the
method of using the MRs before power adjustment to estimate the received level in
current transmitting power condition will surely lead to error. To reduce such error, the
MRs before power adjustment should be compensated. The specific method is to
compensate the received level for the historical MRs at the moment when the power
adjustment changes (considering adjustment delay, we can judge whether the
transmitting power has changed according to the actual MRs).
6-26
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
is implemented. When the receiving quality is 1, then similarly, if the received level
requires that the transmitting power should be decreased by 6dB, then after the power
adjustment, the receiving quality possibly turns to 4. Thus, the receiving quality may
require higher transmitting power. Therefore, the power adjustment just now is not as
good as that when the receiving quality is 0. With such consideration, we take the
measure of appropriately referring to the current receiving quality in the adjustment
step based upon the power of the received level, so as to better match with the actual
situations and to make the power adjustment more efficient. Based on the first
generation of Huawei power control algorithm, the second generation of Huawei
power control algorithm has been improved with direct requirements for control target.
The adjustment step based upon the final power of the received level will use the
smaller one of the following two values.
(1) The adjustment step AdjStepThr_Lev based upon the comparison of the actual
received level and the threshold.
z
When the received level falls between the upper threshold and the lower
threshold, the transmitting power will not be adjusted.
In this
Rxlev
case,
when we judge that when PcUpperThresoldsLev
PcLowerThresoldsLev, the transmitting power will not be adjusted.
In the above formula, the data:
Rxlev is the actual received level after prediction filtering.
PcLowerThresoldsLev PcUpperThresoldsLev stands for the upper/lower threshold,
which is set through the background. The distance between the two thresholds should
not be too great, or the power control will be not so sensitive to the change of the
received levels and will lead to greater fluctuation of the received levels. However, it
also should not be too small, or the power control will be too sensitive to the change of
the received levels, which will lead to power control fluctuation easily and will
excessively restrict the improvement space of the transmitting power due to low
receiving quality. It is recommended that the appropriate distance be 6 to 10dB. The
range can float upwards/downwards according to the actual requirements.
IncrStep_Lev, DecrStep_Lev and AdjStepThr_Lev are the calculated values,
respectively standing for increased power step, decreased power step and the
adjustment step based upon the comparison of the received level and threshold.
(2) The maximum reference adjustment step of the current receiving quality
(CurQulMaxStep). For the convenience of more effective adjustment, some actual
receiving conditions are taken into consideration. The receiving quality is divided into
three quality areas (0, 1 to 2, above 3), and each quality area specifies a maximum
reference adjustment step (can be set in the background). The higher the receiving
6-28
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
quality is, the greater the step. The lower the quality, the smaller the step, because in
this case, the system faces more interference and is quite sensitive. Thus it facilitates
in guaranteeing the stability of the algorithm. The setting of the maximum allowed
adjustment for each quality area is based upon two aspects: (a). The setting should
not be too small, or the algorithm cannot attain the purpose of fast power control. (b).
The setting cannot be too great, or the due reference function cannot be implemented,
which will lead to decreased power control validity. It is recommended that the
maximum reference adjustment step of quality area 0 be 8 to 16dB, that of quality area
1 be 4 to 8dB and that of quality area 2 be about 3dB or 4dB.
The adjustment step calculated according to the received level is: AdjStep_Lev =min
(AdjStepThr_Lev, CurQulMaxStep).
Data in the formula: Qulity is the actual receiving quality value after filtering.
PcgoodThresoldsQul PcbadThresoldsQul stands for the good/poor receiving quality
thresholds, which can be set through the background. Generally, it is recommended
that the good threshold be 0 and the poor threshold be 2.
AdjStep_Qul is the adjustment step of the receiving quality and is also set through the
background. This value should not be too great, since in most cases, the receiving
quality improvement is based upon the transmitting power increase. In this case, the
receiving quality is very poor, so please increase the transmitting power gradually. It is
recommended that the value be set as 2 to 4dB.
6-29
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Reduce AdjStep_Lev
Reduce AdjStep_Qul
Reduce AdjStep_Lev
Reduce AdjStep_Lev
Add AdjStep_Lev
Add AdjStep_Lev
Add AdjStep_Lev
No action
No action
No action
Add AdjStep_Qul
No action
Add AdjStep_Qul
Reduce AdjStep_Qul
No action
No action
Reduce AdjStep_Qul
Add AdjStep_Qul
Furthermore, besides the adjustment as shown in the above table, please pay
attention to the power control fluctuation due to mutual action of the received level and
the receiving quality. For example, after, the transmitting power should be decreased
by 4dB according to the received level, the poor receiving quality requires an increase
of 4dB, and after than the received level again requires an increase f 4dB. Thus, the
fluctuation is generated due to cyclic increase/decrease. The method to avoid such
fluctuation is: If only the receiving quality has power adjustment requirement, then
please check after the adjustment, whether the received level will exceed the dualthreshold range. If it will, then please do not conduct the power adjustment, so as to
avoid power control fluctuation. Thus, we can obtain the power step to be finally
adjusted. The uplink/downlink adjustment policies should be consistent.
6-30
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
6-31
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
buildings in China mainly adopts the reinforced concrete structure with high
transmission loss, therefore, it is recommended that the distance between base
stations be about 500 to 800 meters.
6-32
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
BSC
MS
BTS
EIR
OMC
SMC
HLR/AUC
BTS
MSC/VLR
BSC
MS
BTS
GSM1800
GSM900
BSC
BTS
EIR
OMC
MSC/VLR
SMC
BTS
BSC
MS
BTS
GSM1800
GSM900
6-33
HLR/AUC
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
Characteristics:
(1) It will exert great influence upon the original network.
(2) It needs re-planning of the NSS and it is quite difficult to implement the
engineering.
(3) It has limited expansion space, so it may lead to difficulty in engineering and
maintenance for network development.
(4) It needs small volume of initial investment in network building and small volume of
unit user investment.
(5) Competition can be introduced so as to decrease equipment investment and
improve service quality to some degree.
(6) The BSC has backup so as to achieve certain network security
BSC
BTS
BTS
EIR
OMC
MSC/VLR
SMC
HLR/AUC
BTS
MS
BSC
BTS
BTS
GSM900
GSM1800
BTS
GSM1800/GSM900
6-34
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
To implement flexible and effective dual-band traffic guidance and control, various
control policies are used:
(1) In the idle mode, when a subscriber powers on a mobile phone to perform cell
selection or to perform cell reselection in standby state, through setting the system
parameters, the 1800M cell will have higher priority or better cell measurement
comparison value so as to become the service cell of dual-band subscriber more
easily. Thus, the subscriber will spend more time in waiting for the 1800M system
before communication so as to avoid unnecessary handover.
(2) During call connection setup, the mobile phone can adjust the traffic allocation
through direct retry.
(3) In communication state, through the division of cells into different levels and the
division of the same layer cell into different levels (HCS, hierarchical cell system), the
traffic will goes to 1800M cell of lower level and low priority as much as possible.
(4) Various dual-band traffic handover methods can be used to implement reasonable
cell traffic load.
6-35
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
0: According to the signal strength of the neighboring cells, the mobile station will
report the measurement results of the six allowed neighboring cells with the highest
signal level and with known NCC, regardless of the band the neighboring cells are
located.
1: The mobile station needs to report the measurement result of an allowed
neighboring cell at each band (not including the band used by the current service cell)
with highest signal level and know NCC included in the neighboring cell table. The
neighboring cell at the band of the current service cell will be reported in residual
position. If there are still residual positions, then the conditions of other neighboring
cells will be reported (regardless of frequency band).
The value range of MBR is 0 to 3. In multi-band application environment, the value is
related to the service traffic at each band. Generally, please refer to the following
principles in setting the value:
z
If the traffic of each band is basically the same, then when the operator
does not need band selectivity, please set the MBR as 0.
If the traffic of each band is obviously different and the operator hopes
the mobile station to enter a certain band preferably, then please set the
MBR as 3.
For the case between the above two conditions, please set the MBR as 1 or 2.
6-36
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
V. Others
In current 900/1800 dual-band networking, there exist the following objective
phenomena:
(1) With the CRO value during cell reselection, a mobile phone can easily reselect the
1800M network from the 900M network so as to guide the traffic. However, in
independent MSC networking, the inconsistency of LAC leads to the location updating
one more time (i.e., if the mobile phone approaches to a 900M, then when it selects a
1800M cell through CRO, it needs the location updating one more time).
(2) The 1800M coverage is not continuous, especial in indoor environment, the mobile
phone may have to select a 900M cell since it possibly cannot find 1800M signal at all.
(3) A considerable number of single frequency 900M mobile phones still exist.
According our original recommendations, through the selection of CAQ and CBA
values, the 900M cells become cells of low priority, while the 1800M cells become cells
of normal priority. However, in most cases (e.g., the above cases (2) and (3)), when
powered on, the mobile phones are very slow to access the network.
Therefore:
(1) In current network condition, set the CBA and CBQ such that the 900M 1800M
cells have the same normal priority, thus, when powered on, the mobile phones can
access the network at fastest speed. The traffic guidance is implemented with CRO.
However, in independent MSC networking, such method will lead to a redundant
location updating. In current poor 1800M coverage condition, the location updating this
time can be neglected among the total number of locations, while in MSC-sharing
networking condition, it only leads to cell reselection one more time.
(2) When the 1800M network basically implements continuous coverage and most
mobile phones are dual-band ones, in the precondition that the 1800M network shares
most of the traffic, we can set CBA and CBQ such that the 1800 cells have higher
priority. Thus, when powered on, most mobile phones will access the 1800 cells and
most of them will not reselect the 900M cells.
I. Deployment preparation
It mainly implements dual-band network technology coordination and network
planning. The dual-band technology coordination is the precondition to implement
dual-band cooperation of different manufacturers. Huawei has been focusing on the
research on the cooperation of dual-band technologies all along and has sufficient
technical reserve strength. The network planning is the first tache in radio network
construction, including site survey, electromagnetic test, coverage test, etc.
6-37
Chapter 7
Parameter Design
6-38
Chapter 7
6-39
Parameter Design
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
8-40
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
MS
BSC
BTS
MSC
CM-Service Request
Complete layer 3 information CM-Service Req
CM-Service Accept
CM-Service Accept
Assignment Request
Mode modify
Mode modify ACK
Channel Mode modify
Channel Mode modify ACK
Assignment Complete
8-41
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
BTS
MS
BSC
MSC
Channel_req
Channel_Active
Channel_Active_Ack
IMMEDIATE ASSIGN COMMAND
First SABM
Assignment_Req
Channel_Active_Ack
ASSIGNMENT COMMAND
First SABM
Establish_IND
ASSIGNMENT CMP
Assignment_CMP
Alerting
Connect
Connect Ack
Conversation
Disconnect
Release
Release Complete
Clear_CMD
Clear_CMP
8-42
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
BTS1
MS
BSC
BTS2
MS
Handover Access
Handover_Detect
PHY INFO
PHY INFO
first SABM
Establish_IND
HANDOVER COMPLETE
Handover_Performed
8-43
MSC
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
MS
BTS1
BSC1
MSC
BSC2
BTS2
MS
Channel_Active
Channel_Active_Ack
HANDOVER COMMAND
Handover_CMD
Handover_Request_Ack
Handover Access
Handover_Detect
Handover_Detect
PHY INFO
PHY INFO
first SABM
Establish_IND
HANDOVER COMPLETE
Clear_CMD
Handover_Cmp
Clear_Cmp
8-44
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
MS
Um
BSS1
Measurement of radio
transmission signal
MS
E
MSCa
MSCb
A
HANDOVER REQ.
Perform handover(MAP)
HANDOVER REQUEST
HANDOVER REQUEST
ACKNOWLEDGE
BSS2
Um
VLRb
(PCM&Channel type)
(Including new TCH and handover reference number )
IAM
ACM
HANDOVER CMD
HANDOVER COMMAND
HANDOVER DETECT
HANDOVER COMPLETE
Forward MS to new
channel via original BSS
CLEAR COMMAND
CLEAR COMPLETE
ANS
~~ Release (TUP/ISUP)
End signal
~~
End signal(MAP)
Handover report
Release handover report
8-45
Chapter 8
Roam
MS
E
MSCa
MSCb
MS
MSCb'
VLRb'
VLRb
BSS2
Measurement of radio
transmission signal
Perform handover
HANDOVER REQUEST ACKNOWLEDGE (Including new TCH number and handover number )
IAM
ACM
Subsequent handover ack.
HANDOVER COMMAND
HANDOVER DETECT
HANDOVER COMPLETE
ANS
End signal (MAP)
CLEAR COMMAND
Release (TUP)
~~
Release HON
CLEAR COMPLETE
End signal (MAP)
Release (TUP/ISUP)
~
~
Traffic Statistics
8-46
Release HON
BSS2'
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
001
Measurement type
Formula description
Others
Index name
8-47
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
002
Measurement type
Formula description
Others
Index name
SDCCH drop-off ratio (%)
Cell performance measurement
SDCCH drop-off ratio=SDCCH drop-off Times / SDCCH occupation
success times (All)
SDCCH drop-off times(1)send out CLEAR_REQ, and the channel is
of SDCCH type;
(2) When receiving ERROR_IND, the channel is of SDCCH type;
With respect to (1) there are following cases:
Incoming SDCCH handover the message HO_DETECT is illegal.
Incoming SDCCH handover the message HO_CMP is illegal.
Incoming SDCCH handover sending the message HO_CMP fails
TN_WAIT_HO_DETECT, TN_WAIT_HO_CMP (SDCCH handover)
Time out
TN_WAIT_INTER_HO_CMP (SDCCH handover) time out
TN_T8 (Outgoing BSC handover is completed) time out
Internal clearance resulted from other various reasons.
SDCCH occupation success times (All):(1) When receiving
CH_ACT_ACK in the process of assignment, the channel is SDCCH.
(2) When receiving the message CH_ACT_ACK in the state of
CS_WAIT_RR_EST, the current channel is SDCCH.
(3) Incoming SDCCH handover receives HO_DETECT.
(4) In the BSC SDCCH handover receives HO_DETECT.
None
003
Measurement type
Formula description
Analysis of the statistical point of the
original index
Others
8-48
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
004
Measurement type
Formula description
Others
005
Measurement type
Formula description
Other
8-49
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
007
Measurement type
Formula description
Other
No.
008
Measurement type
Formula description
Index name
8-50
Chapter 8
Others
Traffic Statistics
8-51
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
006
Measurement type
Formula description
Other
Index name
SDCCH congestion ratio %)
Cell performance measurement
SDCCH congestion ratio (%)=Times of All Busy SDCCH occupation /
Times of SDCCH occupation requests (All)
Times of all busy SDCCH occupation:
(1) When SDCCH channel has not been assigned Times of SDCCH
occupation requests (all)
(1) Receiving the channel request message (the channel is SDCCH)
(2)Once receiving the channel request message immediately assign
TCH. And SDCCH can be assigned when there is no TCH
(3) SDCCH handover within the BSC
(4) Incoming BSC handover the handover is of SDCCH type
None
009
Measurement type
Formula description
Index name
8-52
Chapter 8
Traffic Statistics
8-53
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
Data Analysis
Y
Network Optimization Report
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
8-2
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
8-3
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
8-4
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
failure spotting and suggestions for solutions. In addition, the output also supports
flexible report forms.
Functions of general network optimization software shall be as follows:
z
Introduction of
Traffic Statistical data, configuration data, and
network planning data
View Traffic Statistical result: Multi-functions and View with selfdefining configuration
Engineering Management
Good optimization software can adequately act as everyday work platform for radio
engineers and maintainers (supervisors and optimizers). HUAWEI possesses a selfdeveloped Optimization software SNA.
8-5
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
8-6
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
9.3.2 Coverage
Range of cell coverage is one of the important indices in QoS evaluation for GSM
networks. Major factors affecting coverage are as follows:
8-7
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
9.3.3 Capacity
I. Traffic Congestion
With OMC traffic statistics data, TCH congestion rate can be obtained (with
occupation at all busy). It is also possible to judge the traffic congestion status by
comparing the busy hour traffic volume against calculation capacity of each base
station cell. For congestion cells, it is recommended that more carriers be added, or
cell split, or construction of new base stations in common sites be adopted. It is also
advisable to adopt new dual frequency networks, micro cells, etc.
8-8
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
9.3.4 Interference
PLMN cellular system makes use of frequency multiplexing to improve application
efficiency of spectrum and to increase system capacity. Meanwhile, it also brings
forth co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference (This is called
internal interference of the system.) In addition, there are also interferences caused
by Multi-path Effect and external factors of the network as the interferences of TACS
and repeaters.
I. Interference Positioning
GSM is a dual system with a difference of 45MHz between uplink frequency and
downlink frequency. There might be interferences in both uplinks and downlinks.
Downlink interference can be measured with instrument for drive test by maintaining
the conversation status. Level of voice quality can be used in positioning. Voice
quality are of 7 levels. Corresponding bit error rates are listed in Table 3-1. General
requirement of voice quality shall not be lower than 3, i.e. the code error rate shall be
less than 1.6%.
Table 3-1 Relational Correspondence between Signal Quality Level and Error Rate
RxQual class
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Ber range
<0.2%
0.2 ... 0.4%
0.4 ... 0.8%
0.8 ... 1.6%
1.6 ... 3.2%
3.2 ... 6.4%
6.4 ... 12.8%
>12.8%
Uplink interference can be positioned with the numbers of interference bands and
Call Drop rates in HUAWEI OMC traffic statistics terminal. Interference band is an
indication of idle TCH levels of 5 grades in all. Level ranges can be set through Data
ConfigurationTerminal. Look at the following example:
Table 3-2 Level Range of Interference Band
Interference Band 1
Interference Band 2
Interference Band 3
Interference Band 4
Interference Band 5
-110
-105
-98
-90
-87
-105dBm
-98dBm
-90dBm
-87dBm
-47dBm
Generally, shall idle channel fall into Interference Band 4 and Interference Band 5
continuously, it can be determined that there exists interference.
Beside, measurement report for uplink and downlink can be viewed from Signaling
Analyzer MA-10 connected to ABIS interface. In this way, uplink interference and
downlink interference can also be positioned.
8-9
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
9.3.5 Handover
When a mobile subscriber moves from one cell into another, handover must
beimplemented. Otherwise, voice quality may be greatly reduced. In some cases,
even Call Drop may occur. Frequent handover problems include voice quality
declination or Call Drop caused by handover failure and handover delay, voice
quality declination and system load increase caused by frequent handovers,
unbalance traffic caused by unreasonable ratios of outgoing and incoming
handovers.
Drive test equipment can be used in testing of continuousconnection, tracking of
handover failures, handover delays or frequent handovers, etc. With OMC traffic
statistical data, handover completion ratio, incoming and outgoing handover ratio of
the cell can be analyzed.
Causes and resolvent of abnormal handover are as follows:
(1) Handover threshold configrated too low
(2) Congestion in adjacent cells, no idle channel available
(3) Configuration of relation with neighboring cells missing
(4) Handover hysteresis and handover priority configuration inappropriate
(5) Configuration for the best statistical time N, P inappropriate
(6) Networking in combination with other cells consisting of products by other
manufactures, parameters of these external cells must be secured correct. These
parameters cover LAC, CI, BCCH, etc.
8-10
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
8-11
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
8-12
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
8-13
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
(5) Performance measurement of defined adjacent cells. Adjacent cell with too low
an average level can be spotted.
(6) The average level of a undefined adjacent cells is too high. There are too many
such cells(lonely islands).
(7) Performance measurement of defined adjacent cells. Average receiving level of
defined adjacent cells is detected too high (excessive coverage).
(8) Measurement of power control performance, see if the average distance between
MS and BTS is in conformity with design ideology.
(9) Measurement of power control performance, see if the maximum distance
between MS and BTS are overdue in several consecutive periods.
(10) Performance test of outgoing handover from a cell, low handover completion
rate into a certain adjacent cell.
Solution:
(1) A drive test is recommended to be carried out in areas with estimated bad
coverage.
(2) Modify network parameter according to drive test. (transmission power of a base
station, down tilt and height of the antenna, minimum access level of handset,
relations of adjacent cells, the minimum access threshold of handover candidate
cells.
(3) Increase base stations.
III. Inappropriate handover (planning for adjacent cells and parameters for
handover)
Judgment:
(1) Check the handover parameter. See if there is inappropriate parameter
configuration.
(2) Performance measurement of handovers between cells. More handover failures
together with more recovery failures are detected.
(3) Performance measurement of handover between cells. Too many handovers
together with too many recovery completions are detected.
(4) Performance measurement of undefined adjacent cells. Levels of undefined
adjacent cells are too high and the number of report for undefined cells goes beyond
standard.
(5) Performance measurement for outgoing handovers: low rate of outgoing
handover completion out of a cell (for a specific cell). Find out an adjacent cell with
low incoming handover completion rate so that causes can be further detected from
target cells.
(6) Low rate of incoming handover completion. Inappropriate parameter configuration
for counterpart cells is detected.
(7) TCH Performance measurement: Times of handover is not in proportion to times
of TCH call occupation completion. (handover/call>3)
Solution:
(1) Add appropriately adjacent cells.
8-14
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
Solution:
Modify inappropriate configuration for parameters mentioned above.
8-15
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
(4) Shall Call Drop rate and congestion rate of this cell remain high, there might be
problems with part of the equipment.
Solution:
(1) Watch over transmission and board alarm (TC board failure, Alarm for PCM
synchronization loss at A interface, LAPD broken link, Power Amplifier board, HPA,
TRX board alarm, CUI/FPU alarm). According to alarm data, analyze to see if there
is transmission break or board failure (as suggested by carrier board failure or poor
contact.)
8-16
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
The other one is channel assignment failure caused by various reasons after the
assignment command being sent out.
Times of TCH occupation failure (including handover)--times of TCH occupation at all
busy, i.e. channel assignment failure caused by non-assignment availability factors.
With too many occupation failures, there is possible interference within the network.
Judgment and solutions:
Refer to judgment and solution to interference in TCH Call Drop.
8-17
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
8-19
Chapter 9
Network Optimization
(7) Due to the fact that handover between base stations is limited by access level
and quality, care shall be taken to configuration for relevant parameters (RACH
access threshold, Random Access Error Threshold.)
III. Congestion
Subject for Analysis:
A service cell with low rate of incoming handover completion and adjacent cells with
low rate of outgoing handover completion.
Positioning of Problems:
After the problem of inappropriate parameter configuration and equipment failure
being solved, if there are
(1) Too many incoming handover failures (caused by congestion) in measurement of
incoming handover performance;
(2) Times of outgoing handover attempts - times of outgoing handover is too great in
measurement of handover performance between cells. It suggests that there is no
channel available to be applied. There might be congestion in the target cell.
With phenomenon mentioned above, the maximum number of TCH in all busy, the
time of all busy shall be studied to confirm the existence of congestion. Congestion
shall be solved as follows.
Solution:
(1) Modify cell coverage (modify transmission power of base stations, modify the
minimum access level, modify RACH access threshold, modify random access error
threshold, modify down tilt of antenna.)
(2) Modify major parameters of the cell (modify CRO, start-up load handover, modify
cell priority and handover parameter of the cell.)
(3) Capacity expansion or modification to configuration of carriers of the cell.
IV. Others
After the problems of parameter configuration, equipment failure, and congestion
being solved, with reference to TCH Call Drop analysis, the problem of cells with low
rate for incoming handover completion and adjacent cells with low rate incoming
handover completion can be solved by interference, coverage, balance for uplink and
downlink analysis and solution.
8-20
Table of contents
III. Antenna
Using high gain antenna can improve the base stations coverage capacity to a certain
extent.
When doing network planning, first consider the network quality from the perspective
of network coverage and select appropriate antenna. Under normal circumstances the
900M directional antenna gain shall be in the range of 15-17dBi; the 1800M directional
antenna gain shall be in the range of 15-18dBi. For city areas the directional antenna
with horizontal half power angle of 65 degrees is preferable.
When high gain antenna is used, the problem of Shadow right under the tower
should be taken into account. Preferably zero-point filling antenna should be used. If
the omni-antenna is built over high mountains, the problem of Shadow right under the
tower should be taken into account too. Preferably omni-antenna with built-in low
incidence should be used.
8-1
II. The antenna direction difference between the old and newly built network
For directional cells, if the antenna direction of the newly built network is different from
that of the old network, such as: the old antennas direction was 0/120/240, while the
newly built antennas direction is 60/180/300. For omni cells, if the antenna direction of
the newly built network is different from that of the old network, such as: the old
antennas direction (transmit and diversity antenna) is 0/180, while the newly built
antennas direction is 90/270. This will cause the change of the diversity surface and
transmit antenna position. This may make the previous good coverage a bad one, and
previous bad coverage a good one. But the mobile phone subscribers are only
concerned with the change from good to bad, which will give rise to complaints.
Solution recommendations: During the engineering design, the antenna shall be so
designed as to make the direction of it as identical as that of the old one. In cases
where the direction change is desired, the main beam of the directional antenna or the
direction of the omni antenna shall point to the places where heavy coverage is
emphasized. Due explanations are also desirable.
III. The difference of the antenna height between the old and newly built
network
The engineering design shall be so made as to ensure that the height of the new
antenna is not lower than that of the old antenna. If the tower platform has not enough
space to install the antenna, the explanations shall be given for decreasing the
antenna height.
IV. Concerning the directional antennas down-tilt of the newly built network
Preferably the down-tilt shall not change. In cases where such change is desired due
to the increase of the base station in the urban area for purpose of controlling the
coverage area, such change shall be duly recorded.
8-2
The mobile phone is somewhere in the cell but cannot call out (the
receiving antenna is in the other direction, the uplink is bad);
The field intensity distribution of the BCCH frequency band between the
adjacent sectors were found to be displaced during the drive test;
This type of error is easy to discover in the network. It can be found by checking
installation or by analyzing the field intensity distribution of the BCCH frequency band
during the drive test.
(2) Wrong receiving antenna installation:
This problem, which cannot be found by analyzing the field intensity distribution of the
main BCCH frequency band in the downlink, can cause bad uplink in the current cell.
After excluding the possibility that it is caused by transmitting antenna, check if the
jumper or feeder of the receiving antenna are wrongly installed, also review the
measurement report to see if the uplink level is too low, or if there are any call-out or
handover problems, power control triggered by the uplink signal, or irrational handover
ratio, etc.
II. The problem of shadow adjacent to the coverage area in the directional cell
During the installation of the directional antenna, caution must be taken to avoid the
creation of large area of shadow in its coverage area. Shadow usually comes into
being as a result of huge hindrance near the base station, such as skyscrapers, or
mountains. Caution must be taken to circumvent such hindrance during the installation.
8-3
When the directional antenna is installed at the surface of the top of the building,
caution must be taken so that the wave beam is not hindered by the edge of the
building, and that the antenna is not installed near the edge, thus reducing or
extirpating the shadow. Due to the complexity of the antenna surface, when the
antenna must be installed away from the edge of the building, it must be installed high
above the antenna surface. For this reason, the bearing capacity of the building
surface and the antennas against-wind force must be taken into account during the
engineering.
8-4
MS_TXPWR_MAX(n)
RXLEV_NCELL(n)
MS_TXPWR(n)
MsOptLevel(n)
BTS1 HO
BTS2
8-5
Figure 10-1 Installation of the base station omni antenna that covers the roads
In addition, a distance of more than 2m is required between the omni antenna and the
tower. The horizontal effective interval for 900M omni antenna is more than 4m; The
horizontal interval for 1800M omni antenna is more than 2m.
8-6
distribution time slots (the number of extended distribution time slots), the number of
SACCH multi-frames, the number of maximum physical retransfer, radio link
connection timer, location update and paging-related parameters (including LAC
distribution), handover-related parameters, power control-related parameters, flow
control-related parameters, roaming permit-related parameters, TRX power settings of
different CDU channels, etc.
When the base stations upper clock is bad, MCK (TMU) is failure, propagation is
unstable, or the carrier frequency board is failure (no warning, sometimes stable
interferences), the mobile phones accessing, call and handover (usually
asynchronous handover) will be affected.
When the system information is wrong or is not delivered correctly, the mobile phones
accessing, call or handover will be affected.
When the frequency interference is severe, the mobile phones accessing, call and
handover will be affected.
When the channel is congested the mobile phones handover and call access will be
affected.
Multipath effect can lead to signal fluctuation
During the cell reselection and frequent location border update, the signal of the
mobile phone will fluctuate.
During the connection, direct re-try and load handover caused by congestion can lead
to strong fluctuation of the signal; Priority handover (for layered network) and edge
handover (the edge handover threshold is set too low and there is no PBGT handover)
can also lead to strong fluctuation of the signal. If the power control and handover
parameters are not set properly during the signal fluctuation, the fluctuation will be
strengthened until call drop happens.
The cross-area coverage or coverage in the border areas for different services can all
cause problems, leading to the subscribers huge increase of roaming bill. To solve the
problem, the coverage area should be controlled or enlarged during the planning and
optimization phase to avoid mutual cell reselection or only single-direction cell
reselection. Solve the problem by adjusting the height, down-tilt, and direction of the
antenna, CRH and MS minimum access threshold, and BAI table.
The mobile phone subscriber having not sufficient understanding on the terrain,
construction materials absorption loss, or multipath effect will tend to rise questions on
coverage.
8-7
The transmit branch has antenna feeder standing wave ratio warning;
(4) The repeater station is subordinated to the host cell. The repeater station doesnt
expand as the cell does.
(5) Interferences leading to congestion
(6) Isolated station or complex terrain causes TCH assignment failure, leading to
congestion.
(7) Huge real traffic leading to congestion.
8-8
If the congestion is not related to the carrier board, then the whole cell
may be interfered or affected by the terrain.
(4) Use the Signaling Analyzer to diagnose the ABIS interface message.
According to the call flow and TCH assignment failure statistics, use the Signaling
Analyzer to trace the ABIS interface message at every high-congestion-ratio cell. The
figure shown here uses MA10 Signaling Analyzer, the detailed analysis of which is as
follows:
Analyze the assignment command Assignment CMD delivered in SDCCH, as the TEI
value in figure 10-2, to determine the carrier board that SDCCH is in. The carrier board
that TCH is in can be determined by referring to the ARFCN radio frequency band.
Determine if the assignment failures are all in a TRX. Also analyze the causes of the
assignment failures by focusing on the mobile phones TA value, uplink/downlink level
value, and uplink/downlink signal quality in the measurement report. Local calling is
required.
8-9
If assignment failure points to a certain TRX board, the cause can be one of the
following:
z
Calling by every carrier or by every channel to see if there are any time
slots or boards that cannot be assigned.
Check weather all the carriers downlink levels are approached. For
carrier board whose levels are uneven, replace the board or
uplink/downlink antenna feeder system to look for the causes.
8-10
Note: for frequency hopping cells, use command line parameters to change that cell to
non-frequency-hopping cell for the convenience of local calling.
(4) Do the drive test by the network optimization software ANT-PLOT to see if there is
any handover exceptions, downlink interference for any clues on the problem of
congestion.
(5) Use the spectrum analyzer to look for the interference source.
(6) See if the terrain of the stations coverage area is complex.
8-11
II. BSC Paging Group Calculation and Paging Message Transfer between the
Modules
After BSC receives the Paging Request delivered by MSC, it will calculate the paging
group that the paging belongs to by the last three digits of IMSI, the cells CCCH
channel configuration, and the paging block configuration, and then deliver Paging
Command to that cell. Under multiple modules conditions, the Paging Command
needs to be transferred between the modules.
8-12
the paging group at intervals of the same paging frame period. At present, every
queue length of the paging group in BTS is 9.In one paging reserve block, 2 IMSI
paging or 4 TMSI paging can be delivered. So every time the paging is delivered, BTS
must combine the paging according to the paging message type in the queue.
8-13
III. The differences of the mobile phones fake accessing and accessing mode
According to the protocol, whenever the MS is performing open/close, it must update
its position and do the IMSI detachment according to the systems requirement. Some
mobile phones, mostly Ericsson, dont perform the above operations. If the mobile
phone fails to update its position when attempting open, it will display the message
that it has already been attached. But what happens is that there is no message
reported and the subscriber status doesnt change. Dialing that subscriber will receive
the message that it is close. Another example is that IMSI is not detached when the
mobile phone switches off, so the subscriber status is still attached. Paging is still
delivered to that subscriber when it is called. Out of service area message will come
out when the time is out.
Different mobile phones have different accessing mode and speed after the drop-off,
causing some to have long time in accessing, leading to the problem of Subscriber
out of the service area. Under the protocols of GSM 02 and 03, after the call drop the
mobile phone follows the principles of ASAP (as soon as possible) and energy saving
to access the network. The mobile phone will attempt to access the network in
receiving signals strength order. 900M mobile phones search 30 frequency bands;
1800M mobile phones search 40 BCCH frequency bands; Double frequency mobile
phones search 70 frequency bands. After the failed attempt, the mobile phone will
decide when to start next time according to its own algorithm. Mobile phones of
different models have different algorithms. For example, some models of Motorola
mobile phones can set accessing network frequency. Under the low speed accessing
mode, it takes 50 minutes to access the network after the mobile phone drops off the
network and re-enter the coverage area. In addition mobile phones of different
manufacturers have different accessing mode. Some mobile phones, after several
failures in finding the network, will stop doing so for a long time to come. So, this
8-14
problem is related to the mobile phone itself and can be solved by the switch on and
switch off of the mobile phone.
V. SDCCH Congestion
After the mobile phone receives the paging command, it will send channel request to
the network side. If there is no SDCCH channel available, or if the procedure to set up
SDCCH channel fails, the paging response cannot be delivered to the network side,
thus the problem of Subscriber out of the service area occurs. The causes for the
SDCCH congestion are SDCCH all busy, random radio link failure, etc. For the
SDCCH all busy situation, adjust that cells coverage area to reduce the SDCCH
congestion. For congestion caused by other reasons, such as random radio link failure
or surface link failure, the solution is subject to real situation.
sometimes requires special devices. The problems of the mobile phone can take the
following forms:
(1) Bad power supply leads to insufficient uplink transmitting power and uplink access
failure.
(2) Faulted mobile phone software leads to the mobile phones exceptional dead-end
and failure to respond to the paging message.
(3) Problems in the radio frequency part of the mobile phone will lead to failure to
receive, unstable transmission, or high frequency error within some frequency band.
8-16
Spectrum
analyzer 8594
30dB
attenuator
HPA
8-17
spectrum
analyzer 8594
Omni-mini
antenna
Figure 10-4 Use the mini-antenna to test the base stations transmitting level
(b) Use the mobile phone SAGEM and the test software MobileShow to do the test at
the place that is within visual distance and is 1 km away. Preserve and test the signal
wave by the laptop computer to see weather the transmitting level is stable.
By the above test, we can determine if the output power at the amplifier interface is
stable. The shortcoming of it is that it cannot obtain the concrete value of the output
power in the amplifier interface.
It seldom happens that the output power of the base station is unstable.
10.4.2 Cell Reselection (in idle state) or Handover (in conversation state)
Both cell reselection and handover can lead to the fluctuation of the signal. To find the
causes, use the following testing methods:
(1) Watch and test the mobile phone to see if the cell reselection or handover occur as
the signal level changes;
(2) Use the test mobile phone SAGEM and software MobileShow to see if the cell
reselection and handover occur as the signal fluctuates.
By the above tests we can decide if the signal level fluctuation is caused by the cell
reselection or handover. This phenomenon normally happens at the edge of the cell.
But if the network has serious trans-cell coverage,, frequent cell reselection and
handover can also arise, leading to the fluctuation of the signal.
75dBm.One further note: the level indicated in the mobile phone is the mean value of
its radio frequency level. So the signal fluctuation of the narrow pulse duration will be
partly smoothed away. So the scale change in the Level Indicator is not the real-time
performance of the receiving signals strength. It is delayed. During diagnosis, we did
the following monitoring and testing: Test the downlink power at the combiners test
interface, no fluctuation was found; the downlink power at the drop-off point was
measured to be -85dBm by the spectrum analyzer. Though there was a fluctuation of
10-15dB, its minimum level was not enough to drop off the mobile phone; Next we
monitored and tested the downlink level of the mobile phone by connecting it to mobile
show, we found that starting from a certain time (subject to small differences every
time), the level went down from 85dBm along the 60 degree slope, when it went to
the middle of the slope, there happened a handover, but the strength of the signal
continued to go down, until at last the level was almost the same with that of the other
areas (about 105dBm), and maintained at this value for about 10 seconds and then it
dropped off. If after 10 seconds it didnt drop off, it went upward along the 60 degree
slope after another 10 seconds, and there happened a handover in the middle of the
slope. Then it continued to go upward, and maintained some time for conversation at
about 85dBm.Then it repeated the above procedure, making its path like a sloped
square wave, until it dropped off at some trough. By watching the Um interface from
the background, we found that before or after the drop-off and handover, the downlink
receiving level was strong and stable, and the uplink level was mostly at 105dBm.So
it can be determined that the handover and drop-off were caused by the bad uplink
quality, that is to say, because of the effect from the uplink power control, the uplink
signal has almost approached the uplink levels minimum threshold value when it
reached the base station. That, along with the normal fluctuation under the radio
environment, will cause the base station to think that the conversation quality in that
cell is poor, so it orders the mobile phone to hand over to the adjacent cell. If the
quality in the adjacent cell is good, the conversation goes on, otherwise, there will be a
drop-off. In light of the call drop, the level indicated in the mobile phone after the
handover is the downlink level of the adjacent cell. And the downlink level of the
adjacent cell is quite small, so naturally the mobile phones level goes down to 1 scale
or 0 scale. If the signal in the adjacent cell is not sufficient to sustain the conversation
or the drop-off, the base station will order the mobile phone to hand over back to the
previous cell. If this time it is successful, the conversation can go on, the level in the
mobile phone will return to full scale from 0 scale. This is the reason why the
conversation suddenly cuts off but doesnt call drop, and after a while, the
conversation recovers. When the subscriber is having long time conversation, due to
the periodicity of the above square waves, along with the randomness of the
environments fluctuation in the radio space, the subscriber will experience intermittent
cutoff and recovery, (not necessarily cutoff at every trough, but certainly weakening of
the conversation quality), until call drop happens. As the uplink power control makes
any level from the mobile phone to the base station very weak, giving rise to drop-off
regardless of the distance. Certainly as the radio fluctuation for the mobile phones that
are near to the base station is small, so is its chance of call drop. As the indoor radio
fluctuation is greater than outdoor radio fluctuation, so is its call drop ratio. In addition,
the antenna is usually placed at high tower, , the radiation lobe is in fusiform, so the
area right under the tower is blinded. The coverage only reaches to the edge of the
lobe. The carriers office is usually located at that area, and they keep performing trial
dialing, so the chance for the fluctuation is greater.
Solution:
First make some brief judgments according to the above analysis. If the situations are
likewise, call the uplink power control parameters from the background and set the
reasonable threshold value (preferably 80dBm.In addition the parameters concerning
the handover need to be set as per the real situation, the reasonableness of which will
affect the quality of the network and the fluctuation of the signal. Please do the
modifications only after a thorough understanding of the meaning of each parameter,
and test the modifications.
8-19
10.4.5 Interferences
Interferences can lead to signal fluctuations. Interferences can cause the timeout for
the DCS counter (90/the multiframes between the same paging) in the mobile phones
at the current service area, thus leading to cell reselection, which when reflected on
the mobile phone side, is the fluctuation of signals.
phone is in, which reflected in the Indicator is the going up of the signal strength.
Therefore the essential cause of this problem is too much traffic, causing congestion in
the cell.
8-21
(3) Some mobile phones will also have fluctuation of the level when doing location
area updating. This is especially so when in the location area border of the city.
(4) The signal level after the assignment will fluctuate deeply due to the difference of
the carrier combination method or the disaccord of transmission channel gain within
the cell.
8-22
8-23
10.5.5
unilateral connection
The common cause may come from the equipment or transmission. This problem will
be introducted in detail in other documents.
8-24
8-1
11-1
SMS-GMSC
SMS-IWMSC
E
SM-SC
C
Gd
MSC/VLR
HLR
D
Gs
Gr
Gb
TE
MT
R
BSS
Um
SGSN
Gn
SGSN
Gc
Gi
PDN
GGSN
Gn
Gp
TE
Gf
EIR
GGSN
Other PLMN
Signalling Interface
Signalling and Data
Transfer Interface
Controlling the conversion of the radio channel between packetswitched services and circuit-switched services;
Besides, the operation and maintenance commands on BTS via OMC must be
controlled or transferred by BSC, and the channel configuration for the PCU and the
Pb/G-Abis interface configuration are mainly conducted at BSC.
II. BTS
BTS is the radio part of the BSS, and controlled by BSC, BTS is the radio transceiving
equipment serving a specific or several cells.
The main responsibilities of BTS include:
11-2
III. PCU
PCU is the equipment introduced by BSS to support GPRS, and its main functions
include:
z
IV. GPRS MS
(1) Terminal Equipment
Terminal Equipment (TE) is the computer terminal equipment operated and
maintained by terminal subscribers. It is used to transceive the packet data of terminal
subscribers in the GPRS system.TE can be independent desktop computer. The
functions of TE can also be integrated into the hand-held mobile terminal equipment,
and become one entity with the mobile terminal (MT). To some extent, all the functions
provided by the GPRS network are to set up a packet data transport passageway
between TE and external data networks.
(2) Mobile Terminal
Mobile Terminal (MT) on the one hand communicates with TE; on the other hand, it
communicates with BTS via air interface, and the logic link to SGSN can be
established. The MT of GPRS must be configured with GPRS function software to
access GPRS system services. In the data communications process, from the
perspective of TE, the function of MT is equivalent to the Modem connecting TE to the
GPRS system. The functions of MT and TE can be integrated into one physical device.
(3) Mobile Station
Mobile Station (MS) can be viewed as the integrated entity with all the functions of MT
and TE. It can be one physical entity or two (TE+MT).
MS has three types:
Type A: it allows simultaneous packet switching service and circuit switching service.
Type B: it can be attached to the GPRS network and the GSM network simultaneously,
but it does not allow the simultaneous circuit switching service and packet switching
service.
Type C: it cannot attach to the GPRS network and the GSM network simultaneously.
(4) MS Multiple time slot Capability Level
MS can be divided into 29 levels based on the multiple time slot capability, which has
been detailed in the following table. MSs at different levels have different packet
channels simultaneously available. A handset reports its multiple time slot capability
level in the packet resource request information. BSS should comprehensively
11-3
consider such aspects as the MS data traffic, required class of quality of services,
available radio channel condition, etc. when assigning radio resources for MS. The
multiple time slot capability of MS should try to be met with the observance of the
principle of making full use of the radio resources. The multiple time slot capability is
usually represented as X (RX)+X (TX), that is the maximum time slot number allowed
for the downlink and the maximum time slot number allowed for the uplink. For
example, 3+1 GPRS handset refers to the one with three time slots maximally allowed
for the downlink reception and one time slot maximally allowed for the uplink
transmission.
Multislot
class
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Multislot
class
Tx
Rx
1
2
2
3
2
3
3
4
3
4
4
4
3
4
5
Sum
2
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
NA
NA
NA
1
1
2
1
2
2
3
1
2
2
3
4
3
4
5
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Tx
6
7
8
2
3
4
4
6
2
3
4
4
6
8
Sum
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
GMM/SM
LLC
LLC
Relay
RLC
RLC
MAC
MAC
GSM RF
MS
BSSGP
BSSGP
Network
Service
GSM RF L1bis
Network
Service
L1bis
Um
Gb
BSS
SGSN
11-5
The PCU of Huawei Technologies Co, Ltd. can support all packet channel functions.
B1
B2
B3
B0~B11
B4
B5
12 radio blocks
B6
B7
B8
B9
B10
B11
X: idle fram es
PBCCH channel: it can be mapped to such radio blocks as B0, B3, B6,
and B9. The specific number is determined by the busy degree of its
broadcasting channel, and the mapping sequence is in conformity with
the above-mentioned order.
PCCCH: PAGCH and PPCH can map to any radio block of the downlink
channels except the one occupied by PBCCH. PRACH is the uplink
11-6
PDTCH: it can map to all the radio blocks, and it is used for packet data
transmission.
PACCH: it can map to all the radio blocks, and it is used to transmit the
radio signaling of the air interface.
When the data to be transmitted are less than eight RLC blocks, the
channel request type of MS will be short access, where he number of
data packet will be determined by CS-1 coding.
When the data to be transmitted are more than eight RLC blocks, and
the RLC mode is required to be the confirmed mode, the channel
request type of MS will be one-phase access or two-phase access.
Besides, the channel request type also includes paging response, cell
renewing, and mobility management. However, this kind of channel
request type is often treated as one-phase or two-phase access.
For short access and one-phase access, MS will be assigned radio resources once
and for all such as TFI, dynamic assigned USF or fixed assigned radio block bit table,
etc. Then MS begins transmitting data. For two-phase access channel request, for the
first time only one radio block will be assigned to MS, and MS transmits packet
resource request information via the single assigned radio block. After that, MS will
undergo resource assignment (including TFI, USF, or radio block bit table) for the
second time, and MS begins transmitting data via the assigned resources. Because
the packet channel request is only the eight-bit or eleven-bit access pulse, the carried
information is very little, whereas the packet resource request is a RLC/MAC signaling
packet coded by CS-1. Therefore, it carries comparatively much more information
including TLLI of MS, the multiple time slot capability of MS, radio priority, etc. , which
is of benefit to the proper resource assignment for MS.
The system of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. supports all the access types, where
such access types as paging response, cell renewing, and mobility management will
be treated as two-phase access treatment.
11-7
I. Packet Paging
When there is downlink data to be transmitted to MS, SGSN should initiate packet
paging to accurately locate MS. The paging request message initiated by SGSN will
be sent to PCU via Gb interface, and PCU will transform it into packet paging request
to be transmitted via Um interface. If there exists PCCCH in the BSS system
configuration, the request message transmits directly via PPCH. If there is no PCCCH
in the BSS system configuration, PCU will send this message to BSC via Pb interface,
and BSC will transmit it via PCH.
After MS receives the packet paging message, it will initiate uplink temporary block
flow (TBF) to establish a procedure, and then send to PCU the paging response
packet as data mode via air interface. PCU then transfers it to SGSN. After SGSN
receives the paging response, within a certain processing period, the downlink data
will be able to be transmitted.
11-8
Fixed Distribution
The radio block used by the MS has been allocated by PCU before hand. If the radio
block has been used up and there are still data to be transmitted, PCU has to
distribute radio blocks for a second time.
z
Dynamic Distribution
The radio block used by the MS has been allocated by PCU temporarily. When PCU
distributes radio resources to MS, it will assign MS several radio channels and the
uplink state flag (USF) value for each radio channel. After the MS receives the
assignment message, it will monitor the USF value of the downlink radio block of the
assigned channel. If this value is the same with the assigned USF value, then MS will
transmit data in the corresponding uplink radio block.
z
The resource distribution mechanism is the same with that of dynamic distribution. The
only difference lies in that the number of time slot used by the MS may exceed its
multiple time slot capability. After MS receives the USF value of one of the channels, it
can transmit data in this channel and the other channels with a bigger number.
The BSS system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd has realized the dynamic
distribution function. It can choose MAC mode according to the subscriber
configuration within the cell or the TRX range.
11-9
via SI13. PBCCH mainly broadcast the packet system message dedicated to the
GRPS service.
The packet system message includes the following types: PSI1, PSI2, PSI3, PSI3bis,
PSI4, PSI5, and PSI13.
z
PSI4 mainly includes the PDCH list used in the MS measurement in the
serving cell.
PSI13 is the same as the SI13 which is broadcast via the BCCH, and it
mainly includes the access-related information which is unique of the
GPRS cell.
PSI1~PSI4 can be broadcast both via PBCCH and via PACCH. PSI5 can be broadcast
only via PBCCH. PSI13 can be broadcast only via PACCH. When there is PBCCH in a
cell, the PSI13 message then will not be broadcast via PACCH, which will however
cyclically broadcast PSI1. When there is no PBCCH in a cell, PACCH can only
cyclically broadcast PSI13 message.
The BSS system of Huawei Technologies, Co, Ltd. can perform the transmission of all
the system messages related to the GPRS service, and it can realize the control
retransmission, fast retransmission, low-speed retransmission of the system
messages. It can also control the system message transmission via PACCH based on
the PBCCH/PCCCH configuration of the cell.
11-10
Rate (kbps)
9. 05
13. 4
15. 6
21. 4
Different channel code modes have different transmission rates and different
requirement for air transmission quality. The higher the transmission rate is, the higher
the requirement for transmission quality is. In the data transmission process, BSS can
dynamically adjust channel code mode according to the changes of radio transmission
quality so as to realize the purpose of trying to improve transmission rate on the
principle of making full use of radio resources and guaranteeing the transmission
quality.
The PCU system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd. at present supports four code
modes: CS-1~CS-4. It can dynamically change between these four modes according
to the radio transmission quality.
The BSS system of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd can determine network control
mode according to the subscriber data configuration. At present, NC0 mode is
supported.
11-12
11-13
Because services with different QoS occupy different system resources, and the
subscriber service quality is also different, carriers can differentiate subscribers
according to the different QoS grades and adopts flexible charge policies, which is
beneficiary for the spread of the GPRS service.
The PCU of Huawei Technologies, Co., Ltd can assign MS radio resources based on
the radio priority required by the data transmission, peak load grade, and average load
grade. The MS with higher radio priority and higher load grade will be granted priority
in the radio resources distribution. The QoS requirement will be met according to the
Best Effort grade.
11-14
AN
N
= An
n!
The packet data traffic can not directly employ the Erlang B table, which is due to the
unique features of the packet data. The packet traffic of the fixed network has a
calculation solution, which is very difficult to be used in the mobile environment.
GPRS data traffic model has something to do with application occasions such as
Email, web browsing, online games, etc. Different types of application have different
data quantity, which is determined by the byte number, packet number, delay class,
and service type.
The LLC frame format is: LLC header (9-byte)+SDNCP header (4 byte)
+ IP data +FCS (3 byte). Each packet occupies one RLC length of
indication byte.
The IP data stream should be continuous at least within the range of ten
IP packets.
The protocol header of the FR, NS, BSSGP, LLC, and SNDCP of the Gb
interface is 53 bytes.
The following formula can be used to estimate the average data rate of the IP layer in
various kinds of CS coding methods.
M
T
A1 / B
(M
M 0. 2
VIP
A2 / T
VGb
VIP (150
53) / 150
M 0. 1
20
1. 327 VIP
Where:
z
B is the total number of all the LLC PDU bytes supported by each RLC
data block
CS-1
(Kbps)
CS-2
(Kbps)
CS-3
(Kbps)
CS-4
(Kbps)
9.05
5.42
13.4
8.14
15.6
9.77
21.4
13.63
16
16
32
32
7.19
10.79
12.96
18.09
Suppose the proportion of the CS1 and CS2 in the designed network is 1:9. The
average IP layer rate per time slot in the network is:
5. 42*10% 8. 14*90%=7. 868Kbps.
11-16
Suppose the future mainstream MS type is 3+1, and the subscriber multiple time slot
capability is employed by 60%. The average access rate for each subscriber will be 7.
868*3*60%=14. 162Kbps.
S = r1 r2 (A n
V = S/A = r1 r2
r1 stands for the busy day concentration coefficient, which refers to the
percentage of the traffic in the busiest day agaist the traffic in a whole
month. It has nothing to do with the service type, and usually is set to be
1/20 or so.
r2 stands for the busy hour concentration coefficient, which refers to the
percentage of the traffic in the busiest hour agaist the traffic in a whole
day. It has much to do with the service type.
r3 stands for idle-seizure ratio, which refers to the ratio between the
data downloading period and the whole online period. It is set to be 1/4.
T r3 R / 3600)
n
T r3
R / 3600
where:
According to the above method, China Mobile has conducted an estimation on the
average traffic for each GPRS subscriber during 2001-2002, and the result is 180bps.
After the average traffic for each subscriber has been estimated, it will not be hard for
us to plan the capacity of the whole network.
11-17
In the condition that BLER=10%, the required C/I value has been worked out by
simulating the four GPRS channel coding schemes (CS1, CS2, CS3, CS4) in some
reference. The simulation condition aims at the RLC/MAC layer. The result is shown in
Table 11-1:
Table 11-1 GPRS Channel Coding Scheme~C/I
Channel Coding
CS-1
CS-2
CS-3
CS-4
The coverage area estimation still adopts Okumura-Hata Model (for the distance
longer than one kilometer) and Walfish-Ikegami Model (for small base stations).
Suppose the interference in the serving area is constant and there is no frequency
hopping, it stands for the serving area in different channel coding condition. Compared
with voice and circuit-switched data subscribers, it theoretically refers to the serving
area when the C/I is 9dB.
Table 11-2 The Percentage of the Serving Area with the GPRS Channel Coding Compared with Voice Subscriber Serving
Area (%)
Channel Coding
CS-1
CS-2
CS-3
CS-4
Okumura-Hata
79
61
54
34
Walfish-Ikegami
80
63
57
37
cs-1
cs-2
cs-3
cs-4
11-18
Figure 11-6 The relationship between C/I and distance (GPRS load 0--100%)
Figure 11-7 illustrates the relationship between C/I distribution probability and GPRS
load. The curve also shows that C/I decreases with the increase of the GPRS load. On
the other hand, when the C/I is 9dB, the coverage rate falls from 90% to 86%.
Figure 11-7 The relationship between C/I distribution and GPRS load (0
100%)
Figure 11-8 illustrates the relationship between C/I and multiplexing factor, where k
ranges from seven to nineteen. k=7 is not the best condition for the GPRS. The bigger
the multiplexing factor is, the more powerful it will be to support comparatively heavy
GPRS load.
11-19
Figure 11-8 The relationship between noncoverage rate and K (GPRS load from 0-100%)
. Q=
Q
6
D
R
(1)
= 3&N
(2)
11-21
Channel Coding
Scheme
Voice
CS-1
CS-2
CS-3
CS-4
9
10. 8
12. 8
13. 7
17. 2
7 9
9
12
13
>19
The frequency close multiplexing technology of the current GSM network, which
targets the improvement of the frequency efficiency and has a low requirement for
error code for the voice service, can be used in the GPRS network. But the data
communication has a high requirement for error code, and the dense multiplexing
technology cannot meet the data transmission requirement. Generally, the data
service and the voice service will exist together. The channels required by the GPRS
data services and voice services are dynamically distributed. Therefore, all the
channels which are used by the GPRS services should be guaranteed to satisfy the
C/I requirement in the design.
The fixed GPRS channels should choose the frequencies whose multiplexing distance
can meet the C/I requirement.
The GPRS channels which are not fixed should start choosing the frequencies from
those that have longer multiplexing distance. Compared with voice channels, they
have an option mechanism.
11.2.4 Summary
The GPRS network planning should try to guarantee the QoS of the existing voice
services, and try to reduce the unfavorable effect on the voice services caused by the
GPRS services. At the initial stage, in order to simplify the network planning work, a
location area can include only one routing area. After the GPRS service has been
developed, a location area should be divided into several routing areas according to
the geographic distribution condition and GPRS service distribution condition.
Frequency hopping has no obvious advantage for the GPRS service. It can improve
the CS-1 performance, has no obvious influence for CS-2/3, and lower the CS-4
performance. At the initial stage of the GPRS introduction, in order to avoid network
planning complexity, the original frequency hopping parameters should not be
changed. In order to make full use of the GPRS coding technology advantage and to
reduce the effect on the voice services, independent frequency planning should be
taken for the GPRS network.
It is recommended that at the beginning only the uplink power control be adopted, and
the downlink power control be gradually introduced.
Frequent change of the channel coding method should be avoided. Otherwise, the
concussion effect will be present.
GPRS is a new planning subject. The unsolved problems require further study in the
future.
11-22
3G CN
RAN
EXTERNAL
3G CS
MSC
VLR
GMSC
PSTN
gsmSSF
SERVICE
APPLICATION
UTRAN
HLR, SCP
Internet
3G PS
SGSN,GGSN
lu
Node B
USIM
Cu
ME
MSC/
VLR
RNC
Node B
lub
lur
GMSC
PLMN PSTN
ISDN,etc
GGSN
INTERNET
HLR
Node B
RNC
SGSN
Node B
UE
UTRAN
11-23
CN
External Networks
Figure 11-10 illustrates that the UMTS network unit includes the following part:
Node B
Node B is the base station of the WCDMA system (radio transceiver), which includes
radio transceiver and baseband processing parts. It can interconnect with RNC via the
standard Iub interface to accomplish the. Uu interface physical layer protocol
processing. Its major functions include: spectrum spread, modulation, channel coding,
and dispread, demodulation, channel decoding, and the mutual conversion between
baseband signals and radio frequency signals.
Node B is composed of the following logic function modules: RF transceiving
amplification, radio frequency transceiving system (TRX), baseband part (BB),
transmission interface unit, and base station control part.
z
RNC is radio network controller, mainly responsible for the connection establishment
and disconnection, handoverhandover, macro diversity combination, radio resources
management, etc. The detailed functions are as follows:
(1) The function of system message broadcast and system access control.
(2) The mobility management function of handoverhandover and RNC transfer.
(3) The radio resources management and control function of macro diversity
combination, power control, and radio load distribution.
11-24
IV. OMC
OMC function entities include equipment management system and network
management system.
The equipment management system performs the independent network element
maintenance and management, which include performance management,
configuration management, fault management, billing management, and security
management.
The network management system can realize the unified maintenance and
management for all the network elements in the network. The detailed functions also
include performance management, configuration management, fault management,
billing management, and security management.
11-25
data
packet
I. Cu Interface
Cu interface is the electric interface between USIM card and ME. Cu interface adopts
standard interface.
II. Uu Interface
Uu interface is the radio interface of WCDMA. UE connects to the fixed network part of
the UMTS system via Uu interface. It can be said that Uu interface is the most
important open interface in the UMTS system.
III. Iu Interface
Iu interface between UTRAN and CN. It is similar to the A interface and Gb interface of
the GSM system. Iu interface is an open standard interface. This enables the UTRAN
and CN connected by Iu interface to be provided by different equipment
manufacturers.
V. Iub Interface
Iub interface connects Node B and RNC. Iub interface is also an open standard
interface. This also enables the RNC and Node B connected by Iub interface to be
provided by different equipment manufacturers.
and TDMA. When signals are differentiated by quadrature codes, it is CDMA. CDMA
has two major types: DS-CDMA and time slot coding/frequency hopping. The vivid
explanation of DS_CDMA is that the spectrum is spread by multiplying the positive
negative binary base band data wave by the pseudo-random positive negative binary
wave with code snippet rate much higher than the signal rate. As far as energy is
concerned, wave spectrum intensity is reduced to a very low level, which is similar to
the noise. In the DS-CDMA, all subscribers occupy the same frequency band and the
same time slot. The addresses are identified not by the quadrature parameters or the
time slot, but by the self-correlation function of different address signal code groups.
The DS-CDMA has become the most important multiple access mode in 3G. The DSCDMA communication is frequency spread communication. To be more accurate, it
should be called spectrum spread communication, because it is the signal spectrum
bandwidth that has been spread. It is a kind of broadband communication system. Its
major feature is the signal code bandwidth before the spread is far less than the
spread code series (chip) bandwidth.
11-27
N=
It refers to the S/N improvement degree after the dispread by the spread
system.
(S/N) OUT
(S/N) IN
where,
R PN
R
NR
R
F PN
B
NB
B
stand for pseudo code rate and information code rate respectively;
stand for pseudo code bandwidth and information code bandwidth.
11-28
It refer to the decibel value of the interference higher than the signal the
input end of the receiver can tolerate in the normal working condition:
M = G [L S + 10 lg S/N OUT ] L S stands for the actual transmission
path loss (dB);
For example,
In the WCDMA system, the 12. 2kbps voice service requires the typical value of Eb/No
to be 5. 0dB or so for the base band demodulation. In the condition that the code
snippet rate is 3. 84Mcps, the processing gain G is 10lg(3. 84M/12. 2k)= 25dB.
Therefore, M=5dB-5dB=20dB, that is, C/I>-20dB, which is far smaller than the GSM
required C/I >9dB. The reason that the capacity of CDMA is larger than the previous
cell system mainly is the lower requirement for C/I and shorter frequency multiplexing
distance, which is 1*1 multiplexing.
is in direct proportion with the power S/N and signal base FT.
10 6 , and
is invariant, communication can continue in very low S/N. That is to say,
very strong interference is allowed.
(3) It has good security. No matter it is direct spread or frequency hopping, after
spread, it will be similar to white noise. Therefore, it has a good security performance.
Digitalized subscribers can have further encryption.
(4) Low power spectrum density. Because the spread belongs to the broadband
system, the wider the frequency spectrum is, the lower the power spectrum intensity
will be. Therefore, it has good concealment performance. At the same time, it has little
interference for other communication systems and human bodies.
(5) It is easy to realize large capacity multiple access communication. Time and
frequency two-dimension address division increases the number of potential
addresses. Strong anti-interference capability and low power intensity means more
subscribers allowed for interference-limit systems.
(6) It is easy to realize accurate timing and distance measurement. It is suitable for the
parametric variation channel radio communication. The spread system is more likely
to realize diversity reception in various forms and improve the anti-interference
capability.
Disadvantages:
11-29
(1) It will occupy signal frequency bandwidth. The code series (chip) bandwidth after
spread is far wider than the information code series bandwidth before the spread.
(2) The system realization is complicated.
(3) It is difficult to realize synchronization on time variation channels.
(4) At present, it is difficult to realize large capacity communication due to the limitation
of detecting the number of address codes.
Si
Sj
CRC
CRC
Channel coding
Channel coding
Speed matching
and inner-frame
crossing
DPDCH1
Inter reuse frame
crossing
and
physical channel
mapping
DPDCH2
Speed matching
and inner-frame
crossing
DPDCHL
Pilot labels
TPC labels
MUX
11-30
DPCCH
Of course, what determines the channel coding performance is still its error control
scheme. In the WCDMA proposal, there are three kinds of forward error correction
codes: convolution code, Turbo code, and service specific code. The convolution code
follows the second generation technology. The restriction length is 9, and the common
code rate is 1/3 and 1/2. The decoding is the Viterbi algorithm based on the maximum
likelihood. Turbo code is a new technology able to provide higher service quality.
Turbo code is a new cascading recursion system convolution code. It is made of two
recursive system convolution (RSC) coders with the same structure, by the cascading
of internal interleaver. The major advantage of Turbo code is that among the AWGN
channels, its error correction capability can be close to Shannon limit.
The above analysis shows that the convolution coding and decoding technology
similar to the second generation mobile communication system is still used for low rate
and low performance requirement in WCDMA, while for high rate and high
performance requirement, Turbo code codec scheme will be used. At present, Turbo
code codec technology develops fast, and it has developed into an FEC technology
branch including many kinds of codec methods.
11-31
(d) The single channel with high SNR will be divided into n overlapping channels with
low SNR so as to improve the frequency spectrum efficiency.
(e) The advantage of layered space-time code is that when m n, it can be proven
that the system capacity is almost in direct proportion with the number of the
transmitting antennae n.
(f) The channel gain between different receiving antennae has no relationship.
(2) The space-time code based on transmission diversity. In mobile communication
system, diversity is one of the most important methods to provide reliable
communication. The ordinary diversity modes include: time diversity such as channel
coding, interleaving, which are very effective for fast attenuation, but not effective for
slow attenuation; frequency diversity such as spread spectrum; and space diversity.
Multiple antennae receiving diversity and transmitting diversity both belong to space
diversity. In the actual mobile communication system, because of the limitation of MS
size, the battery energy, and the asymmetry of media services, the best mode is that
the base station uses multiple antennae to realize receiving diversity and transmitting
diversity, while MS should not be required to use multiple antennae. Based on this,
Tarokh and other people from AT&T, based on the transmission delay diversity,
formally proposed the space-time code based on transmission diversity. Generally, the
transmitting diversity is considered to be an important technology to enhance the radio
link performance. The space-time code based on transmission diversity can be divided
into Space-time block code and Space-time trellis code according to different coding
modes.
11-33
In recent years the integration of various technologies has attracted wide attention of
researching people. It includes the following kinds: space-time two perspective signal
processing technology, multi-subscriber detection and channel codec integration
technology, and multi-subscriber detection and power control integration technology.
VIII. Others
Some of the key technologies in the WCDMA system have been discussed. Research
has indicated that space-time code, intelligent antenna, multi-subscriber detection are
all effective tools to improve the spectrum utilization ratio, and will be used widely in
the future WCDMA mobile communications system. However, there is much to be
improved for the systematic theoretical analysis of the space-time code, and there is
much work to do to combine the space-time code technology with intelligent antenna
technology, multi-subscriber detecting technology, and equilibrium technology. There
is some distance to cover for the real application of the intelligent antenna and multisubscriber detecting technology.
Besides, there exists a dynamic relationship between the coverage and the capacity of
the CDMA system. Therefore, the capacity and coverage design of CDMA system is
much more difficult than that of TMDA, and CDMA can provide more service types. In
the 3G phase, it can provide high-speed data service.
11-34
For 144kbps channel, the typical value of the uplink sensitivity is -114dBm, while that
of the downlink sensitivity is -111dBm.
For 384kbps channel, the typical value of the uplink sensitivity is -111dBm, while that
of the downlink sensitivity is -108dBm.
11-35
The base station baseband demodulation performance in the condition that the power
control is started is as follows:
z
CASE 1 Channel
The fixed-point simulation shows that the baseband demodulation needs 4. 49dB.
With the consideration of physical realization deterioration 0. 5dB, the demodulation
threshold of NodeB is calculated to be 4. 99dB. The baseband demodulation threshold
in suburb/rural areas adopts CASE1 channel condition.
z
CASE 2 Channel
The fixed-point simulation shows that the baseband demodulation needs 4. 71dB.
With the consideration of physical realization deterioration 0. 5dB, the demodulation
threshold of NodeB is calculated to be 5. 21dB. The baseband demodulation threshold
in urban areas adopts CASE2 channel condition.
11-36
11-37
On the other hand, when a subscriber is far away from the base station,
he has to get a large part of the transmission power so that it may cause
power shortage for other subscribers. This means the cell capacity has
something to do with the actual distribution condition of subscribers.
When the subscriber density is very large, this problem can be solved
by conducting statistics on the mean value; whereas when there are few
subscribers, simulation method has to be adopted to conduct a dynamic
analysis on the network.
The traffic of the UMTS network is asymmetric; that is to say, the data
transmission on the uplink and the downlink of the network is different.
Network planning engineers should at first work out the value in both
directions, and then combine them properly. In this way, the network
planning work will be very complicated. The uplink is a typical restraint
factor of the UMTS cell effective area, or it can be said that in a certain
load condition the uplink is coverage limited, while the downlink is
capacity limited. The transmission power in the uplink is provided by the
handset, while the transmission power in the downlink is provided by the
base station. The radius of the forward and backward cell is the same.
Compare the number of base stations generated by the two methods according to
coverage and capacity respectively. If they are not the same, that means there exist
coverage-limited or capacity-limited conditions. Because in the WCDMA system, there
exists a dynamic relationship between coverage and capacity, and the cell coverage is
worked out based on the cell load. Therefore, if the number of base stations generated
by the two methods is not the same, the cell load should be adjusted once again, and
the above coverage and capacity estimation process should be performed again. The
ultimate result should be that the estimated number of base stations based on the links
and the number of base stations based on the capacity analysis should be the same
so that minimum number of base stations will be used to fully meet the coverage and
capacity requirements.
For the GSM network, the focus of the network estimation is on the available
frequency points of carriers and the frequency planning method which can determine
the maximum number of carrier frequencies a cell can support. The cell coverage
11-38
change has nothing to do with the network load. Therefore, the coverage and capacity
estimation can be finished once. There is no repetition process necessary.
Due to the unique features and complexity of the WCDMA network, the planning
phase needs a simulation testing process. Normally, based on the coverage prediction,
the Monte Carlo system simulation will be further used to appraise the network
performance. At the same time, the statistic result of the system simulation will be
analyzed, and parameter will be adjusted based on the initial result of the system
simulation until the simulation result meets the design and system performance
requirement. Finally, the number of base stations, base station configuration and
location, the height of the antenna, the leaning angle of the antenna, and the system
capacity can be determined so as to generate a detailed radio network planning
solution.
In the WCDMA system, the power resource is very limited. Therefore, the purpose of
both the power control and the RRM algorithm is to save network resource and reduce
the transmission power of the service channels as many as possible on the premise
that the quality is guaranteed. Therefore, the configuration principle of cell parameters
should take all these factors into consideration.
In the WCDMA system, the pilot pollution is a significant factor, which affects the
network performance. In the GSM system, this kind of problem may not occur,
because the BCCH frequency points normally employ very loose multiplexing mode
(such as 5*3) and they are planned carefully. In the CDMA system, it is a common
problem. The main feature of pilot pollution is that there is no leading cell. To be more
specific, terminals receive pilot signals from multiple cells with the similar power, which
causes the activation set to renew frequently. The pilot pollution increases network
interference and causes handover algorithm not able to work efficiently.
The reasons for pilot pollution generally include:
1. Bad system design; for example, the transmission power of the pilot channel is too
big.
2. Inappropriate choice of the base station location and the antenna leaning angle;
3. Complicated geographic environment and lack of full consideration in design
From the above analysis, it can be known that the WCDMA network planning cost is
much higher than the current mobile communication network planning. 3G network
planning is very complicated, because many system parameters are closely related to
each other, and have to be calculated at the same time, whereas the current mobile
communication network planning calculate these parameters separately.
The complexity of the WCDMA network planning requires us to possess new
technologies and new knowledge at all levels. The first is the well-trained professional
network planning engineers, who are good at system technology. The second is
managers who are familiar with the business and have accurate foresight. At the
beginning phase, they can know exactly the UMTS network expansion condition and
cost. The last is the outstanding planning software tool, which is absolutely necessary
for the 3G network planning.
11-39
11-40
ITOT - Pj refers to the interference each subscriber has to overcome, and Pj refers to
the reception power of the subscriber j.
-Assuming the power control is ideal, then
11-41
(Eb / No ) j =
Pj
I TOT
W 1
Pj R j v j
hence, Pj:
Pj =
I TOT
W 1
1
1+
(Eb / No ) j R j v j
The interference of the subscribers of the same cell is the sum of the power with which
all the subscribers reach the receiver:
N
I own = Pj
1
i=
I other
I own
When the subscriber distribution is even, for an omnidirectional cell, the typical value
of the adjacent cell interference factor is 0. 55; for a directional cell with three sectors,
the typical value of the adjacent cell interference factor is 0. 65.
PN = 10lg(KTW)
NF
10-23 J/K
11-42
= (1 + i )
1
I TOT
+ PN
W 1
1
1+
(Eb / No ) j R j v j
and
N
I TOT = I TOT (1 + i ) L j + PN
1
We can get:
I TOT = PN
1
N
1 (1 + i ) L j
1
Suppose
All the subscribers are 12. 2kbps voice subscribers, and the demodulation threshold is
EbvsNo = 5dB
Voice activation factor vj = 0. 67
Adjacent cell interference factor i = 0. 55
The uplink carrier factor is defined as:
N
UL = (1 + i ) L j = (1 + i )
1
1+
1
W 1
(EbvsNo) j R j v j
11-43
Noise Rise =
1
ITOT
=
PN 1 (1 + i )
1
1 UL
AMRC and combined service effects have not been taken into
consideration, because AMRC reduces the voice service rate of part of
subscribers so as to decrease the interference they generate. This also
enables the system to support more subscribers at the cost that the
conversation quality of these subscribers may decrease.
11-44
Ideal power control hypothesis. The power control commands of the real
system have some error codes, which makes the power control not
ideal and decreases system capacity.
If all the above factors have been taken into consideration, the system simulation is a
more accurate method: static simulation method Monte_Carlo and dynamic
simulation.
(3) Capacity Design
In order to ensure the system stability, network design cannot be done based on the
maximum capacity, because the maximum capacity corresponds to the maximum
noise rise. In the real system, UE has no such powerful transmission power to
overcome the noise. Besides, the greater the carrier factor is, the greater noise rise
caused by the access of new subscribers will be, sometimes the noise can even break
the existing connection. Finally, due to the time-varying feature of mobile environment,
the network will be less stable if the load is too heavy. Therefore, the designed load for
macro cells normally does not exceed 75%. For example, if the load is designed to be
60%, then the corresponding noise rise will be 4dB.
PN = 10lg(KTW) + NF
-K: Bridgman constant = 1. 38*10-23 J/K
-T: Kelvin temperature, the normal temperature 290 K
-W: signal bandwidth, WCDMA signal bandwidth 3. 84MHz
-NF: receiver noise coefficient
The result can be:
10lg(KTW) = -108dBm/3. 84MHz
NF = 7dB (UE typical value)
PN = 10lg(KTW) + NF = -101dBm/3. 84MHz
z
11-45
In multipath transmission, part of energy cannot be received by the Rake receiver and
can be defined to describe
becomes interference signals. Orthogonalization factor
this phenomenon:
(I own ) j = (1 j )
PT
PL j
In this formula, PT is the total transmission power of the base station, including the
private channel transmission power and common channel transmission power.
N
PT = PCCH + Pj
1
The signals transmitted by the adjacent cell base stations will cause interference for
the subscribers in the local cell. Because different scrambling is used, these
interferences are non-orthogonal.
Suppose service distribution is even, and the transmission power of all the base
stations is equal. There are k adjacent cell base stations, and the path loss from the
No. k base station to subscriber j is PLk,j. We then can get:
K
(I other ) j = PT
1
1
PLk , j
Therefore,
K
PT
1
+ PT
+ PN
PL j
1 PLk , j
Pj
(EbvsNo ) j =
PL j W 1
(ITOT ) j R j v j
And
Pj = (EbvsNo ) j
Rj
W
v j (I TOT ) j PL j
Since
N
PT = PCCH + Pj
1
Hence,
11-46
N
Rj
N
K
Rj
P
1
+ PN
= PCCH + (EbvsNo ) j v j PL j (1 j ) T + PT
W
PL j
1
1 PLk , j
K PL
N
Rj
j
= PCCH + (EbvsNo ) j v j (1 j ) PT + PT
+ PN PL j
W
1
1 PLk , j
PCCH + PN (EbvsNo ) j j v j PL j
W
1
PT =
N
R
1 (1 j + i j ) (EbvsNo ) j j v j
W
1
Where ij is the adjacent cell interference factor of subscriber j, which can be defined
as:
K
PL j
PLk , j
ij =
DL = (1 j + i j ) (EbvsNo ) j j v j
W
1
When the downlink carrier factor reaches 100%, the transmission power of base
stations can reach infinitely great, and the corresponding capacity is maximum
capacity.
(2) Analysis
Different from the calculation of uplink capacity, the variables
j and ij in the downlink
capacity calculation formula are both related to the subscribers location. That is to say,
the downlink capacity is related to subscribers space distribution, and can only be
determined by the system simulation. The following are the simulation parameter table
and simulation result graph 11-17.
11-47
Parameter
MCL macro (including antenna
again)
Antenna gain (including losses)
Log Normal fade margin
PC MODELLING
#PC steps per snapshot
step size PC
PC error
HANDOVER MODELING
Handover threshold for candidate
set
active set
Choice of cells in the active step
DL value
Parameter
Power control range
70 dB
0 dBi
11 dBi
10 dB
HANDLING of DOWNLINK
maximum TX power
Random and uniform
across the network
non orthogonality factor macrocell
0,4
COMMON CHANNEL
Orthogonal
ORTHOGONALITY
DEPLOYMENT SCENARIO
Hexagonal with BTS
Macrocell
in the middle of the
cell
BTS type
omnidirectional
Cell radius macro
577 macro
> 19 with wrap
# of macro cells
around technique)
bit-rate speech
8 kbps
Activity factor speech
100%
Multipath environment macro
Outdoor micro
Eb/N0 target
6,1 dB
USER DISTRIBUTION
> 150
perfect PC
0%
Maximum ratio
combining
Combining
NOISE PARAMETERS
noise figure
noise power
TX POWER
Maximum BTS power
Common channel power
Maximum TX power speech
DL value
25 dB
9 dB
-99 dBm proposed
43 dBm
30 dBm
30 dBm
11-48
V. Summary
z
The capacity analysis of the WCDMA system should take more factors
which are more complicated into consideration:
The system simulation is en effective tool for the capacity analysis of the
WCDMA system.
Conversational Class
Streaming Class
Interactive Class
Background
The features and typical examples of these four types of services are shown in the
following table:
Service QOS Type
Conversational
Streaming
Interactive
Background
Basic Feature
Information data time relationship should be
kept
Conversational mode with little time delay and
strict requirement for time delay jitter.
Information data time relationship should be
kept.
Request response mode
Data completeness should be preserved
Target has high tolerance for data delay.
Data completeness should be preserved.
Typical Example
Voice
Video telephone
Multimedia data stream
Network browsing
Network games
Email downloading at the
background
II. The Calculation Method of the Blocking Rate for Different Types of Services
(1) Conversational Services
Conversational services have strict requirement for point-to-point time delay. For
example, it is usually required to be less than 150ms for voice services, and it cannot
exceed 400ms at the most. Otherwise, it will cause difficulty for listening. The
parameters for the typical conversational services are shown in the following table.
11-49
Conversational services are usually carried in the CS domain. The system can
process conversational services without conducting the calling queuing treatment. In
this situation, the traditional Erlang B formula or the extended Erlang B formula can be
adopted to do the calculation. The extended Erlang B formula is recommended here,
and it is assumed that 50% of the blocked subscribers will retry immediately.
(2) Streaming Services
Compared with conversational services, streaming services have lower requirement
for point-to-point time delay. The parameters for the typical streaming services are
shown in the following table.
Streaming services are also usually carried in the CS domain. Streaming services
have high tolerance for call waiting, and calling queuing mechanism can be provided.
In this situation, the Erlang C formula is adapted to do the blocking probability (defined
as the probability of call waiting exceeding a certain period of time) calculation for this
kind of subscribers.
(3) Interactive Services
Interactive services refer to the type of services that subscribers request data from
servers. It is described by the terminal subscriber request response mode. Therefore,
round-trip time is the most important index for this kind of services. The parameters for
the typical interactive services are shown in the following table
11-50
Interactive services are usually carried in the PS domain. Interactive services have
certain tolerance for call waiting, and the system can provide queuing mechanism. The
Erlang C formula is adopted to do the blocking rate calculation.
(4) The Calculation of the Background Services
Background services have the largest tolerance for time delay, which can reach up to
the hour level. Because of so large tolerance, the system can store such requests
when it is busy, and respond to it while it is idle. Meanwhile, this kind of service can
terminate any time when a request with higher QoS comes in.
Since background services can be initiated and terminated any time by the system,
both of the above-mentioned Erlang B formula and Erlang C formula do not work. The
usual calculation method is to work out the background services traffic that can be
supported according to the result of the maximal channel number of the system less
busy hour average occupied channel number.
With the consideration of the signaling overhead caused by the transmission startup
and temporary termination, the worked out traffic should be multiplied by an efficiency
factor such as 0. 8.
If the calculated traffic value cannot meet the design requirement, the corresponding
needed channels should be added to ensure enough busy hour traffic.
11-51
Conclusion
Conclusion
To date, mobile communications technology has developed to the extent that the
border of the many related technologies have blurred: the cross infiltration of base
station and base station controller, (radio) network planning, network optimization, and
the combination of radio side products, etc. The purpose is to improve the radio
products market adaptability, the radio network quality, and expansion of the radio
network services. So network planning today is not the one it used to be referred to
before. Its not confined to a department, but in the context of a technology and service,
and one that denotes broader range. It involves participation and system-formation
from all the radio products departments. It also includes personnel-training mechanism
as well as shift mechanism.
The characteristics of radio system lie in the mobility of the subscribers and the cellular
networking as well. The mobility dictates that the designers have profound
understanding on the complexity and connectivity of the macro radio cellular
networking, that they perceive the demands from the switch office side and analyze
the potential uncertainty of the radio network. One obvious feature is that many radio
personnel in big companies must receive the training on the theory of radio
propagation and practical activities on network drive test and background analysis
before they are to be engaged in any concrete research or project engineering. The
purpose of doing so is to strengthen their understanding on the characteristics of
mobility and cellular networking.
In the following sections we will discuss the duties and responsibilities of network
planning from four perspectives: research on network planning technology, brief
design and participation involved in radio products, radio products marketing strategy,
and turnkey radio products marketing plan preparation.
Conclusion
structure inside the system and between the system), new technologies (air interface
coding, voice speed, transceiver diversity technology, multiple access, multiple users
detection, spread spectrum technology, multiple carrier propagation, soft handover,
fast power control, intelligent antenna, new radio frequency devices, etc.), evaluation
on the effect of, and contribution from radio network performance, frequency utilization
ratio and the evolution trend of capacity, traffic module, and data throughput module
and their effect on the network performance, algorithm module in the planning
optimization tools.
ii
Conclusion
base station configuration, and the fewer the number of base stations, thus reducing
the total cost significantly.
Author
October 2001
iii
Reference Documents
Reference Documents
1. Related protocols of GSM and WCDMA
2. Related product technical Manuals of Huawei
3. Communication Principles
by Fan Changxing
by Wu Weiling
by Li Shihe
by Zhang Ping
Huawei