FIRE DETECTION ALARM

SYSTEMS AND SMOKE

CONTROL SYSTEMS

FIRE SAFETY MANAGER COURSE:FIRE DETECTION ALARM SYSTEMS AND

SMOKE CONTROL SYSTEMS
3.1 AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTORS
(A) General
The prime function of a fire detector is to detect one or more changes in the
protected environment indicative of the development of a fire condition.
Usually mounted on ceiling or in air ducts detectors are activated in the main
by smoke or radiation. These conditions can be readily identified with
important stages in the development of a fire:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

After ignition has occurred, and the invisible products ar3e being
released.
When visible smoke is being produced.
When the fire is producing flame and a degree of illumination.
When the temperature in the vicinity of the fire rises rapidly or reaches
a predetermined figure.

The classification of detectors designed to operate at one of these particular

stages are as follows:
i)
ii)

Ionization detector } smoke detectors-A device which

} detects the visible or invisible
Optical detectors } particles of combustion.

iii)

Heat detector- A device, which detects abnormally high temperatures

or rate of temperature rise.

iv)

Flame detector- A device which detects the infra-red, ultraviolet, or

visible radiation produced by a fire.

Types of detectors
1. Line-Type detectors
A device in which detection is continuous along a path.
2. Spot-Type detector
A device whose detecting element is concerned at a particular location.

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(3) Air Sampling Type detector
A sampling type detector consists of piping or tubing distribution from the
detector unit to the area(s) to be protected. An air pump draws air from the
protected area back to the detector through the air sampling ports and piping
or tubing. At the detector, the air is analyzed for fire products.
Choice of Detectors
The final choice of detector type has to be based on the risk to be protected
and the individual circumstances of each case.
Whatever detector is employed, however, it needs to be reliable, robust and
economical.

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(B) Heat Sensing Detectors
Heat detectors are designed to detect fire in its more advanced stages when the
temperature in the protected area starts to rise. They are the oldest type of
automatic fire detection device.
Although heat detectors are the least expensive fire detectors and have the lowest
false alarm rate of all automatic fire detectors, they are also the slowest in
detecting fires.
Heat detectors respond to the converted thermal energy of a fire and are generally
located on or near the ceiling. They respond either when the detecting element
reaches a predetermined fixed temperature or to a specified rate of temperature
change.
The effects of heat which provide the basic operating principles for heat detectors
are:
i)
ii)
iii)

Melting (or fusion) in metals

Expansion in solids, gases and liquids
The electrical effect
(1) Fusible Element
(a)

The Theory
These detectors are based on the fact that certain metal-alloys are
normally used-melt at relatively low temperature; the general range
available extends from about 55 oC to 180 o C. As the metal used
predetermines the temperature at which the alarm will sound it will be
chosen after due consideration of the type of risk to be protected and
the normal ambient temperature in the protected area.

(b)

The practice

1) Eutectic metals
Alloys of bismuth, lead, tin and cadmium, that melt rapidly at a predetermined
temperature, can be used as operating elements for heat detection.
The eutectic metal is often used as a solder to secure a spring under tension.
When the element fuses, the spring action closes contracts and initiates an
alarm. Devices using the eutectic metals cannot be restored. Either the device
or its operating element must be replaced following operation.

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(11) Break-line cable heat detector
This is quite a simple device and a good example of a line
detector. A length of flexible PVC insulated, conductor cable is
cut at about 2 m intervals and the bared ends are joined together
again with a fusible alloy, which has a low melting point. The
cable is held taut by tension springs and the whole assembly is
mounted parallel to the ceiling on moulded insulators (normally
spaced about 7.5m apart)
In a non-fire condition current flows continuously through the
cable. Once the predetermined temperature is reached however
(a range of 49 o C to 88 o C is available in this case) the alloy
link melts and breaks the circuit thus raising the alarm. Each
link will protect an area of 50 square metres.

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(2) Expansion in solids, gases and liquids
(1) Bimetallic
When two metals having different coefficients of thermal expansion
are bonded together and then heated, differential expansion causes
bending or flexing toward the metal having the lower expansion
rate. This action closes a normally open circuit. The low expansion
metal commonly used is invar, an alloy of 36% nickel and 64% iron.
Several alloys of manganese-copper-nickel, nickel-chromium-iron,
or stainless steel may be used for the high expansion component of a
bi-metal assembly. Bi-metals are used for the operating elements of
a variety of fixed temperature detectors. These detectors are
generally of two types- bi-metal strip and bi-metal snap disc.
Devices using a bi-metal strip operate as follow: As strip is heated, it
deforms in the direction of the contact point. With a given bi-metal,
the width of the gap between the contacts determines the operating
temperature. The wider the gap, the higher the operating point.
(11) Expansion of gases type
(a)

The Theory
Where gas is used as the expanding element in a heat detector,
air is the gas most commonly used; such detectors are sometimes
referred to as pneumatic detectors.
When subjected to heat the air in the chamber expands and
applies pressure to the flexible diaphragm. This gradually
pushes it up until it meets the electrical contact, completes the
circuit and raises the alarm.
By introducing a small compensation vent into the side of the
air chamber a rate-of-rise element is added to the detector. The
compensating vent will allow a certain amount of expanding
air to escape; it will be carefully calibrated so as to compensate
only for expansion caused by the normal and legitimate
increases in the ambient temperature.

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(b)

The practice
(i)

Fyrindex automatic heat detector

When there is a rapid rise in temperature the air in the chamber

expands much more rapidly than the compensating vent can
release it and as much as a result the expanding air pushes the
diaphragm against the electrical contact on the base of the
rate-of-rise adjustment screw. This completes the circuit and
raises the alarm.
If a fire develops too slowly for the rate-of-rise element to
detect it the fixed temperature element will operate at a
predetermined temperature of either 57 or 82 degree Celsius.
This is operated simply by expansion of the contact spring
support, which absorbs heat from the domed cover. The
expanding support pushes the contact spring against the contact
on the base of the fixed temperature adjustment screw thus
raising the alarm. The detector resets itself after the alarm has
been raised and the fire situation dealt with.
The area protected by head is 50 square metres.
(III) Expansion of liquids
(a) Sprinkler systems
The liquid filled quartzoid bulbs used in the sprinkler
systems are probably the most common form of heat
detector operating on the liquid principle.
When heated, the liquid in the bulb expands until it shatters
the glass and allows water to spray over the protected area.
(2) Rate Compensation Detector
A rate compensation detector is a device that will respond when the
temperature of the air surrounding the device reaches a
predetermined level, regardless of the rate of temperature rise.
Rate-of-Rise Detector
One effect that a flaming fire has on the surrounding area is to
rapidly increase air temperature in the space above the fire.

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Fixed temperature heat detectors will not initiate an alarm until
the air temperature near the ceiling exceeds the design
operating point. The rate-of-rise detector, however, will
function when the rate of temperature increase exceeds a
predetermined value, typically around 12-15 o F per minute.
Rate-of rise detectors are designed to compensate for the
normal changes in ambient temperature, which are expected
under non-fire conditions.

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Temperature Classification
Heat detectors of the fixed-temperature or rate-compensated spot-pattern type shall be
classified as to the temperature of operation and marked with the appropriate colour code.

Temperature
Classification

Ordinary

Temp Rating
Range, Degrees F

135 to 174

Intermediate
High
Extra High

325 to 399

Very Extra High

Ultra High

Uncoloured

175 to 249
250 to 324

400 to 499
500 to 575

Colour
Code

White
Blue
Red
Green
Orange

Note: o C = 5/9 (o F - 32)

(C) Smoke Sensing Fire Detectors

Smoke detectors are identified by their operating principle. Two of the operating
principles are ionization and photoelectric. As a class, smoke detectors operating
on the photoelectric principle respond faster to the smoke generated by low
energy (smouldering) fires, as these fires generally produce more of the larger
smoke particles. So it reacts to the visible products of combustion, i.e. the
particles of carbon and other chemical, which give smoke its characteristic
appearance. (E.g. of some burning plastics). As a class, smoke detectors using
ionization principle provide somewhat faster respond to high energy (open
flaming) fires, since these fires produce larger numbers of the smaller smoke
particles (e.g. of wood and paper) it reacts to the invisible products of
combustion.

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(I)

Ionization Smoke Detectors

Smoke detectors utilizing the ionization principle are usually of the spot
type. An ionization smoke detector has a small amount of radioactive
material, which ionizes the air in the sensing chamber, thus rendering it
conductive and permitting a current flow through the air between two
charged electrodes. This gives the sensing chamber an effective electrical
conductance of the air by attaching themselves to the ions, causing a
reduction in mobility. When the conductance is less than a predetermined
level, the detector responds.
An advantage of the ionization detector is its sensitivity in the early
stages of a fire when smoke particles are small. Because of this
sensitivity care must be taken in the sitting of detectors heads. In some
locations such as a garage or kitchen the products of combustion could be
present in non-fire conditions. Sitting ionization detectors in those areas
could result in repeated false alarms.
It is particularly important that the detectors are not placed near a
ventilating or fresh air inlet where a current of clean air can pass over
them and inhibit their speed of reaction in a fire situation.

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Photoelectric Smoke Detector
The presence of suspended smoke particles generated during the
combustion process affects the propagation of the light beam passing
through the air. The effect can be utilized to detect the presence of a fire
in two ways: (1) obscuration of light intensity over the beam path, or (2)
scattering of the light beam.
Light Obscuration Principle
Smoke detectors that operate on the principle of light obscuration
consist of a light source, a light beam collimating system, and a
photosensitive device. When smoke particles enter the light
beam, the light reaching the photosensitive device is reduced,
initiating an alarm. The light source is usually a light emitting
diode (LEDs can generate sufficient light intensity for use in
detection equipment while operating at even lower overall power
levels).
The photosensitive device may be either photovoltaic, photoresistive, photodiode or phototransistor. Photovoltaic cells are
usually selenium or silicon cells, which produce a voltage when,
exposed to light. They require no bias voltage, but in most cases,
the output signal is low and an amplification circuit is required.
When smoke particles enter the light beam, the light reaching the
photosensitive device is reduced, initiating the alarm.
Photo-resistive cells change resistance as the intensity of incident
light impinging on them varies. In smoke detectors, such cells
most commonly cadmium sulfide cells -are often used as one leg
of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. An alarm is initiated when a
voltage shift in the bridge, caused by the changing resistance of
the photo-resistive cell, reaches a predetermined level.
In practice, most light obscuration smoke detectors are the beam
type and are used to protect large open areas. They are installed
with the light source at one end of the area to be protected and the
receiver (the photocell and relay assembly) at the other. In some
applications, mirrors are used to determine the area of coverage by
directing the beam over the desired path. For each mirror used,
the rated beam length of the device must be progressively reduced
by one-third. Projected beam detectors are generally installed
closed to the ceiling.

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Light Scattering Operation

When smoke particles enter a light path scattering results. Smoke
detectors utilizing the photoelectric light scattering principle are usually
of the spot type. They contain a light source and a photosensitive device
so arranged that the light rays do not normally fall onto the
photosensitive device. When smoke particles enter the light path, light
strikes the particles and is scattered onto the photosensitive device,
causing the detector to respond. In response to the light falling onto it
the cell will either create an electrical current in the detector circuit or
allow more current to flow through it (depending on the type of cell
being used). The small increase in current is normally amplified by a
transistorized circuit in order to energized a relay which controls the
alarm. The detector is preset so that the alarm is given when the smoke
density reaches a predetermined level. The photosensitive device used
in scattering detectors may be either photovoltaic, photo-resistive,
photodiode or phototransistor. The light source and photoelectric cell
are mounted in a lightproof housing, which is designed to allow smoke
to flow into it unimpeded.

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** Indicator lamp will be switched on when there is an alarm, thus identifying
the head that has operated. Should there be a failure in the power or light supply
in the detector, a special relay will signal this at a central point and also
illuminate the indicator lamp on the detector head.
(II)

Sampling Detector
They comprise a series of small bore sampling tubes, which are located in
the fire risk zone. These sampling tubes are connected to a central
monitor unit. The monitor unit continuously samples the atmosphere in
the protected zone by drawing air through an ionization chamber, which
is designed to raise the alarm when the level of combustion products
reaches a predetermined level.
Radiation detectors
A radiation or flame detector responds to the appearance of radiant
energy visible to the human eye or to radiant energy outside the range of
human vision, i.e. infra-red radiation or ultra violet radiation. Radiation
detectors have a quick response capability and they are not dependent on
combustion products actually reaching the detector head. Early warning
will obviously only be achieved if the goods or materials being protected
are readily flammable. The relative amount of smoke likely to be
produced by the goods is another important factor. In a smoky fire infrared detectors may preferable to ultra-violet types because infra-red
radiation can penetrate smoke better, but where goods are likely to
smoulder and produce smoke for a long period before flame appear,
radiation detectors are obviously of little value.
(I)

Infra-red flame detector

Infra-red detectors are basically made up of a filter and lens
system used to screen out unwanted wavelengths and focus the
incoming energy on a photovoltaic or photo-resistive cell sensitive
to infra-red energy. On being struck by the radiation, the cell will
transmit a signal to the filter/amplifier. Flames, however, may be
a limited number of other producers, e.g. sunlight or heaters, but
flame has a distinctive flicker, normally in the frequency range of
(4Hz-15Hz) the function of the filter/amplifier therefore is not
only to amplify but also to filter out signals not in the range. If
the signal is in this range (4Hz-15Hz) it is then fed to the
integrator/timer which will activate the alarm circuit only if the
signal persists for a pre-set period (normally 2-15 secs). While
this small delay may slightly off set the quick response time of the
detector, it is necessary if false alarms are to be kept to a

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minimum. Once any signal is rejected the detector goes back on
stand by.

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