th the no doubt, Before the use or less ded to other pex of MI, os in growing ¢ irriga- parable «1s61) vonal tive use, 710 285 168 (6.2) ulated 8 7 , 6 Sokha stat, Fi $ ° ‘ 3 2 1 ° = Feb War. Aph May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Month 8 7 Oe 6} Size Stat. f* s 4 . E53 a \ e 2p ee By , | z oe € ee f F8—— i eS S s-%9 GIZA STAT ; e° ation i Fis ¥4 a § re | 2? - i Ze | = 5 SIDS STAT. | eo . Lo : | 3 4 + A NC i ¢ 2 “\ | & ° ' 5 Tul, Aug Sep. Oct. Now Dee 8 Month : rg | ont Fig. 6.108, Consunptive use of water for late com at sone locations in Egypt | (Shahin, M., and B1-Shal, Mel. 1969) | | 3 bas g ! vss Ee i (mis Se b, 5 Zo § 0 Jun Jul Aug, Sep. Oct, Now } Month rr Fig. 6.100. Consunptive use of water for zea maize at Central California } the Ao, 1971) a hav1 Egypt 258 6 1964 onsumptive use, mm/day Ape. May Jun. Jul. Aug Month Fig. 6.11, Consumptive use of water for early corn at Sids, Egypt (Shenouda, Bl-Gibal1, Tavdros and Gamal, 1966). € E6 Ba $2 So @° “May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep 8 Month . Fig. 6.11b. Consumptive use of ater for corn fron a.lysimeter near Coshocton, ohio (llarrold, L.L., and Dreibelbis, F.R., 1959) ‘the strangest figures for water use by comm (maize) for Egypt one can nect are those obtained by Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977). The estimated figures are based on the climatological data of Cairo, which is very close to Giza station. Using their on method, they cane up with the folloving monthly and seasonal (wid-lay to mid-September) figures: May June duly August September Season, mm 50 150 310 285 0 855. 50 170. 340 280 10 830 ‘These ostinates are certainly too high and need to be reduced by about 35%. Furthernore, they contradict the rango of values given in the same reference. ‘The seasonal consumptive use ranges fron 400 to 750 and for sorghum from 300 to 660 mm. The author does not intend to condemn the method Doorenbos and Pruitt have developed for estimating the evapotranspiration, but the crop coefficients,256 at least for some of the crops, undoubtedly need drastic changes. ‘The consumptive use curve of berseen ae shown in Fig. G.12a, has an undulat~ ing shape which consists of a number of connected curves, each having a base width equal to the time interval between to consecutive cuttings. The number of cuttings during the growing season is usually three to four, after which the Land raising berseen 1s left for seed developing. The marked decline in the water use by this crop during January and February is caused, in addition to the low temperature and the first cutting of the crop, by the winter closure already mentioned in connection with the consumptive tise for wheat. As berscein cultiva- tion is confined to a rather limited nuaber of countries, one can hardly find ‘any information sbout its use of water in the literature of agricultural hydro- logy. The results obtained from experinents on berseen irrigation using saline vater in Tunisia (Conbrenont, R., 1972) are presented in Fig. 6.12. There, the groving season of berseem is about 20 days shorter than that in Egypt. The crop seasonal use of water is 530 ma in Tunisia and 570 mm in the central part of Middle Beypt. s [SUA SIAL extung = E a Fo 5 i $ "fisos ‘stan’ etig oe : Le i en te? ae. Po Del, Nov Dee. Jon Feb. Man Ap May Jun Month Fig. 6.122, Consumptive use of water for berseen at two locations in Middle Egypt (Shahin, M.; and El-Shal, M.T., 1969) € E6 22 é 20 § Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mor. Apr May Jun 8 Month Vig. 6.12. Consuaptive use of water for berseen at Tumisia (Canbrenont, R., 1972) — mm.tday Consumptive use Fy mm.iday Consumptive use, eli asundulat~ base number of n the the on to the 2 already tive / tind ( hydro saline lere, the the crop + of adie 257 ‘The data listed in Table 6.8 are presented graphically, as shown in Fig 6.13n, Using the climatological data of Cairo and taking the crop coefficient by Doorenbos and Pruitt for citrus trees, which are clean cultivated and provide almost 50% ground cover, one can obtain curve (1) shown in Fig. 6.130. The annual consumption of the specified orange trees ysing this metlod enounts to 1219 m. This figure is nearly 17% larger than the average water use by the Sane crop raised in the Delta barrage area and Giza station. The consumptive use of water for oranges raised in the Salt River Valley in USA 4s presented by curve (2) in Fig. 6.19. This curve compares fairly well with the two curv shown in Fig. 6.138 5 | Beata pannace oP He ; I a a 2 x os, ae * Sy ee oe = Sf Giza stat, Peark haut @ _ | Siza_SIAt at wean Es oor ae Sipe Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun, Jul, Aug. Sep. Oct, Nov. Dec Month Fig. 6.182, Consumptive use of water for citrus trees at the Delta barrage area (E1-Nokrashy, M.A., 1963) and at Giza station, Egypt (Shahin, M., 1959) 6 E 4 g2 Bo 3 Jon, Feb, Mar. Apr Moy Jun, Jul Aug. Sep. Oct. Now Dee. é Month , Fig. 6.19. Consumptive use of water for citrus trees, (1) estimated fron the climatological data of Cairo, Egypt, using the method of Doorenbos and Pruitt (4977) and (2) measured at the Salt River Valley, USA (Criddie, W.D., Harris, “K., and Wlliardson, L.8,, 1962)258 Tne data presented in this section, though not representing the consumptive use of water for all crops raised in Egypt, do represent the water use by the major crops which cover the largest areas of the agricultural land there. These crops, together with rice and sugar cane, are certainly the largest consuners of the irrigation water The question that ariges here 4s whether the data Listod in Tables 6.2 thru’ 6.8 represent the actual evapotransptvation or whether they represent the poten thal one. Before ansvering this question, one has to renember that these data have been’ derived fron the soll wolsture changes in the extraction cove where the moisture content used to reach the fold capactty 2 to'8 days after irciga- tion application and not to fall below the lover Limit of the voudily available otsture just before the next Axrigation application. In other words, two-thirds of the avatlabie wolsture (field capacity minus permanent wilting point) have been constined in every irrigation oycia. The proposed concepts about the rele ton betwoon the actual evepotranspivation, BT,, and the potential evapotrans- piration, BT,, sgainet the soil aoleture content have been ravioved by Tamer (41967) and summarized as shovn in Fig. 6.147 The avallable neasureneate of the soil moisture change during an irrigation cyclo under the different trrigation, erop and climatic conditions show such a wide scatter that the derivation of a oingle and consistent relationship betveon ET/2, and the moisture content 4x tho range of tho'readhly avatlable aotature tn"navdly possible. Novertholess thore 14 strong evidence that the ratio ET,/E%, fe equal to untty in the upper third of the range of the available moteture, The versus moisture in the midéle-thira scatter of the points representing ET,/ can be fitted nore or loss by a straight line. This Line connects the upper Lait of the midaie-tnird at ET,/BT, = 1 with the lover init of the sane one- third portion of the avatlebie moisture at #,/81, # 0.5. This line 1s indteated as bee in Fig. 6.14, In other vords, the change in ET,/E7, within ‘the irrigation cycle can be very approximately represented by the broken Line sbe. This means that the cyclic consumptive use and consequently the onthiy and seasonal crop water use is about 10 to 12 percent less than the potential evapotranspi ration. 6.1.3 Empirical methods Tho last three or four decades have witnessed the developuent of a large nunber of empirical formulas which relate the consymptive use or evapotranspira- tion to climatological measurements. These formulas iielude one or more of the climatological standards such as mean air temperature, humidity, radiation, wind speed, day-time length, bright sunshine, and tank and pan evaporation Tal ET, Fig er work has | h cal: piets a) Te is:ptive the These ners of ilebie ~thiras have rela ation ueh a between isture et, /er, aD re. The ehire dicated gation exop ation ce nepira~ £ the an, wind 250 Proposed concepts Veinmeyer and Hendrickson Thorn thwaite and Mather Havens Pierce Penman, Marlatt et at, Holmes and Robertson’ ~ Shahin (approximate relation ) Eta! Ep Field Moisture Capacity Permanent Wilting Point Oven Dry FMC = Soil drying PWP OD Readily Avaitable Moisture —s| Available Moisture 4 Fig. 6.14. Proposed relations of actual evapotranspiration ET, to potential ET, sv affected by soi water content (Tanner, C.B., 1967) Examples of excellent reviews of the empirical methods can be found in the work of Rijtema (1959) and Slatyer and MeTirey (1961). A comprehensive summary has been given, also by Tanner (1967) In this section we shall try to give a brief summary of some of the empiri- cal methods. Emphasis will be placed on those methods which can be used for con- pleting the picture of the evapotranspiration from the Nile Basin a) Temper: thods - The general form of the formula covering these methods fe: 6.3) where and n are coefficients or constants 1B, Cy, Cy, Cy, Cy and stictonts ‘tants, 4 = measure of day length, T= temperature in degre Fahrenhett, and relative humidity ei260 ‘the Lowry-Johnson formula (Lovry, R-L., and Johnson, F.R., 1942) can be written as: Er - 32) (6p3-D where T is the maximum daily temperature and the sunmation is done over the rength of the groring season, ET, is the seasonal consumptive use in feet of water, The monthly water use is BT, multiplied by the ratio of the cumulative day degrees (7 ~ 32) for the month considered, to the seasonal day degrees ‘he Blaney-Morin formula (Blaney, H.F., and Morin, K.V., 1942) is bid. (it - ny (6.3.2) br, = monthly evapotranspiration in inches, = monthly crop coefficient, = mean onthly percent of day-time hours of' the year, = mean monthly air temperature, and = mean monthly relative humidity in percent ‘the monthly values of d for the different latitudes can be found in several sources anong vhich is the original paper of Blaney and Criddle (1950. slightly revised 1952) ‘he Blaney-Criddie method is nothing but a aodified form of eq. 6.3.2, in which the term (124 - h) is put equal to unity. It reads mre b od. 6.3.3) Pruitt's formula (Pruitt, W.0., 1960) can be expressed as Bn, = -0.215 + 1.018 at 6.3.4) where ET, = potential evapotranepization in inches/day, 7” = nean daily temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, and 4 = daily percentage of daylight hours, expressed decimally | | i | BL wh er wh Erthe et of lative (6.3.2) several slightly 6.3.3) 6.3.4) 261 Quackenbush and Phelan (1965) suggested that the coefficient b in the Blaney-Criddle method, eq. 6.9.3 be split into two coefficients b, and by. The 1 jeason, whereas coefficient b, is a crop coefficient that varies during th by is a linear function of the mean temperature expressed by the equation . b, = 0.173 T - 0.314 6.3.5) Al-Barrak (1964) considered that the b coefficient in eq. 6.3.3 of Blaney and Criddie was a linear function of the mean monthly temperature. For irriga- ted crops in contral Iraq the expression he developed for b was b= 0.43 + 0.0074 T (6.3.6) Where T is the moan monthly temperature in dogrees Fahrenheit. ‘The empirical formula developed by Thornthwaite (1948) 1s Ne wo nn Bh ao x aa 6 GD (6.3.7) where N = actual number of days in the month considered, 4 = mean monthly day length in hours for the month considered, 1.514 : Cy = seasonal or annual heat index = £ (1/5) where the summation is done for the months of the season or of the year, and n= 675 x 109 ¢,3 - 771 x 10°? ¢,? + 17921 x 10° c, + 0.49239 Values of the heat index C, and the power n for a wide range of tenperatures 'T are available in @ number of references as the paper of Thornthwaite and Mather (1985) Hargreaves developed ‘the formula (1956): BT, = 0.38 . d(T - 9201 ~ (6.3.8) where : d= day-time measure = 0.12 the monthly percent of the day-time hours of the year, hh = mean monthly relative humidity at noon, expressed decimally262 Monthly values of 4 for the different latitudes are tabulated im the original paper of Hargreaves. Later he proposed some corrections for the deviation of the actual sunshine percentage, wind speed, and elevation fron the standard values on which eq. 6,9.8 had been based (Hargreaves, G.H., 1966). These corrections are given in Chapter 5, In 1968 Hargreaves developed the consumptive use Sootti- cients for a large number of crops considering 10% successive increments of the crop growing season (1968). ‘The formula developed recently by Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) suggests the replaceuent of the cocfficient b in the formula of Blaney and Criddle, eq. 6.3.3, by two aub-coefficients b, and by. The sub-cosfficient b, depends on the crop and its rate of development during the groving season. The sub-coefficient by is fan adjustment factor which depends on the minimum relative humidity, sunshine hours and day-time wind estimates. Values of the adjustment factor by can be read from the graphs prepared by Doorenbos and Pruitt. For ease of reference, the constants and coefficients included in the above temperature formulas have been sumed up and listed in Table 6.10 ‘Temperature method are often criticized on the grounds that the efféct of the climate on the crop water use cannot be defined adequately by the tempera ture and a measure of the length of day only. In the humid tropice where temperature remains fairly constant, the crop water use changes as a consequence of change in other meteorological parameters. At high altitudes the high level jonably high consumption of water by plants, despite the radiation may cause rei fairly low temperature. Moreover, the temperature lag corrections ere rarely introduced explicitly “in the temperature formulas. On the other hand, the avail~ ability of the temperature records everwhere in quantity and quality compared to other climatological paraneters encourages many professionals to use the temperature methods extensively. One should not forget that they are easier to apply than most of the rengining methods. In any case, estimates of consumptive use by the temperature methods have, as a rule, to be calibrated before being used for any practical purpose. the soil moisture depletion studies ‘The current practice in Egypt is to us: for calibrating such widely used formulas as Blaney-Criddie and Thorathwaite, given by eqs. 6.8.8 and 6.3.7-respectively. The monthly and seasonal consumptive use coefficients for a large nunber of crops in Bgypt obtained trom this cali- bration are given in Tables G.1le and 6.11b. These coefficients are not Anereased by the 10 to 12% that we proposed in connection with the relation between ET, and BT, during an irrigation cycle. TTS Summary of the constants and coefficients included in some of the temperature tornulas TABLE 6.10263 4u6t ‘*O"M ‘2amsg pue ‘+p ‘soquasoog = xt ‘eget ‘+H'D ‘seavouiien = THHA fepor ¢ Bry ‘wexaeg-1y = 1a ‘eget ‘ue ‘wetaqg pue ‘Z ‘ysnqusoend (Ak Sor poe are ‘houwra = Try fener ‘cATH ‘UTZON PUD ‘9 ‘oryeampurous = THA p96r a tos6r ‘"o"m ‘aamnta = ar ‘eget pestaex “Sig 0°09 OT Suny yo naeny O70 OOK ZAP 8 rato FeanT mTOR a, duoq 50 meer “iz oro or ot oro oF zx009 Ht 8 ere emnzexeduez zo wot? ' sous pu aaTerspes . <0 ot “yweos quoyorsyeos wttrou fons yo asresd g 0 OT OF OT OO OT “55009 guaHoTEFEC 00a BEEN ware vases yg 4 wowower “is 0-0 ot ot ort 00 a't “35009 uazorsse09 tt = ane «5 — werower “ig 50 ot ot ota or “34009 aero HsB009 oro Sere coca . or r " "35800 Na yDIZFe09 FEEHON aueoaed uy uiuoMyuT or + or ot oo or * oe oo ~howeta eanaesoduo: yroruner : . : . snayeent wowwer/ar “ig 9 OT OT OT OT tot ost go enor syreuay % sy ut zy tS 05, Pe a = eynEtog FOTOMIOS oxavsedues OM 30 oROF UF pOPRTOUE eaueToTsIe00 pu sauessuoo OMA 70 AaWUNNG OT" STEVE siete go.gs2, 2 st £22,923 S32 85 88 Pegity ScbShs Gg FE PELE GE? Gfad , Beste uel RBS BF. ttagkteo BL SERB Be 8. = a ee - = - : 5 ‘sequnono - - = Torr corr be = + - - - - ‘usenbs - - - = 98" 66 os see - - - sued noo ee! ert 08" Le. 2 ote ~ - - - = sueog deus 3s gy GT. - - - aa : - > 98" (tre) so0aw204 - - - - - - - sss" ToT att got = (wemmns) soovea0q - - - - - - = = ee age ‘susog PLoTA Ty el" oT, ze"T LETT SET 0O'T 08” wee oueg avang os" ve - - - - - oe ~ Br geo rauot 2 vedyorH9 eset . - - : =e = ess urdn7 @ xo0z3nuer ze’ gy 9g" ga" v9" ono" est gst st get spseyoz0 Sna47D Cp = - = se verze wwe te woosieg 88°0 - - 08 ert ote ots - oe : > - - x09 9427 610 - - - a a ce - - - x09 cqaeg 130 kyo - - - - - ote er 99° 6st 2e0uH m0 - - = 1s" 98" govt not 99" wes z= - w03309, week x0 Nesesg (280 AOK "390 “dog “By Atnp—ounp MeN “ady“eaog “ue dox9 xox yueTotss000 osm oarydumsuoy 264 es nmioy stpprxo-Keusta a2 GITA pasn oq 02 2442 UT sdozD ouDs 103 sqUDToTFF0O09 9sn OATRduNsUOD - YTT"S STEVE268 ort equnong = - APT. oer “S098 - - - = - - 9e't - - 2 yee tet as. - - - - - - ‘usenbg £8°0 - - - > Teo ett 6s'0 as'0 s0 0 - - - seag s0D zor ert eo - ~ ~ - - - 5 suvag deug ro", wero - - > - - - 7 bbe CATR) seoaes0g, + 19t ~ - - - = Torr o'z 90's Lez =~ aouuns) sa0az0g 80°2 - I - = - ~ 96° wet BRE Pee suvog PIoTa ser SL't 8's ee'T es'E Bert cet gor Gee bee ze"t ‘ouxp qeang es"t 5 eee) - - - = 96°09 ger eT'z CHauoT ¥ eadyoryD 96° - : : : : - = ov zee gee sda y teatdnUa ¥6"0 corr Sz°T 9k" Bk ze" BET TST be LT aprEMOXO snaatD a a - 5 > 0886" ast ete sort opt woosieg 80°T OFT Wet o'r os: - : ~ - - = ux09 9207 26°0 - - - - 98 torr eert 96° es - - - x09 1205 ST ut Le - - - - > ty geet ee ete yeouk 16°0 - - - eb0 99°09 eat eet seo eo GLO - wo3309 weak ao nosvag 9° AON "390 “dog “Say Atnp—ounp = eR ad “aUM “ae -aup doxp Oy austoTsT009 een oayadunsuoy SUmuro S sareaTULOWE WTA posn oq os sdKBq UF sdoss oMos x0; equOsOTSF009 osn oATaduNsUOD qIT“9 STEVE sa Rt ai,266 b) Radiation methods - The radiation methods developed for estimating potential evapotranspiration are either based on the heat energy budget, together with sone empirical approximations to utilize the available climatic data, or they are completely empirical. In the first group 4s the formula of Penman, which ve already presented in Chapter § as a means for estimating evaporation from a free water surface, E,. The sae formula when used for estimating the potential eva potranspiration reads rosa. &, 6.4) where @ is a coefficient verying with the month A large number of empirical formulas, all based on one form c. another of radiation, hi been developed for estinating potential evapptranspiration. The general form of the equation embracing these formulas can be written as Br =K.c. +a 6.8) In 1961, ture, L. (1961), presented his formula: Br = 0.40 GE GRR + 50) nm /month 65.0 ie where t = mean monthly temperature 4n degrees centigrade, and R= mean incoming radiation in gm eals/en?.day. R can be computed from the theoretical radiation, R,, reaching the earth's atmosphere using the relation R = R,(0.18-+ 0.0062 8), where $ is the percen- tage of possible sunshine The formula developed by Jensen and Haise (1963) is Br, = (0.04 T - 0.37) Ry, (0.36 + 0.61 8) nches/nonth (6.8.2) where T= mean monthly temperature in degrees Fahrenkest, R,, = solar radiation on cloudless days, and 8 = possible sunshine expressed decimally. Christiansen, J.B., (1969) considered a = 0 in eq. 6.5 in order to estimate evaporation or evapotranspiration. He and'his co-workers have developed an extensive number of equations, in which ktis Kept as a dimensionless constant and the product kc represents the ratio of the energy utilized in the evapora ee a9+ with we they jotential which we on a free Aah eva | 6.4) er of jon. The (6.5) 6.5.) arth's 6.5.2) netant vapora~ 267 tion process to the energy available at the outer surface of the atmosphere. ‘he coefficient © is the product of a large nunber of sub-coefficients, each related to a climatic or other parameter that is likely to affect evaporation or evepotranspiration. The formula developed by Ghristiansen which relates ET, to extraterrestrial radiatYon as a base is BT, = 0.926 8, . Cop» Cyp Cup - Cgp - Spy t8ehes/nonth 6.5.3) where A, = extraterrestrial radiation in equivalent evaporation in inches/nonth, Cop = 0.174 + 0.428 (T/T,) + 0.998 (7/7,)? T = the mean air temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and 7, = 68°F, Cy =.0-672 + 0.406 (WN) - 0.078 GM)? W = the wind speed. in miles per day 2.0 m above ground surface and W. miles per day, Cup = 2-038 + 0.240 (i,t)? ~ 0.275 CH, 7)? 4, 7 the mean relative humidity in decimals and i, = 0.60, Cop = 0-940 + 0.856 (8/8,) ~ 0.196 (9/8,)* S = mean sunshine percentage in decimals and $, = 0.80, and Cy, = 9-970 + 0,090 (E1/E1,) BL = elevation in ft above moan sea level and E1, = 300 ft The sub-coefficients Cop, fand Cpa can be read directly from the wr’ Curt Sst tables prepared by Christiansen for any given value for 7, W, Hy, S and BL respectively. ‘The formula of Olivier (1961) has already been given as eq. 6.2. Doorenbos recommends two relationships (Doorenbos, J., and Pruitt, W.0., 1977). The one that suits the empirical type of radiation formulas is given by » mm/aay (6.5.4) where k = crop coefficient, C = adjustment factor which depends on mean humidity and day-time wind condi tions, “W = weighting factor whieh depends on temperature and altitude, and R= solar radiation in equivalent evaporation in mm/day.268 a, t= related to Ry ae R, = 8, (0.25 + 0.50 3) whore H 4s the ratio betvoon tne letual measured bright gunehine hours and the maxiaun poseible sunshine hours ‘Tables and graphs needed to give C and W have already been prepared by» pooronbor and Pruitt. fq, 6.5.4 1s very similar to og. 6.5.9 ortginally dove- oped by Christiansen hie second relation recommended by Doorenbos and Pruitt (2977), 48 an adjuat~ ment to Pennan's formula. They gave it as aye koe WR += WFO. ey ey) mn/day 6.6) where k = crop coefficient, . . = adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night weather conditions, W tonperature-related weighting factor, R, net radiation in equivalent evaporation’ in mn/day B, 48 the sun of the net short wave radiation, Bg, and net long wave radiation, Ry, £() = wind function = 0.27 (2 + 0.01 u), U 4s the 2d-hr wind run in kn/day at 2m height, and (e, = 0) = saturation vapour pressure deficit = e,(1 ~ m) in mi2tibar Values of ©, W, (L=W, 6, ey, Ry im equivalent evaporation units, My Rag and R,, are given in tables in the Doorenbos and Pruitt paper (1977). Tanner, .B. (1967) mentions thet because radiation methods are tied more closely to energy supply, they show greatest promise for short-term, as well as long-term, estinates. Doorenbos and Pruitt alsé reported on this matter saying that "the radiation method should be moze veliable than the Blaney-Criddie approach". In fact, in equatorial zones, on anall dblands or at high altitudes, the radiation method may be more reliable even if iessured sunshine or cloudiness data are not available; in this case, solar radiation prepared for most locations in the world should provide the necessary solar radiation data (Doorenbos, J., and Pruitt, W.0., 1977) ‘The author dose not want to argue here sbout either the superiority of one method or one formula to another. The ‘point which 1s necessary to bear in mind is that every formula necds to be calibrated. When the author had to calibrate fa large mumber of formulas, much larger than those included in this text, using neasurenents from various countries, the conclusion was that each formula needed to be adjusted. There is not, por very Likely will be, a single formula of = oe! reps rat fon for pee TAB ° oa eybetween shine by / dove~ 1 adjust- (6.6) ignt long in kn/day Bag ly to ig-texm, "the mY. In idiation are not the and f one in ming sorate + weing a needed ot 7 269 universal applicability without correction or adjustment. The importance of local factors, biological factors, and tine factors have been realized and reported by several investigators, including Penman, l., in his study of evapo- ration over the British Isles (1950). The stress should then be laid on deter mining or knowing the adjustment factor precisely “ind not on the method or the formula only, The monthly and seasonal figures of the adjustment factor needed for the formulas of Penman and Olivier are given in Tables 6.12a and 6.12b res. pectively. TABLE 6.122 Consumptive use codfficients for some major crops in Egypt to be used with Penan's formula Consumptive use coefficient for ao Season Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. ay June July Aug. B6p. Oct. Nor. Dec. SPaBeR Cotten == 0.27 0.98 0.57 0.88 0.01.0.800.48 - 0.61 Wheat” 0,62 0.79,0.84.048 0.98 = == = 0.74.0,08 0.73 Barly com> == 0194 0162 0189 0,800.89 = =n Octo ate corm = OOO DS olas 0190 18 Laz. e.a9 = 00 Bergecn 0.48 0.68 0.79 0180 0160 01222 = = O.48 0.68 1.90, 0.72 Churus 0.54 0.56 0.60 0.85 0.58 0.87 0.62 0.62 0.60 0.77 0.71°0.87 0.62 Sugar Cane 0.45 0.79 0.95 0.81 0.84 0.89 1.20 1.33 1.34 1.97 1.33 0.86 1.03, TABLE 6.12) Consumptive use coofticients for gome wajor crops in Egypt to be used with Olivier's formula Consumptive use coefficient for crop — Jan. Fed. Mar. Ape. May June July Aug. Bop. et. Nov. Dec, Season cotton === 0.80 0.67 0.72 1.99 1.410.87 - = - = 0,92 Wheat 2.00 1.87 1.600.750.93 - > > >> aba a2 1.45 Early corn ~~ = 0.53.0.80 1,90 1.290.88 - - = 2 ‘1.02 Late corm = = 9 26 4128 1.68 2.05 2.66°- 3.39 Berseen 1,28 1,25 1.46 1,200.72 0.91 = - - 0.82 1.24 2.86 1.09 caeee yg 1-42 1.81 0.99 0.86 0.81 0.92 0.92 1.02 1.06 1.92 1.46 1.74 3,02 Sugar Cano 1.18 1.85 1.57 1,27 1.22 1.44 1.78 2.19 2.97 2.95 2.79°2.23 1.68 ©) Evaporation pans - Pan evaporation and plant evapotranspiration are similar, since each of them can be considered ae a measure of the integrated effect of the climatological faétors on the loss of water by evaporation or evapotranspi- ration. The differences in both reflection of the solar radiation and the exchange of heat energy fron vegetated surface compared to those frou water in210 a pan, added to the-influences of pan size, colour, exposure and placement are among the causes that can make pan evaporation differ considerably from plant evspotranspiration. Adjusting the pan reading is, therefore, inevitable, in order to convert it to its equivalent of evapotranspiration. The general form of the equation needed for- adjusting the pan evaporation, E pan, is Br=a "+b 6.7) ‘pan ‘the formula given by Penman, and by Doorenbos and Pruitt is Br +a. k 6.7.1) where a is a monthly or a seasonal coefficient as given by Penman, and a product of two sub-coefficients for: the pun, k,, and the crop, k,, as given by Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) Stanhill's regression relation between the daily evapotranspiration, in mm, from Alfalfa and the daily evaporation, in mm, from a class A pan (1961) is: Br, = 0.70 + 0.47 (6.7.2) P pan Butler and Prescott (1955) observed that the pover n in eq. 6.7 is in the neighbourhood of 0.75 instegd of 1.0, so their formula can be written as 0-78 ET =a. (&, 6.7.3) 7 4) 6.7.3) ‘The overall adjustuent coefficient a, oq. 6.7.1 will just be called the crop coofficient. Valuse of a for the major crops in Bgypt are included in Table 6.13, TABLE 6.13 Monthly and seasonal crop coefficients to be used with USWB class A evaporation pan for the major crops in Bgypt Consunptive use coefficient for oa Oe Season Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. May-June July Aug. Sop. Oct. Nov. Dee. or year Cotton == 0.24 0.27 0.42 0.63 0.690.440.99 - - - 0.49, Wheat 0.64 0.520.450.2604 - - - - - 0,420.58 0.49 Early Corn = =~ 0.22 0.370.520.520,99 = - = = 0.45 Late Corn - - - - = = 0,84 0.57 0.620.62 - - 0.55 Berseon 0,29 0.53 0.660.480.18 - - - = - 0.460.72 0.51 Citrus 0,39 0.42 0.42 0.37 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.40 0.37°0.39 0.44 0.44 0.41 Orchards Sugar Cane 0.32 0.49 0.67 0.55 0.60 0.64 0.79 0.86 0.83 0.69 0.82 0.56 0.66 the stovement are ‘om plant, le, in ral form of 6.7 6.7.2) 1a product / Doorenbos in mm, Dis: (6.7.2) in the 6.7.3) the crop Table 6.18 class A Investigation of the figures in Table 6.13 shows that the maximum values of the monthly crop coefficients to be used with pan evaporation are distributed throughout the year wore uniformly than with any other method. The sano conclu- ston vas reached by Tanner while using BT, deta of irrigated rye grass which were obtained by Pruitt, The distribution of the Monthly coofficient ie very nearly rectangular, with a value of about 0.8 (Tanner, C.B., 1967), 6.1.4 The integration method We should have 1iked to use the data from the USB class A pan, after con- verting then, preparing a map shoving the potential evapotranspiration for Egypt Unfortunately, only a few stations are equipped with class A pan. This state of affairs compels us to abandon the pan method, though it seems promising. The method that serves as a reasonable alternative 1s that of Blaney-Criddle since it has been calibrated frequently using a wide variety of irrigated crops. The only major crop for which the Blaney-Criddle formula has not yet been calibrated is rice, To cover this deficiency we shall employ the consumptive use coet- ficients for rice grown in the dry areas in California, USA. These are approxi- mately 1.1, 1.2, 1.3; 1.3, and 1,0 for May through September respectively. These figures, together with use coefficients of other crops which are given in Teble 6.110, have been plotted against the months of the year, and the curve envelop~ Ping the monthly maximum values dravn as shown in Fig. 6.15, This curve repre- Sents the potential evapotranspiration requirement averaged for Egypt. The ET, coefficient averaged over the year ts about 1.1, It may therefore be jonadle to apply an annual ET, coefficient of 1.00 for the Delta area, 1.05 for the area north of Minya up to Giza, 1.10 for the ares from Assiut up to Minya, 1.26 to the area from Qona up to Assiut and 1.20 for the area south of ena. ‘These figures have beon used in preparing the map of the potential evapotrans- Piration requirement for Egypt, Fig. 6.16. This nap shows an evapotranspiration requiremont slightly different, + 58, from that for the part of Egypt shown in ‘the map in Fig. 6.2. Moreover, the contour interval in Fig. 6.16 is 100 mm/yr, whereas the contour interval in the other map is 250 mm/yr. Both maps, Figs. 6.2 and 6.16 give the requirements for potential evapotrans~ piration. A survey of the water use by crops, even at the potential ovapotrans- Piration.level, requires « knowledge of the crop pattern, area and development both in time and space. This can be done: using the so-called integration method (Isracisen, 0.W., 1956), In this method the agricultural aren is divided into a number of blocks where the crop pattern is fairly homogeneous aud the year t's Givided into @ nunber of intervals. The water use by a crop is computed for each interval during the growing season, and the total watér use for a given interval 4s the sum of water use by the different crops in thats interval,272 LEGEND sab > cotton * Berseem Fietd beans x Early corn v Fenugreek @ ¢ N e Sugar cane haf © Rice Lupin . elcsentad = Summer 1 chickpea & & Squash potatoes tenn 4 125 A Fatt potatoes 4 L Snap beans / . ta £1 citrus orchards z 2 Cucumber R g © Wheat oe 2 ft ew EOP Late coe a Bos 5 ° S “ o x 2 3 os 5 ff . peo z Boon x 307 ’ s c oi a s Roa 3 “ 8 os 8 1 ear y & y fy 3 1 ost» 1 . A 4 t 8 ° ° 4 flea out t 2 i" y } “oe a zl 1 oak ¢ o? e 02 : A oa pe Jan” Feb Mar Ape May Jun. Jul. Aug Sep, Oct. Nov Dec Month | Fig. 6.15.. Monthly coefficients of water-use by-crops in Bgyot for the method ‘of Blaney-Criddle, The envelopping curve represents the average potential evapotrenspiration requirement for Egypt We have used the integration method to determine the water use of the cropped area in Egypt twice. One time is for the 10.4 million feddans™ cropped area in 1962, i.e. shortly before the High Dan at Aswan, and the other time for the 11.2 million feddans cropped area in 1975, i.e, after the operation of the dam, In each case the wionth 4s chosen as a time interval and the Governrate as a #1 foddan = 4200.6 n? i s 30 | 96! Fig. nn/y 00K aireid beans| jar cane vpeas ash \ | method cropped ea in he 11.2 In 273. MEDITERRANEAN SEA Fig. 6.16. Map showing lines of equal potential evepotranspiration reauirenont mm/yr, for Egynt 7 Geographic ‘unit. The monthly donsunptive use is the stim of the er uses by the ifferent crops raised in the month considered for all the Governrates of the country. The computation results are. presented in Table 6.14,274 TABLE 6.14 Quantities of water used by the crops in 1962 and 1975 in Egypt, 108 a? Year Jan, Feb, Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year 1962 1047 856 1610 1833 2968 9304 3532 3174 2467 2248 1666 1904 26609 3075 1118 919 1740 2245 4303 5147 $065 2997 1501 1105 1414 2034 20769 ‘The remarkable feature about these results is the dispropirtionate increase in the total use of water by crops, 12, compared to the increase in the cropped area, 7.7%. This is quite understandable since the greatest bulk of the increase in the cropped area is occupied by summer crops which consume mich water, especially rice, Also, most of the area previously irrigated during and follow ing the flood (August-Noveuber) in the pro-dam time 1s now also irrigated during the summer season (April-August) in the post-dam time. Last but not least is the shortening of the duration of the canals' winter closure from 40-45 days before building the dam to 18-21 days after the dam has been built. 6.2 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION IN THE SUDAN Agriculture in the Sudan does not depend entirely on water supplied by irri~ gation as in Egyot. The Sudan can be divided into three zones: the southern rain belt which extends from the southern frontier of the country up to an isohyetal Line of about 350 mm/yr, and the third zone which covers the remaining part of ‘the country, It 4s im this last zone that irrigation is practised extensively Supplenentary irrigation is used to some extent in the northern rain belt and to a much less extent in the southern one, The development of irrigation in the Sudan is very much connected with the construction of the Sennar and later the Roseires Dans on the Blue Nile snd Khashn el Girba Dan on the River Atbara. Various crops grow in the Sudan, of which cotton and corn (Dura) can be con~ fter the expansion of sidered as the principal ones. The introduction and ther irrigation in the Gezirah area (the triangle confined between the White and the | Blue Niles) has resulted in a considerable increase in the area growing cotton from 260 feddans in 1912 to 194000 feddans in 1932 and to about 217000 feddans ‘expanded from about in 1946, The total area ra! 450000 feddans in 1946 to about 1180000 feddans in 1972. Wheréas cotton is the ng cotton in the Sudan hi chief source of the Sudan's earning fro the foreign currency, the Dura (corn, . millet, sorghum, bulzush millet, ...), which grows in an area of more than five million feddans, is the main elenent entering people's food and drink. The weighted, drained, and floating types of lysimeters have been used for measuring evapotranspirgtion rates fron a number of crops such as wheat, cotton, Iucerne and broad beans. Moisture changes have been studied in controlled field at ns ™ £01 to bre in me the tis as thewrt, cropped follow 4 during tis the before y iret ern rain chyetal art of ively. t and in the er the be con sion of and the cotton eddans out ts the (corn, an five 1 tor cotton, 1 fheld 275 plots and evapotranspiration estimated for sone crops froa Olivier, Penman, and the heat-balance methods 6.2.1 Estimates of evapotranspiration using empigical methods Olivier, using his method, oq. 6.2, estimated the evapotranspiration for sone crops at Wad-Medani, for grass at Malakal and for the marghes in the Sudd region at Shanbe (inside the swaups of the Bahr el Jebel). The results obtained from his method are given in Table 6.14, TABLE 6.14 Evapotranspiration for some crops and vegetation in the Sudan as estimated by Olivier (1961) Evapotranspiration, mn/day, for Month Wad-Medani Malakel — (shanbey Cotton Wheat Dure Lubia Grass Papyrus January 465 4.05 = 4.65 6.10 6.62 February 6.16 6.16 ee) 743 Mare 3.69 8.690 ~ - 8.69 12a april 10.08 ei = - 5.99 6.01, May : - - = 3.61 4.46 gune - - - - 2.22 3.47 suly - ne 1.40 2.86 August 2.23 = aa f 1135 Fs September 2.95, - 298 295 1.72. 2. October 4.75 4175 475198 a November 5.08 5.06, 5106 4.12 4 Decomber 3.92 3.92 3.92 8.28 Ex Season or year 1265 689261562 1817 1729 It has boon reported by El-Nadi (1069) that wheat grown in tho experimental fam of the Faculty of Agriculture, Khartoum University, can congune water up to 675/nn during its groving season, He also reported that increased yields of broad beans were obtained fron the sixth to the ninth irrigation, the depth per irrigation being 75 mn (1970). We have eatinated the consumptive use requtrenent for the sane four crops at Wad-lledani, using two different eopirical formulas ‘The first cue tp that given by Hargreaves, which estimates the evanotranspire- tion as the product of the measured ox the calculated pan evaporation, eq. 5.9, tines a crop coefficient which depends on the percentage of the groving season (1966). The second formula is the Blaney-Criddle one. The results obtained fron the calculations are given in Table 6.15.