Core Maths C3

Revision Notes

October 2012

Core Maths C3
1

Algebraic fractions .................................................................................................. 3

Cancelling common factors .................................................................................................................. 3
Multiplying and dividing fractions ....................................................................................................... 3
Adding and subtracting fractions .......................................................................................................... 3
Equations .............................................................................................................................................. 4

Functions................................................................................................................. 4
Notation ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Domain, range and graph ...................................................................................................................... 4
Defining functions ............................................................................................................................................... 5

Composite functions ............................................................................................................................. 6

Inverse functions and their graphs ........................................................................................................ 6
Modulus functions ................................................................................................................................ 7
Modulus functions y = |f (x)|.............................................................................................................................. 7
Modulus functions y = f (|x|)............................................................................................................................... 8

Standard graphs..................................................................................................................................... 8
Combinations of transformations of graphs .......................................................................................... 9

Trigonometry ......................................................................................................... 10
Sec, cosec and cot ............................................................................................................................... 10
Graphs ................................................................................................................................................................ 10

Inverse trigonometrical functions ....................................................................................................... 11

Graphs ................................................................................................................................................................ 11

Trigonometrical identities ................................................................................................................... 11

Finding exact values .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Proving identities. .............................................................................................................................................. 12
Eliminating a variable between two equations ................................................................................................. 12
Solving equations .............................................................................................................................................. 12

R cos(x + ) ........................................................................................................................................ 13

Exponentials and logarithms ................................................................................. 14

Natural logarithms .............................................................................................................................. 14
Definition and graph .......................................................................................................................................... 14
Equations of the form eax + b = p ....................................................................................................................... 15

Differentiation ........................................................................................................ 15
Chain rule ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Product rule ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Quotient rule ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Derivatives of ex and logex ln x. ................................................................................................... 17

dy
1
= dx ............................................................................................................................................ 18
dx
dy
Trigonometric differentiation.............................................................................................................. 18
Chain rule further examples ............................................................................................................. 19
Trigonometry and the product and quotient rules ............................................................................... 19

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Numerical methods ................................................................................................ 20

Locating the roots of f(x) = 0 ............................................................................................................. 20
The iteration xn + 1 = g(xn) ................................................................................................................... 20
Conditions for convergence................................................................................................................. 21

Index ............................................................................................................................. 22

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Algebraic fractions

Cancelling common factors

x 3 2 x 2 3x
.
4 x 2 36

Example:

Simplify

Solution:

First factorise top and bottom fully

x( x 2 2 x 3) x( x 3)( x + 1)
x 3 2 x 2 3x
=
=
4( x 3)( x + 3)
4( x 2 9)
4 x 2 36
and now cancel all common factors, in this case (x 3) to give
x( x + 1)
.
4( x + 3)

Answer =

Multiplying and dividing fractions

This is just like multiplying and dividing fractions with numbers and then cancelling common
factors as above.
9 x 2 4 3x 2 x 2

3x 2 2 x
x3 + x2

Example:

Simplify

Solution:

First turn the second fraction upside down and multiply

9x 2 4
x3 + x2

, and then factorise fully

3x 2 2 x 3x 2 x 2

(3 x 2)(3x + 2)
x 2 ( x + 1)

, and cancel all common factors

(3 x + 2)( x 1)
x(3 x 2)
Answer

x( x + 1)
.
x 1

Adding and subtracting fractions

Again this is like adding and subtracting fractions with numbers; but finding the Lowest
Common Denominator can save a lot of trouble later.
3x
5
.
2
x 7 x + 12 x 4 x + 3

Example:

Simplify

Solution:

First factorise the denominators

3x
5

;
( x 3)( x 4) ( x 3)( x 1)

3x( x 1)
5( x 4)

( x 3)( x 4)( x 1) ( x 3)( x 1)( x 4)

3x 2 3 x 5 x + 20
3x 2 8 x + 20
=
which cannot be simplified further.
( x 1)( x 3)( x 4) ( x 1)( x 3)( x 4)

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we see that the L.C.D. is (x 3)(x 4)(x 1)

Equations
x
x 1 1

=
x +1
x
2

Example:

Solve

Solution:

First multiply both sides by the Lowest Common Denominator which in this case
is 2x(x + 1)

x 2x (x 1) 2(x + 1) = x(x + 1)

2x2 2x2 + 2 = x2 + x

x2 + x 2 = 0,

x = 2 or 1

(x + 2)(x 1) = 0

Functions

A function is an expression (often in terms of x) which has only one value for each value of x.

Notation
y = x2 3x + 7,

f (x) = x2 3x + 7

and

f : x x2 3x + 7

are all ways of writing the same function.

Domain, range and graph

The domain is the set of values which x can take:
this is sometimes specified in the definition
and sometimes is evident from the function: e.g. x can only take positive x or zero.
The range is that part of the yaxis which is used.
Example:

Find the range of the function

f : x 2x 3 with domain x is a real number: 2 < x 3.

Solution:
First sketch the graph for values of x
between 2 and 3
and we can see that we are
only using the yaxis from 7 to 3,
and so the range is

-6

-4

-2

y is a real number: 7 < y 3.

-5

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x
8

Example:

Find the largest possible domain and the range for the function

f : x x 3 + 1.

Solution:
First notice that we cannot have the square root of a negative number and so
x 3 cannot be negative
x30

largest domain is x real: x 3.

y

To find the range we first sketch the graph

and we see that the graph will cover all of the
y-axis from 1 upwards
and so the range is

Example:
f:x
Solution:

y real: y 1.

Find the largest possible domain and the range for the function
2x
.
x +1
The only problem occurs when the denominator is 0, and so x cannot be 1.

Thus the largest domain is x real: x 1.

y

To find the range we sketch the graph

and we see that y can take any value

except 2,
so the range is y real: y 2.

-8

-6

-4

-2

x
1

Defining functions

Some mappings can be made into functions by restricting the domain.

Examples:
1)
The mapping x x where x is not a function as 9 is not defined, but
if we restrict the domain to positive or zero real numbers then f : x x where x
, x 0 is a function.
1
where x is not a function as the image of x = 3 is not defined,
x 3
1
where x , x 3 is a function.
but f : x
x 3
2)

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Composite functions
To find the composite function fg we must do g first.
Example:

f : x 3x 2 and

Solution:

Think of f and g as rules

f is

times by 3

g is

square

fg is

g : x x2 + 1. Find fg and gf.

subtract 2

add 1

square

add 1

times by 3

subtract 2

giving (x2 + 1) 3 2 = 3x2 + 1

gf is

fg : x 3x2 + 1

times by 3

or

fg(x) = 3x2 + 1.

subtract 2

square

add 1

giving (3x 2)2 + 1 = 9x2 12x + 5

gf : x 9x2 12x + 5

or gf (x) = 9x2 12x + 5.

Inverse functions and their graphs

The inverse of f is the opposite of f:
thus the inverse of multiply by 3 is divide by 3
and the inverse of square is square root.
The inverse of f is written as f 1: note that this does not mean 1 over f .
The graph of y = f 1(x) is the reflection in y = x of the graph of y = f (x)
To find the inverse of a function x y
(i)

interchange x and y

(ii)

find y in terms of x.

Example:

Find the inverse of f : x 3x 2.

Solution:

We have x y = 3x 2

(i)

interchanging x and y x = 3y 2

(ii)

solving for y y =

x+2
f 1 : x
3

x+2
3

y=x
y
2

-4

-2

y = f 1(x)
-2

y = f (x)

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Example:

Find the inverse of g : x

Solution:

We have x y =

x+3
.
2x 5

x+3
2x 5

(i)

interchanging x and y
y+3
x =
2y 5

(ii)

solving for y

y=x

x(2y 5) = y + 3

2xy 5x = y + 3

2xy y = 5x + 3

y(2x 1) = 5x + 3

5x + 3
y =
2x 1

g 1 : x

Note that f f 1 (x) = f

y
5
y = g 1(x)
y = g (x)

x
1

5x + 3
2x 1

f (x) = x.

Modulus functions
Modulus functions y = |f (x)|

|f (x)| is the positive value of f (x),

so to sketch the graph of y = |f (x)| first sketch the graph of y = f (x) and then reflect the
part(s) below the xaxis to above the xaxis.
Example:

Sketch the graph of y = |x2 3x|.

Solution:

First sketch the graph of y = x2 3x.

y
5

Then reflect the portion between x = 0 and x = 3 in

the xaxis

to give

y
5

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Modulus functions y = f (|x|)

In this case f (3) = f (3), f (5) = f (5), f (8.7) = f (8.7) etc. and so the graph on the
left of the yaxis must be the same as the graph on the right of the yaxis,
so to sketch the graph, first sketch the graph for positive values of x only, then reflect
the graph sketched in the yaxis.
Sketch the graph of y = |x|2 3|x|.

Example:

y
5

Solution:
First sketch the graph of y = x2 3x for
positive values of x.

only
-5

y
5

Then reflect the graph sketched in the yaxis to

complete the sketch.
-5

Standard graphs
y=x4

y = x3
2

1
-4

y=x2

y
4

y=x

3y

-2

-1

-4

-2

-3

-2

-1

-3

y = x and y = x4
y = x and y = x3

y
2

4y
3

1
2
-4

-3

-2

-1

x
1

-1
-2

-1

-1
3

1
y=
x
8

y = x
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Combinations of transformations of graphs

We know the following transformations of graphs:
y = f (x)
a
translated through becomes y = f (x - a) + b
b

stretched factor a in the y-direction becomes y = a f (x)

x
stretched factor a in the x-direction becomes y = f
a

reflected in the x-axis becomes y = f (x)

reflected in the y-axis becomes y = f (x)
We can combine these transformations:
Examples:

1)

y = 2f (x 3) is the image of y = f (x) under a stretch in the y-axis of factor 2

3
followed by a translation , or the translation followed by the stretch.
0

2)

y = 3x2 + 6 is the image of y = f (x) under a stretch in the y-axis of factor 3

0
followed by a translation ,
6
BUT these transformations cannot be done in the reverse order.

To do a translation before a stretch we have to notice that

0
3x2 + 6 = 3(x2 + 2) which is the image of y = f (x) under a translation of
2
followed by a stretch in the y-axis of factor 3.

3)

y = sin(x + ) is the image of y = f (x) under a reflection in the x-axis followed

, or the translation followed by the reflection.
by a translation of
0

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Trigonometry

Sec, cosec and cot

1
;
cos x

Secant is written sec x =

cotangent is written cot x =

cosecant is written cosec x =

1
and
sin x

1
cos x
=
tan x sin x

Graphs
y

y
1

90

180

270

360

90

-1

180

270

360

90

180

270

360

-1
-1

y = sec x

y = cosec x

y = cot x

Notice that your calculator does not have sec, cosec and cot buttons so to solve equations
involving sec, cosec and cot, change them into equations involving sin, cos and tan and then use
your calculator as usual.
Example:

Find cosec 35o.

Solution:

cosec 35o =

Example:

Solve sec x = 3.2

Solution:

sec x = 3.2

10

1
1
= 1.743 to 4 S.F.
o =
0.53576...
sin 35

for 0 x 2c
1
1
= 3.2 cos x =
= 0.3125
cos x
3.2

x = 1.25 or 2 1.25 = 5.03 radians

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Inverse trigonometrical functions

The inverse of sin x is written as arcsin x or sin1 x and in order that there should only be
one value of the function for one value of x we restrict the domain to /2 x /2 .
Similarly for the inverses of cos x and tan x, as shown below.
Graphs
y
3

1
1

2
-2

-1

x
1

-2

-1

-1
-2

-1

y = arcsin x

y = arccos x

1 x 1

1 x 1

/2 arcsin x /2

0 arccos x

-1

y = arctan x
x

/2 < arctan x < /2

Trigonometrical identities
You should learn these
sin2 + cos2 = 1
tan + 1 = sec
2

1 + cot2 = cosec2

tan( A - B) =
tan 2 A =

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

sin (A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B

tan 3A =

tan A - tan B
1 + tan A tan B

2 tan A
1 - tan 2 A
3 tan A tan 3 A
1 3 tan 2 A

sin P + sin Q = 2 sin

P+Q
P -Q
cos
2
2

sin P sin Q = 2 cos

P+Q
P -Q
sin
2
2

cos P + cos Q = 2 cos

P+Q
P -Q
cos
2
2

cos (A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

cos 2A

= cos2 A sin2 A
= 2 cos2 A 1
= 1 2 sin2 A

sin2 A = (1 cos 2A)

cos2 A = (1 + cos 2A)
sin2
cos2

= (1 cos )
= (1 + cos )

cos P cos Q =

2 sin

P+Q
P -Q
sin
2
2

2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A B)

sin 3A = 3 sin A 4 sin3 A

2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) sin(A B)

cos 3A = 4 cos3A 3 cos A

2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A B)

tan( A + B) =

tan A + tan B
1 - tan A tan B

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2 sin A sin B = cos(A + B) cos(A B)

11

Finding exact values

When finding exact values you may not use calculators.

Example:

Find the exact value of cos 15o

Solution:

We know the exact values of sin 45o, cos 45o and sin 30o, cos 30o

so we consider
=

1
2

3
2

cos 15 = cos (45 30) = cos 45 cos30 + sin 45 sin 30

+

1
2

12 =

3 + 1

6 +
4

2 2

Example:
Given that A is obtuse and that B is acute, and sin A = 3/5 and cos B = 5/13 find
the exact value of sin (A + B).
Solution:
We know that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B so we must first find
cos A and sin B.

Using

sin2 + cos2 = 1

cos2 A = 1 9/25 =

cos A = /5 and sin B = /13

16

/25

and sin2 B = 1 25/169 =

144

/169

12

But A is obtuse so cos A is negative and B is acute so sin B is positive

cos A = 4/5 and sin B =

12

sin (A + B) = 3/5 5/13 + 4/5 12/13 =

/13
33

/65

Proving identities.

Start with one side, usually the L.H.S., and fiddle with it until it equals the other side. Do not
fiddle with both sides at the same time.
cos 2 A + 1
= cot 2 A .
1 - cos 2 A

Example:

Prove that

Solution:

cos 2 A + 1
2 cos 2 A - 1 + 1
2 cos 2 A
=
=
L.H.S. =
= cot 2 A . Q.E.D.
2
2
1 - cos 2 A
1 - (1 - 2sin A)
2 sin A

Eliminating a variable between two equations

Example:

Eliminate from x = sec 1, y = tan .

Solution:

We remember that tan2 + 1 = sec2

sec2 tan2 = 1.

sec = x + 1 and tan = y

(x + 1)2 y2 = 1

y2 = (x + 1)2 1 = x2 + 2x.

Solving equations

Here you have to select the best identity to help you solve the equation.
Example:

Solve the equation sec2A = 3 tan A, for 0 A 360o.

Solution:

We know that

12

tan2 + 1 = sec2

tan2A + 1 = 3 tan A
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tan2A + tan A 2 = 0,

(tan A 1)(tan A + 2) = 0

tan A = 1 or tan A = 2

A = 45, 225, or 116.6, 296.6.

factorising gives

R cos(x + )
An alternative way of writing a cos x b sin x using one of the formulae listed below
(I)

R cos (x + ) = R cos x cos R sin x sin

(II)

R cos (x ) = R cos x cos + R sin x sin

(III)

R sin (x + ) = R sin x cos + R cos x sin

(IV)

R sin (x ) = R sin x cos R cos x sin

To keep R positive and acute we select the formula with corresponding + and signs. The
technique is the same which ever formula we choose.
Example:

Solve the equation 12 sin x 5 cos x = 6 for 0o x 3600.

Solution:
First rewrite in the above form:
notice that the sin x is +ve and the cos x is ve so we need formula (IV).
R sin (x ) = R sin x cos R cos x sin = 12 sin x 5 cos x

Equating coefficients of sin x, R cos = 12

[i]

Equating coefficients of cos x, R sin = 5

[ii]

Squaring and adding [i] and [ii] R2 cos2 + R2 sin2 = 122 + 52

R2 (cos2 + sin2 ) = 144 + 25

R2 = 169

but cos2 + sin2 = 1

R = 13

But choosing the correct formula means that R is positive R = +13

Substitute in [i]

cos =

12

/13

= 22.620o or ....

But choosing the correct formula means that is acute

= 22.620o.

12 sin x 5 cos x = 13 sin(x 22.620)

and so to solve

12 sin x 5 cos x = 6

we need to solve

13 sin(x 22.620) = 6

sin(x 22.620) = 6/13

x 22.620 = 27.486 or 180 27.486 = 152.514

x = 50.1o or 175.1o .

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13

Example:
Find the maximum value of 12 sin x 5 cos x and the value(s) of x for which
it occurs.
Solution:

From the above example 12 sin x 5 cos x = 13 sin(x 22.6).

The maximum value of sin(anything) is 1 and occurs when the angle is 90, 450, 810
etc. i.e. 90 + 360n

the max value of 13 sin(x 22.6) is 13

when x 22.6 = 90 + 360n x = 112.6 + 360no.

Exponentials and logarithms

Natural logarithms
y

y = ex

y=x

Definition and graph

2

e 2.7183 and logs to base e

y = ln x
4

2
-

4
-

log e x is usually written ln x.

6
x

are called natural logarithms.

2
-

Note that y = ex and y = ln x

4
-

are inverse functions and that

the graph of one is the reflection
of the other in the line y = x.

Graph of y = e(ax + b) + c.

y = e2x y = ex
y
6

The graph of y = e2x is the graph of

y = ex stretched by a factor of 1/2 in

the direction of the x-axis.

2
-

14

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The graph of y = e(2x + 3) is the graph of

y = e2x translated through

0

3
2

2x + 3 = 2(x

3
2

y = e2x + 3 + 4

since

y
6

and the graph of y = e(2x +3) + 4 is that of

x
8

0
y = e(2x + 3) translated through
4

y = e2x + 3

Equations of the form eax + b = p

Example:

Solve e2x + 3 = 5.

Solution:
Take the natural logarithm of each side, remembering that ln x is the
inverse of ex.

ln(e2x + 3) = ln 5

x =

2x + 3 = ln 5

ln 5 3
= 0.695 to 3 S.F.
2

Example:

Solve ln(3x 5) = 4.

Solution:
ln x.

Raise both sides to the power of e, remembering that ex is the inverse of

eln(3x 5) = e4

x =

(3x 5) = e4

e4 + 5
= 19.9 to 3 S.F.
3

Differentiation

Chain rule
If y is a composite function like y = (5x2 7)9
think of y as y = u9, where u = 5x2 7
then the chain rule gives

dy
dy du
=

dx
du dx
dy
du
= 9u 8
dx
dx
dy
= 9(5 x 2 7) 8 (10 x) = 90 x(5 x 2 7) 8 .
dx

The rule is very simple, just differentiate the function of u and multiply by

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du
.
dx

15

dy
.
dx

Example:

y = (x3 2x). Find

Solution:

y = (x3 2x) = ( x 3 2 x) 2 .

Put u = x3 2x

y= u 2
dy
dy du
=

dx
du dx
1
dy
du
= 12 u 2
=
dx
dx
dy
3x 2 2
.
=
1
dx
2( x 3 2 x) 2

1
2

( x 3 2 x)

(3x 2 2)

Product rule
If y is the product of two functions, u and v, then
dy
dv
du
y = uv
.
= u
+ v
dx
dx
dx
Example:

Differentiate y = x2 (x 5).

Solution:

y = x2 (x 5) = x2 ( x 5)

so put u = x2 and v = ( x 5)
dy
dv
du

= u
+ v
dx
dx
dx
= x2
=

1
2
2

( x 5)

2 x5

+ ( x 5) 2 2x

+ 2x x 5 .

Quotient rule
If y is the quotient of two functions, u and v, then
du
dv
v
u
dy
u
dx
dx .

y =
=
v
dx
v2
Example:

Differentiate y =

Solution:

y =

16

2x 3
x 2 + 5x

2x 3
,
so put u = 2x 3 and v = x2 + 5x
2
x + 5x
du
dv
v
u
dy
dx
dx
=
2
dx
v
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( x 2 + 5 x) 2 (2 x 3) (2 x + 5)
( x 2 + 5 x) 2

2 x 2 + 10 x (4 x 2 + 4 x 15)
2 x 2 + 6 x + 15
.
=
( x 2 + 5 x) 2
( x 2 + 5 x) 2

Derivatives of ex and logex ln x.

y = ex

dy
= ex
dx

y = ln x

dy
1
=
dx
x

y = ln kx

y = ln k + ln x

dy
1
1
= 0+
=
dx
x
x

y = ln xk

y = k ln x

dy
k
1
= k
=
dx
x
x

or use the chain rule.

Example:

Find the derivative of f (x) = x3 5ex at the point where x = 2.

Solution:

f (x) = x3 5ex

f (x) = 3x2 5ex

f (2) = 12 5e2 = 24.9

f (x) = ln 3x ln x5

Example:

Differentiate the function

Solution:

f (x) = ln 3x ln x5 = ln 3 + ln x 5 ln x = ln 3 4 ln x

f (x) =

4
x

or we can use the chain rule

f (x) =

1
1
4
3 5 5x 4 =
x
3x
x

Example:

Find the derivative of

Solution:

f (x) = log 10 3x =
=

ln 3 x
ln 10

(using change of base formula)

ln 3 + ln x
ln 3
ln x
=
+
ln 10
ln 10
ln 10

f (x) = 0 +

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f (x) = log 10 3x.

1
x

ln 10

1
.
x ln 10
17

dy
.
dx
where u = x2
eu,
dy du
=

du dx
du
= eu
= eu 2x
dx
2

Example:

y = e x . Find

Solution:

y =
dy
dx
dy
dx

= 2x e x .
2

dy
.
dx
Solution:
y = ln u, where u = 7x3
dy
dy du

dx
du dx
dy
1 du
1
3
=
=
.

21x 2 =
3
dx
u dx
x
7x
Example:

y = ln 7x3. Find

dy
1
= dx
dx
dy
Example:

x = sin2 3y. Find

Solution:

First find

dy
.
dx

dx
as this is easier.
dy

dx
= 2 sin 3 = 2 sin 3y cos 3y 3 = 6 sin 3y cos 3y
dy

1
1
dy
1
=
=
= dx =
6 sin 3 y cos 3 y
3 sin 6 y
dx
dy

1
3

cosec 6y

Trigonometric differentiation
x must be in RADIANS when differentiating trigonometric functions.

18

f (x)

f (x)

sin x

cos x

cos x

sin x

tan x

sec2 x

sec x

sec x tan x

cot x

cosec2 x

cosec x

cosec x cot x

important formulae
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x
1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x
C3 14/04/13 SDB

Chain rule further examples

Example:

y = sin4 x.

Solution:

y = sin4 x.
y = u4
dy
dy du
=

dx
du dx
dy
du
= 4u 3
dx
dx

Find

dy
.
dx

Put u = sin x

4 sin 3 x cos x .

dy
.
dx

Example:

y = e sin x . Find

Solution:

y = eu,
where u = sin x
dy
dy du
=

dx
du dx
dy
du
= esin x cos x
= e sin x
dx
dx

= cos x esin x .

dy
.
dx

Example:

y = ln (sec x). Find

Solution:

y = ln u, where u = sec x
dy
dy du
=

dx
du dx
dy
1 du
1
=
=
sec x tan x = tan x .
dx
u dx
sec x

Trigonometry and the product and quotient rules

Example:

Differentiate

y = x2 cosec 3x.

Solution:
y = x2 cosec 3x
so put u = x2 and v = cosec 3x
dy
du
dv

= u
+ v
dx
dx
dx
2
= x ( 3cosec 3x cot 3x) + cosec 3x 2x
= 3x2 cosec 3x cot 3x + 2x cosec 3x.

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19

Example:

Differentiate y =

Solution:

y =

tan 2 x
7x3

tan 2 x
, so put u = tan 2x and v = 7x3
7x3
7 x 3 2 sec 2 2 x tan 2 x 21x 2
dy
=
dx
(7 x 3 ) 2
14 x 3 sec 2 2 x 21x 2 tan 2 x
dy
=
dx
49 x 6
2
2 x sec 2 x 3 tan 2 x
dy
=
dx
7x 4

Numerical methods

Locating the roots of f(x) = 0

A quick sketch of the graph of y = f (x) can help to give a rough idea of the roots of f (x) = 0.
If y = f (x) changes sign between x = a and x = b and f (x) is continuous in this region then
a root of f (x) = 0 lies between x = a and x = b.
Example:

Show that a root of the equation f (x) = x3 8x 7 = 0 lies between 3 and 4.

Solution:

f (3) = 27 24 7 = 4,

and f (4) = 64 32 7 = +25

Thus f (x) changes sign and f (x) is continuous there is a root between 3 and 4.

The iteration xn + 1 = g(xn)

Many equations of the form f (x) = 0 can be rearranged as x = g (x) which leads to the
iteration x n + 1 = g (x n).
Example:

Show that the equation

can be rearranged as x =
Solution:

x3 8x 7 = 0

x3 8x 7 = 0

8 x + 7 and find a solution correct to four decimal places.

x3 = 8x + 7

x=

8x + 7 .

From the previous example we know that there is a root between 3 and 4,
so starting with x1 = 3 we use the iteration xn + 1 =

to give

8xn + 7

x1 = 3
x2 = 3.14138065239
x3 = 3.17912997899
x4 = 3.18905898325
x5 = 3.19166031127

y
-4

-2

-5

-10

x6 = 3.19234114002
-15

x7 = 3.19251928098
x8 = 3.19256588883

-20

x9 = 3.19257808284
20

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As x8 and x9 are both equal to 3.1926 to 4 D.P.

we conclude that a root of the equation is 3.1926 to 4 D.P.
Note that we have only found one root: the sketch shows that there are more roots.

Conditions for convergence

If an equation is rearranged as x = g(x) and if there is a root x =
then the iteration xn+1 = g(xn), starting with an approximation near x =
will converge if -1 < g () < 1

(i)
y

x1

x2

x3

x2 x4

x3

x1

x5

(a) will converge without oscillating

if 0 < g () < 1,

(ii)

will oscillate and converge

if 1 < g () < 0,

will diverge if
g () < -1 or

(b)

g () > 1.

10

x1 x2

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x3

21

Index
algebraic fractions
adding and subtracting, 3
equations, 4
multiplying and dividing, 3
chain rule, 15
further examples, 19
cosecant, 10
cotangent, 10
derivative
ex, 17
ln x, 17
differentiation

dy
1
= dx
dx
dy

, 18

trigonometric functions, 18
equations
graphical solutions, 20
exponential
eax + b = p, 15
graph of y = e(ax + b) + c, 14
graph of y = ex, 14
functions, 4
combining functions, 6
defining functions, 5
domain, 4
inverse functions, 6
modulus functions, 7
range, 4

22

graphs
combining transformations, 9
standard functions, 8
iteration
conditions for convergence, 21
xn + 1 = g(xn), 20
logarithm
graph of ln x, 14
natural logarithm, 14
product rule, 16
further examples, 19
quotient rule, 16
further examples, 19
R cos(x + ), 13
secant, 10
trigonometrical identities, 11
trigonometry
finding exact values, 12
harder equations, 12
inverse functions, 11
proving identities, 12

C3 14/04/13 SDB