Book 1 Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS Licence By Post b= S Licence By Post © copyright B EASA 66 3.1 to 3.9 ISSUE 554AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When-carrying out a procedure/work-on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant-aircraft maintenance manual orequipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements ofyour national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down-company policy as regards local, / procedures, recording, report writinig, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations /guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments. NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis LEP 140 Narbeth Drive Aylesbury Bucks HP20 19a UK Tel (+ 44) 01296 433871 Fax: (+ 44) 01296 330697 Email: www.info@licencebypost.com Website: www.licencebypost.comCONTENTS Page The atomic structure 1 Static electricity 5 Generation of electricity 8 The thermocouple 8 ‘The cathode 9 ‘The photo-electric cell 9 ‘The piezoelectric effect 10 Cells or batteries i Electromagnetic induction 19) Electrical terms Resistance Fixed resistors Variable resistors Thermistors ae Voltage dependent resistors de circuits Kirchhoff’s laws; The Wheatstone Bridge Power, work-and energy Internal resistance Maximum power transfer Capacitance Answers to activitiesHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK This book is written for the B1 and B2 technician with many of the subjects to level 2 of the JAR syllabus. Some of the material is suitable for the A line mechanic albeit to level 1 of the syllabus. For the A line mechanic he/she is advised to read the syllabus and/or contact the tutor for advice on what to study in the book and to what depth. ‘The B technician should have a good grasp of the fundamentals of electricity and should be able to apply, and work out, formulas where necessary Some parts of the book are fairly straight forward, other parts will need a second, or even a third, read for the information to “sink in”. Details of scientists need not be remembered - they have been incltided for back-ground information only. \ELECTRON THEORY THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE Before we look at the more practical side of electrics we should have some knowledge of the fundamentals of electron flow and this involves the basic structure of matter. All substances, whether solid, liquid or gas, are made up of atoms, which are grouped together in various ways Figure 1 shows how an atom is built up. In the centre is the nucleus, made up of protons (#ve) and neutrons (no charge). The electrons (-ve) move around the nucleus in orbits, rather like the planets around the sun, with each orbit (called a shell) having a certain number of electrons. The maximum number of orbits around a nucleus is seven. These are located at defined distances from the nucleus, and are designated by the letters K, L, M, N, O, P and Q, starting from the level nearest the nucleus. NucLEUS Fig. 1 BASIC ATOMIC STRUCTURE } ‘The mass of an electron is estimated to be about 9.1 x 10-5! kilograms (kg) and the charge it carries is about -1.6 x 10-1? coulomb (C). Both of these quantities are extremely small, but it is the electron on which the whole science of electronics/electrics depends. ‘The charge on each proton, since it neutralises the charge on an electron, is the same as that of an electron but of opposite sign. ‘The proton, however, is about 1840 times as massive as an electron, so that a quick calculation gives it’s mass as 1.67 x 10-27 kg. The revolving electrons are pictured as moving in elliptical orbits around the nucleus, held in their respective shells by the attractive force of the nucleus.A substance composed of atoms all of the same type is called an element Ninety elements have been found in nature so far and others have been created artificially bring the total (to date) to 105. Scientists expect to find more. For any element each shell contains a fixed number of electrons. There is a maximum number for each shell, relating to the orbit’s distance from the nucleus eg, level K can contain up to 2 electrons, level L up to 8, level M up to 18 and so on. ‘The maximum theoretical number in each shell can be found from the formula 2n? where n is the number of the shell. For example in the N (forth) shell the number of electrons equals 2n? = 2 x 42 = 32. However, in practice many atoms do not reach this theoretical number, and no atom can contain more than eight electrons in its outer shell anyway. Some examples of elements and the number of atoms in each shell is shown in the following table. (The atomic number is the number of protons in the atom) ELEMENT SHELL - number of electrons in each shell | ATOMIC (Maximum possible number in brackets)| | NUMBER ee MN 720) FE Q (2) (8) (18) ~f82)<" (50) (72) (8) Do 2 see — Hydrogen 1 1 Sodium os ul Aluminium =/:2 8 3 13 Silicon ea 14 Copper, oc ee Z 29 Germanium oe is 4 32 Silver 28 is ie 1 47 Gold a6 is 32 is 1 79 Radon 2 68 ie 32 i 6 86 Uranium 28 18 a2 21 9 92 TABLE 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF SOME ELEMENTS ‘The electrons (or electron) making up the outermost shell are called valence electrons, and these being furthest from the attractive force of the nucleus are least tightly bound in the atom. It is the valence electrons that play the active part in electrical conduction. Figure 2 shows an atom of hydrogen and figure 3 shows an atom of helium, both very light gases. Figures 4 and 5 show atoms of silicon and germanium respectively, two very important elements in the manufacture of transistors, both having four valance electrons.eroge stm- rows ven Fig. 2 THE HYDROGEN ATOM fearone with we Fig. 4 THE SILICON ATOM Fig. 5 THE GERMANIUM ATOM Normally atoms are electrically neutral, as far as charge is concerned, because electrons and protons are present in equal numbers. An atom can become positively or negatively charged if it has electrons taken away or added.When an atom gives up an electron it becomes positively charged (it has more protons than electrons}, and this is called a positive ion. When it takes in an electron it becomes negatively charged and it is called a negative ion. An ion is therefore an atom which has lost or gained an electron. Metals represent a category of elements endowed with particular properties. One of these is that some of the electrons in the outer shelis are so loosely tied to the nucleus that they are effectively floating free and move easily from one atom to another. Normally their movement is random, but by applying an exterior electrical force (such as that provided by a battery or generator} they can all be made to move in the same direction. When all the electrons move in one direction only then the current is known as Direct Current (dc) - as when a battery is used to provide the electrical force (voltage). When the electrons are moved forwards and backwards (as when an alternator/generator is used) then the current is called Alternating Current {ac}. Ac current usually has a frequency (on aircraft) of 400 Hz, though some frequency wild systems do ex: This orderly movement of electrons is called current. Metals which\easily permit the orderly movement of electronsjare called conductors eg, copper, aluminium, silver, platinum, bronze and gold. In other materials the electrons are held'firmly in their outer shells. materials it is almost impossible to induce an orderly movement of €lectrons and they are classified as non-conductors, or insulators, eg: glass, rubber, plastic, air, wood and mica. ELECTRONS Fig. 6 VALENCE ELECTRONS IN A SILICON CRYSTAL LATTICE The family of elements cailed semiconductors sometimes behave like conductors and sometimes like insulators. Typical materials are silicon and germanium.FREE ELECTRON Fig. 7 FREE ELECTRONS IN SILICON (Si) DOPED WITH ARSENIC (As) ‘These materials have four valence electrons, each atom shares its electrons with! adjacent atoms to form a strongly bonded structure ¢alled a érystal lattice, The freedom of movement of electrons is poor, and in| theipure state in semiconductors are insulators. 4 However, electron movement can be achieved by heating, as the temperature rises the electrons become more agitated‘and leave their orbits and if a voltage is placed across the material electron movement occurs. = —— This is known ag fintrinsic” conduction. Current causes heat which causes more conduction/and this can gontinue yintil breakdown oceurs, known as “thermal-rundway” \ Another way to improve the conductivity is by “doping”, of a tiny amount of another element. This is introduced into the crystal lattice structure which improves the conductivity. More detail of this in Module 4 study books in this series. STATIC ELECTRICITY If a warm day glass rod is rubbed with silk some electrons from the glass attach themselves to the silk and the glass becomes positively charged (loss of electrons) and the silk becomes negatively charged (excess of electrons). They are said to have static electricity. Ifa second charged rod is brought close to the first charged rod repulsion occurs. If ebonite is rubbed with a woollen cloth, for example, the ebonite becomes negatively charged and the cloth positively charged, and if the ebonite is now placed next to the charged glass rod, attraction occursTherefore the basic laws of electrostatics are: LIKE CHARGES REPEL UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT This shows the laws in charged insulators but the same laws apply to charged conductors. The size of the charge is measured in COULOMBS (C) which is defined as the amount of electrical charge which passes a point in a conductor when a current of one amp flows for 1 second. ‘The force which two charged bodies exert on each other can be calculated using Coulombs law, which states that the force between two electric charges is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. An electric charge sets up an electric field in the space surrounding it and an electric force is exerted on any charged body placed in the field. “an electric line of force is a line drawn in an electric field such that its “direction at any point gives the direction of the electric field atthat point”, \ ‘These lines of force have the following properties: (a) They begin and end in equal aiid opposite quantities of charge. (b) They are in a state of tension, which causes them to tend-to-shorten. (| They repel each other sideways. | i ‘TENSION LINES OF FORCE. REPULSION LINES OF FORCE ‘CAUSING ATTRACTION CAUSING REPULSION Fig. 8 ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE Thus the attraction of two unlike charges is explained by the tension of lines of force joining them and the repulsion by the sideways repulsion between the lines of forceConduction Figure 9 shows a conductor containing free electrons moving at random among positive ions. If a battery is connected across the conductor as shown in figure 9 free electrons close to the positive plate will be attracted to it (unlike charges attract). Free electrons near the negative plate will be repelled from it, and a steady drift of electrons will take place through the material from the negative battery terminal to the positive battery terminal. For each electron entering the positive terminal one will be ejected from the negative terminal so the number of electrons in the material remains constant. Dts OX» OY OKO OK OY Fig. 9 FREE ELECTRONS IN A CONDUCTOR = (RANDOM-MOVEMENT) —— OO OOO ~ ~O*OXG OD a | ‘Fig. 10 MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS WHEN CONNECTED TO A BATTERY (MOVEMENT IN ONE DIRECTION) Since the atoms that have become positive ions are unable to move in a solid they do not drift to the negative terminal. This drift of electrons is the electric current. The electrons which enter the battery through the positive plate are passed through it and ejected from the negative plate into the conductor. It is most important to realise that this flow of electrons (current) cannot take place unless there is a continuous conducting path ie, a closed circuit. With reference to figure 10. The flow of electrons is from the negative side of the battery to the positive side of the battery. This is known as electron flow. However, for many years it was thought that the current flow was from the positive to the negative and many rules were based on this assumption. We still use conventional current flow today as the basis for all our calculations and theory of circuits. In other words we assume current flow is from positive to negative external to the source of supply. This approach works, and unless stated otherwise everything in this module will use conventional current flow.We have seen how electrons move in a conductor that is a solid material. Conduction can also take place in liquids. Place a piece of copper and a piece of zinc in dilute sulphuric acid and electrons will move from the zinc to the copper. More detail on this later Conduction can also occur through an evacuated tube containing two electrodes called an anode (+) and a cathode (-). The cathode is a special material that when heated emits electrons from its surface. If the anode is now made positive it will attract these electrons. This is the basis of the conduction through a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Another form of conduction takes place when the tube is filled with gas such as argon, helium, neon or mercury vapour, at a low pressure. The positive at the anode attracts electrons from the heated cathode with sufficient velocity as to detach outer electrons from the gas atoms when they collide. These detached electrons leave the gas atoms positively charged (positive ion) ‘This forming of positive ions is called ionisation. The free electrons join the cathode.electrons and move towards the anode. More collisions occur causing more positive ions. This ionisation causes\a visible glow in-the tube, the colour depending on what type of gas, neon for example gives an orange-red glow GENERATION | OF ELECTRICITY Electricity can be;produced by various méthods, other than just generators etc. Many of these “ther” methods are described below. | oe The Thermocouple You have already seen how electricity can be produced by charging a material through friction eg, glass rod rubbed with silk. Production of electricity by heat can be obtained by a thermocouple - this is two dissimilar metals which when placed together as shown in figure 11 and one end is heated (HOT JUNCTION) a small voltage is produced known as an electro-motive force (emf). DISSIMILAR METALS a Hot JUNCTION Coup sunction COLD Junction Hot JUNCTION MILLI VOLTIMETER Fig. 11 THERMOCOUPLE PRINCIPLE aeThis emf (voltage) drives a current round the circuit (Seebeck effect). The emf generated is proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions. Typical dissimilar metals would be copper and constantan (40% nickel, 60% copper used for engine cylinder head temperature measurement with a maximum continuous temperature of 400°C. Iron or constantan for maximum continuous temperatures of 850°C. Other materials are typically alumel (90% nickel, aluminium 2%, silicon and manganese) and chromel (nickel 90%, chrome 10%} used for jet engine exhaust gas temperature measuring systems with maximum continuous temperatures of 1100°C. The Cathode Another method we have previously mentioned is the heating of a material to ‘emit’ electrons. Figure 12 shows indirectly heated cathodes. EMITTED ELECTRONS: Fig. 12 CATHODES The heater-element is a tungsten-wire-eléctrically insulated-from the hollow cylindrical nickel tube (cathode). All electrical conductors have free electrons within them and cannot escape from the material. However, if the material is heated atoms will oscillate quickly, collisions will occur in the material and electrons will gain enough energy and speed to leave the surface of the material. This is known as thermionic emission. The surface barrier of clean metals is strong and few electrons leave the surface. However, if the metal is made very hot and the metal (cathode) is coated at the tips with an oxide (barium and strontium mixture), the surface barrier becomes weak and many electrons are emitted at red heat. Heated cathodes are used in CRTs and fluorescent lighting ‘The Photo-electric Cell Light is another source which can create electron flow - typically in photo- electric cells (one photon of light producing one electron of electrical flow). aoeOne such device is known as a photo-conductive cell or light dependent resistor (Figure 13). It consists of metal electrodes on the surface of cadmium sulphide. ‘The effect of the energy of the light on the cell causes electrons to become free within the material increasing its conductivity and reducing its resistance. Metal electrodes on ~~ surface of cadmium sulphide ‘SYMBOL Fig. 13 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR Wher-ight falls on a photo-voltaic-eell,-a small voltage is produced, it breaks down the depletion layer of a p-n junction and electron flow. is created. A similar action occurs with a photodiode and phototransistor. More details of these in the Module 4 books in this series. | oer METAL contechtrnirs | | } 7 VERY THIN p LAVER | Ys DEPLETION TAVER AT JONCTION nLaYER—|© OOOOO = SYMBOL etAL CONTACT PLATE ——— €O Positive note © Fixed acceptor atom ¢O Neca tectron © Fined donor atom Fig. 14 PHOTO-VOLTAIC CELL The Piezoelectric Effect Another method of generating electricity is by pressure. This uses piezoelectric materials. These are materials which when subjected to mechanical stress (force per unit area) produce a strain (a change in length - very small) and an electrical charge is produced. In other words, when they are squeezed and released they produce a charge proportional to the force applied 107‘Typical materials are quartz and ceramic compounds. Piezoelectric transducers are used on vibration monitoring systems on engines for example. Cells or Batteries By a ‘cell’ we mean a device for ‘storing’ an electrical charge. Commonly called batteries and are divided into two main groups ~ Primary cells and Secondary ceils Primary Cell. A primary cell is one in which, when the voltage of the cell falls to its discharged value it cannot be recharged as the chemicals are used up and the process cannot be reversed. A basic primary cell is shown in figure 15 using a copper and a zinc plate placed in a dilute solution of sulphurie acid (known as the electrolyte). Electrons flow from the copper to the zinc through the electrolyte and then through the external wire. Note: Electron flow externally is ~ve (zinc) to +ve (copper) internally copper to zinc, conventional current is the opposite ovensonal 8 maauenel A gece ntainr Zine (negative) plate copper (positive) plate dilute sulphuric acid (electrolyte) i electron flow Fig. 15 SIMPLE ELECTRIC CELL During the chemical action hydrogen bubbles collect on the copper which decreases the emf of the cell. This defect is called polarisation. Also, the zinc plate is often eroded away, caused by impurities in the zinc. This is known as local action. Simple Voltaic Cell. Figure 16 shows the construction of a simple voltaic cell ‘The open circuit voltage is about 0.8 volts. When the switch is closed as shown, there is a displacement of electrons in the external circuit with the result that some electrons are withdrawn from the zinc electrode and the same number of electrons move on to the copper electrode. This leaves the zinc plate with a surplus of positive charge and the copper plate with a surplus of negative charge. The negative sulphate ions in the electrolyte are attracted towards the zinc and the positive hydrogen ions are attracted towards the copper. -l-‘CURRENT CONVENTIONAL FLOW SWITCH COPPER zINc ANODE D+ CaTHODE DILUTE SULPHURIC acto Fig. 16 SIMPLE VOLTAIC CELL ‘The sulphate ions, after giving up their surplus electrons to the zinc electrode, combine with the zinc to form zinc sulphate that goes into the solution. The hydrogen ions, after absorbing electrons from the copper plate, form a gaseous layer on the surface of the copper, thus: : al, It gives rise to polarisation, ie it sets up a back emf. b). It acts as a shield reducing the active area of the electrode and this increases the internal resistance of the cell. | 7 ee This causes the terminal voltage Of the cell ‘to fall very rapidlyrand-this type of cell is therefore only suitable for intermittent use. Polarisation cari be reduced by introducingja depolarising agent to combine with-the hydrogen, eg mangan¢se‘dioxide in the ‘Leclanche’ cell. The Daniell Cell. Invented in 1836 by John Daniell (Kings College, London). Used in some laboratories, it consists of a copper container (the positive pole) filled with saturated copper sulphate solution. Within the container stands a porous earthenware pot containing a zinc rod (the negative pole) within a zine sulphide solution (sometimes a dilute sulphuric acid). INC ROD COPPER SULPHATE CRYSTALS OIvIDER. copper COPPER SULPHATE, ‘SOLUTION zine SULPHATE ‘SOLUTION POROUS Por: Fig. 17 THE DANIELL CELL -12-When the poles are connected with a conductor the electrons flow from the zinc ()) to the copper (+). Polarisation does not occur because the copper, and not the hydrogen, is deposited on the copper container. This copper deposition causes the copper sulphate solution to become more dilute. To allow the cell to be used for a period of time copper sulphate crystals are placed inside the copper container above a perforated divider - this keeps the solution in a saturated condition. The advantage of the Daniell cell is that it keeps a very steady emf of 1.1V so is used as a standard voltage. Its disadvantage is that if it is not used for short period of time then copper sulphate solution will diffuse through the porous pot and deposits copper on the zinc rod - which spoils its’ action. So each time the cell is used it has to be made up afresh The more common type of cell is the ‘dry cell’ known as the Leclanché cell (Georges Leclanché. French engineer 1839 -1882). ee In the Léclanché cell the liquid is replaced With @ solution of Sal amimoniac, the positive plate is a carbon rod and the negative plate is zinc. The positive plate is surrounded by carbon and manganese dioxide, which acts as a depolariser The cell voltage is typically 1.5V and-agdin electron flow is carborrto’zinc internally and zinc to carbon through the, external circuit, Converitional current flow is the opposite. \ ! In basic cell theory the +ve plate is often/callled the anode and the -ve plate the cathode. ; 4 Other types of primary cell are shown in table 1. + enn car case SEAL ZINC -VE CASE LINEN, LINER? PLASTER OF PARIS SOAKED WITH SAL AMMONIA CARBON, +VE ROD, -y MANGANESE & CARBON POWDER Fig. 18 LECLANCHE CELL (DRY) -13-TYPE VOLTAGE PROPERTIES USES Carbon zine 15 Popular. Voltage falls with Hand torches (Leclanche) increased current. Good for low Portable radios current/occasional use. Cheap. ete. Alkeline- 1.5 Voltage falls less steeply in use. Radios Manganese Long shelf life. Better for lighter Calculators currents. Lasts up to 4 times Flash longer than same size carbon photographic zine cell. Medium price. units Mercury 1.3 Almost constant voltage until © Watches discharged. Good for low Calculators current use. Good capacity/size Cameras ratio. Long shelf life. Constructed Hearing aids. as small “buttons”. Expensive. Silver oxide 1.5 Similar-to-the mercury cell. ;———-~~ TABLE 1 - TYPES OF PRIMARY CELLS STEELOUTER "cap ve case WE — POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE Fig. 19 BASIC MERCURY FLAT CELL Secondary Cell or Battery The secondary cell is one in which the chemical action is reversible by passing a current through the cell it can be ‘recharged’ after discharge and used again There are several types of secondary cells — lead acid, nickel cadmium, iron lithium ete. ‘The Lead Acid Cell. The lead acid cell has a positive plate of a lead antimony grid into which lead peroxide paste is forced under pressure. The negative plate is a lead antimony grid into which pure spongy lead is forced. The electrolyte is a solution of sulphuric acid and distilled water mixed to an SG (Specific Gravity) of approximately 1.25 to 1.27 -14-TERMINAL VOLTAGE 2.2V PER CELL NOMINAL VOLTAGE 2.0V PER CELL ELECTROLYTE RO 1.260 NEGATIVE PLATES. Spongy lead POSITIVE PLATES Lead peroxide (PbO) Lead sulphate (POSO4) TERMINAL VOLTAGE ELECTROLYTE RD 1.1 Fig. 20 EXPLODED VIEW OF TYPICAL LEAD/ACID SECONDARY’ ‘CELL Figure 20 shows an exploded view of the cell with a number of positive and negative plates, these are interleaved.anid-¢ach positive and negative plate is prevented from touching each other by separators, which are typically made of micro-porous plastic. You will note that it is arranged that there i ig one more negative plate than positive so that the negative Pigtes a are on the outside, ‘This is because the positive plates tend to distort when there is chemical action on one side only. The plates are placed in an acid proof container and the container is filled with an electrolyte. At the top of the container is a vent plug to allow gases to escape during the chemical action The nominal voltage of each cell is 2 volts. Fully charged the voltage will be 2.2V, fully discharged 1.8V. Assuming the cell to be fully charged and connected to a circuit then electrons will flow from the spongy lead plate (-ve) to the lead peroxide plate (+ve) through the circuit Chemical reaction in the electrolyte causes lead sulphate on both plates, water is also released during this chemical action, which weakens the electrolyte ie, the SG falls. When the voltage falls to 1.8V the cell, is said to be discharged -15-eee By connecting a power source across the cell (+ve to +ve and ~ve to -ve) it can be recharged, electrons are forced into the cell at the negative terminal which, by chemical action, changes the plates back to spongy lead and lead peroxide. The water is changed back to sulphuric acid, the SG of the electrolyte rises, as does the cell voltage to 2.2V, the cell has now been recharged. ‘The Nickel Cadmium Cell One type of alkaline cell is the NICKEL CADMIUM (NiCad) CELL. In this cell the plates are a woven wire screen into which the active materials are sintered (a form of powder technology heat treated) into the plates. The materials are nickel hydroxide for the positive plates and cadmium hydroxide for the negative plates, Figure 21 shows the construction of the cell, Note the separators are nylon - cellophane - nylon wrapped between the plates. aeThe plates are placed in a container, which is usually a plastic material, with a vent plug again to allow gases to escape. The electrolyte is a solution of distilled water and potassium hydroxide with an SG of 1.24 to 1.3 NOMINAL VOLTAGE 1.20 ‘CHARGED Nica CELL DISCHARGED Nicd CELL POSITIVE PLATE oe POSITIVE PLATE NICKEL HYDROXIDE 4(OH)3 NICKEL HYDROXIDE N(OH) NEGATIVE PLATE NEGATIVE PLATE ‘CADMIUM Ca eu CADMIUM HYDROXIDE Ca(OH) ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE KOH RD 1.24 to 1.3 depending on (ype of com contact” TERMINAL VOLTAGE 1.5V POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE KOH, RD does not alter during discharge. TERMINAL VOLTAGE 1.010 4.1V Fig. 22_A-NI-CAD CELL During charging’the negative plate loses oxygen and becomes cadmium. The nickel hydroxide on the positive plate accepts this oxygen and becomes more highly; oxidised Ni(OH}2 > Ni(OH)3. As the cell becomes charged the cell emits gas caused by the water in the electrolyte being decomposed by electrolysis. ‘The hydrogen gas is released at the negative plate and oxygen at the positive late which causes some water loss in the electrolyte. When the cell is fully charged (typically 1.5V) electrolyte is driven from the plates and will be at its highest level within the cell. During discharge oxygen is driven from the positive plate and recovered by the negative plate. No gassing takes place, and the electrolyte is absorbed into the plates and the level drops. The electrolyte plays no part in the chemical reaction; it is only used to provide a path for current flow so the SG does not change between charge and discharge ‘The nominal voltage of a ni-cad cell is 1.2 volts. This voltage is maintained throughout the discharge period until 80% capacity has been removed from the cell. -17-Cell Symbol ‘The symbol for a cell/battery is —{F— with the longer vertical line being the positive connection and the shorter the negative connection. A battery is made up of a number of cells. Battery Connections The majority of modern aircraft are wired on a single pole system, ie one terminal (usually the negative) of every consumer component in the system is connected to earth (the metal of the airframe). Under this system the airframe becomes part of the electrical system which means it is easy to short circuit the battery during connection and disconnection (if the battery has separate positive and negative connections ~ similar to most motor vehicles). These type of batteries are fitted to older aircraft and when fitting the battery the positive jead is connected first with the negative lead last. When disconnecting remove the negative lead first and the positive lead last. For all médern aircraft both leads-are-connected via a single screw-in plug which is handed so the connections cannot be reversed. Retnember ‘all systems and the supply must be OFF during connection /disconnection and after connection the system/s must be tested, For composite aircraft the airframe cannetsbe used {composites are normally non-conductive) as the return path so a single pole system cannot be used. In this case the wiring system is a'double pole system with a positive anda negative wire going to each component (similar to domestic wiring - though that does also-have an earth wire) all Capacity ‘The capacity of a cell/battery is the maximum current it can deliver for a known period of time. Therefore if a cell is rated 10AH (Ampere Hours) at the one-hour rate if 100% efficient then it should be capable of delivering 10 AMPS. for 1 hour. ie: AMPS x TIME (HRS) = AMPERE HOURS 10 x 1 10 AH Series and Parallel Connections If two cells are connected in series, each of 2V 10AH, then the overall voltage and capacity is 4V 10AH. If the two cells are connected in parallel then the overalll voltage and capacity is 2V 20AH. [iss=o Fig. 23 TWO 2V 10AH CELLS IN SERIES '¢—— 2 2008 >! Fig. 24 TWO 2V 10AH CELLS IN PARALLEL Blectro-magnetic Induction Another method of generation’electricity is by magnetism and. most generators. If flux lines are cut by a,conductor as partiof an electric circuit then an emf is produced. The flux lines can be cut by: * Moving a magnet passed a stationiaty conductor (coil) * Moving the conductor past a stationary magnet. oo * Having one stationary coil fed with ac next to another statioriary coil (The build-up and collapse of the flux lines from the first coil will cut the second coil and produce an ac emf in the second coil). Note, there has been no actual movement of the ‘hardware’ but there has been ~ movement of the flux lines across the second coil so’an_emf is ~produced) 7 Fig. 25 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC INDUCTION When a magnet is moved into an air cored solenoid as shown in figure 25, the voltmeter will deflect to one side while the magnet is being lowered indicating an “induced emf”. This is the basis of the generator. There would be no induced emf if the magnet was held stationary. ju]ELECTRICAL TERMS Before we look at the following circuits it is necessary to understand the terms used. Some of these we have met already, some are new, all should be committed to memory. Electromotive-force {emf). This is the driving influence that causes current to flow. Its unit is the VOLT. A battery or generator produce an emf. Potential Difference (pd). This is the voltage difference between two parts of a circuit or between two circuits. Voltmeter showing 3v Voltmeter;showing~ Ww — The circuit in figure 26 has an émf of 4 volts. If we wish to know the potential difference between A and B the voltmeter (V1) will read 3 Volts, ie the portion of the emf appearing across the 3 vélt lamp this is then the pd between these two points. The-pd between B and-C is-i-volt./‘The pd is therefore-a voltage measurement (difference) betweetr two points in a circuit.” The total pd is 4 volts. Voltage (V). The unit of emf and pd. It can be compared to pressure in hydraulic or fluid terms. Current (I). The unit of electron flow measured in Amperes (A). It is defined as a flow of 1 coulomb per second. A coulomb is about 6.3 x 10! electrons. (there is. no need to remember this). Current can be compared to flow in fluids If there is pressure in a hydraulic system but the control valve is off then there is no flow and nothing works. The same with electrical circuits. If there is voltage and the switch is off there is no current. With the switch on there is current flow and something works. Resistance (R). Electrons flow more easily through some materials than others. This opposition to current flow is called Resistance and is measured in ohms (). There is not such a direct comparison with hydraulics here though there is resistance to fluid flow due to viscosity ete. -20-Conductance (G). This is the reciprocal of resistance: co R ‘The unit is the siemen (S). A resistance of 10Q has a conductance of 0.18. Charge Q (Quantity). The quantity of electricity passing a given point in a circuit when a current of 1 ampere is maintained for 1 second Q = Hamps) x t(secs] the unit being the COULOMB. If a current of 12.5A passes a point for 2 minutes the quantity of electricity that has passed ~ 12.5 x 2x 60 = 1500C Conventional Current Flow. From positive to negative. Electron Flow. From negative to positive 2 —. RESISTANCE The factors which affect resistance are: 1 * Material. oo ; * | Length of conductor. / * | Cross sectional area of conductor. : * | Temperature. | | id / } i Material oo c As we have already seen some materials are good conductors eg, silver, copper, aluminium. Other materials such as glass and mica are not. The conductors have a low resistance and the insulators have a high resistance. All materials have some resistance, silver has a lower resistance than copper for example. Each material therefore has a constant value of resistance per metre length. This value is found by measuring the resistance between the opposite faces of a unit cube of the material and is usually expressed in ohm-metres (Q-m) and is called the resistivity or specific resistance of the material. The symbol p(rho} is used for resistivity. Some typical figures are shown below. MATERIAL Quam Aluminium 2.7 x 108 Brass 7.2% 108 Copper 1.5.x 108 Zinc 5.57 x 108 -21-‘The above values are taken at 0°C and will change with a change in temperature Length (1) If a conductor has a resistance of 2 and is Scm long, the same conductor 10 cm long would have a resistance of 49. Resistance is therefore directly proportional to length. Imagine pumping fluid down a pipeline, the longer the pipeline the more difficult it would be to pump the fluid down. Cross Sectional Area (A) ‘The thicker the wire the smaller the resistance (more electrons can flow]. The thinner the wire the greater the resistance. If the cross sectional area is double the resistance is halved. The resistance is therefore inversely proportional to cross’sectional area. Again if ne thinks-of pumping fluid downra pipeline, it would be easier to pump the bigger the diameter of the pipeliné and more difficult the smaller the diameter. ‘The relationship between these factors is given by the formula ACTIVITY _L the length of a material is doubled and its cross sectional area is doubled, what is the effect on’its resistance? |. ‘Temperature The resistance of all pure metals (conductors) increases with an increase in temperature and they are said to have a positive temperature coefficient. ‘The resistance of insulators and semi conductors and thermistors decreases with an increase in temperature and are said to have a negative temperature coefficient. Some alloys such as constantan, eureka and manganin show very little resistance change over their working temperature range. FIXED RESISTORS These are resistors the value of which cannot usually be changed. In other words they are not variable resistors -22-Fig. 27 FIXED RESISTOR SYMBOL In some books the symbol might be a zig-zag line eg: WV When a designer chooses a resistor certain factors must be taken into account. ‘These are tolerance, power rating, and stability. Due to mass production of resistors their exact value cannot be guaranteed and the tolerance specifies the maximum and minimum value of resistance the resistor will have eg, 200 + 10% - this will have a resistance value from 180 to 2200. All resistors have a power rating (in watts) which indicates the maximum power |) that can be dissipated without the temperature rise being such that damage occufs-to-the resistor. If the current through the resistor is exceeded the resistor will overheat and burn out.” ~ — In electronic circuits typical ratings are ‘AW, %W, 1W and 2W. The greater the physical size, the greater its rating, The stability of a resistor is its ability tomaintain its resistance value over a period of time within a working circuit. This can be an important factor in some electronic cifcuits. ‘Types of Fixed Resistors eae In the Carbon Film Type, a film of carbon is deposited on a ceramic rod and protected by an insulating coating. Typical tolerance is + 5% from a few ohms to 10MQ. Ratings from 0.125W to 1W with very good stability. Sa EE ee Fig. 28 CARBON FILM RESISTOR The Metal Film Type is a metal oxide deposited on a ceramic rod protected by an insulating coating. Their ratings are typically 0.5W with a tolerance of + 1% and offer high stability. ‘The Wire Wound Resistors have low tolerance and high stability, and any resistor over 1W will be of the wire wound type. -23-The wire is either nichrome, constantan or manganin wound on a former and given a protective coating. They have resistance values from 1 to 25kQ and can operate up to 10-20W —=>-—_— Fig. 29 WIRE WOUND RESISTOR Ifa very large power rating resistor is required the resistor may be metal bars within a cage to allow air circulation for cooling. Resistor Coding One method employed for coding is shown figure 30. The resistor has four bands as shown. The first band is the first digit the second band give the second digit, the third band gives the multiplier ie, the number-of-0's to be added, The fourth band gives the tolerance - typically + 5% or +-10%. If no fourth band is present the tolerance is + 20% Colour Significant-| Decimal | Tolerance | / ; Figure~~|" Multiplier | (per cent)|" ' no band i Silver i ; 0.01 Gold 10.1 Black 0 1 = [Brown a 10 eae [Red I Zi {102 | Orange 3 103 Yellow [4 104 = Green | 5 108 Blue 6 108 Violet 7 107 Grey 8 10s : White 9 1 | Example 1st number ‘Tolerance Orange 3 Number of Blue 6 noughts Silver 10% 2a¢ number een 5 noughts 3,600,0002 Fig. 30 RESISTOR CODING oaSome resistors with a tolerance of 1% are marked with a brown band and those with a tolerance of 2% are marked with a red band. Some resistors have a fifth band which indicates a reliability factor which is a percentage of failure per 1000 hours of use, eg a 1% failure rate would indicate that one in every hundred resistors will not remain within tolerance after 1000 hours of use. Band § colours indicate the following percentages: Brown - 1 Red = On Orange - 0.01 Yellow - 0.001 On some resistors, due to their shape and size, the colour coding is difficult to apply so a printed code is used. in the example shown R means x 1, K means x 1000 and M means x 1,000,000. The position of the letter gives the decimal point. 0.479 R47 3.30 3R3 479 = 47R 2202 220R 4.70 4K7 68kQ 68K 4.7MQ 4M7 Tolerances are indicated by adding a letter at the end, F= +1% G = 42% J 25% K = £10% M = 20% ACTIVITY 2 Using the band method, find the colour code for the following resistors: (1) 47k + 5% (2) 5.6kQ* 10% @) 3.00 Using the printed code write down the values for the above resistors. Ifa 47kQ resistor has a tolerance of + 10% then its resistance can be in the range 42.3kQ to 51.7kQ, and since exact values of fixed resistors are unnecessary in most electronic circuits, only preferred values are made. eosThe 47kQ would cover values between 43kQ and 52kQ and the next preferred value would be 56k +10% which covers 50.4kQ to 61.6kQ so there is minimum overlap between them. Table 2 shows the preferred values. The figures in the table can be multiplied by any power of ten to obtain the required range Percentage tolerance 20 percent 10 percent 5 percent 10 10 10 onl 12 12 13 15 ae 15 . : 16 18 18 20 22 | -ee 22 24 27 27 | 30 33 a 33 zi 36 39 39 43 47 47 47 51 56 56 62 68 68 68 75 82 82 91 TABLE 2 - TOLERANCE OF RESISTANCE VALUES 26"VARIABLE RESISTORS ‘These are resistors where the value can be changed either as an adjustment by an engineer or automatically whilst the system is running. a JF —vyh— Fig. 31 VARIABLE RESISTORS ‘They basically consist of a circular or straight track of carbon or wire wound resistor with a moveable wiper arm. The movement of the wiper arm may be circular around a pivot or hinge or it may move linearly along a track. Figure 30 shows a circular type. WIPER ARM winowes-7 Dy. Bes auccmen LA conncerious © Fig. 32 CIRCULAR RESISTOR There are two ways of using a variable resistor; as a rheostat or potentiometer When used as a rheostat it controls the current in a circuit eg, current to a lamp ~ the lamp can be made to burn brighter by increasing the current to it. So the variable resistor changes the resistance in the circuit and hence the current, BATTERY & LAMP VARIABLE Resistor “~— Fig. 33 RHEOSTAT When used as a potentiometer it is used to provide a variable voltage from a fixed supply. SoneOo 4 input voltage “YFoutput voltage Fig. 34 POTENTIOMETER THERMISTORS These are ‘thermally sensitive resistors’ which are made of materials whose resistance changes considerably with a small temperature change. Most thermistor decrease their resistance with an increaseinr temperature ie, they Have a negative temperature coefficient. They are made in either rod, dise or bead form, and are made of oxides of nickel, manganese, copper, cobalt and other materials, They are used extensively on aircraft as temperature sensors in heating, air conditioning and battery systems. There are some thermistors that Have &positive temperature coef coefficient. The material used for their construction is batium titanate, they may be used in circuits to limit ciirrent due to excessive temperature rise. VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTORS Sometimes known as varistors, these are devices whose resistance reduces as the applied voltage is increased. They are manufactured from silicon carbide. Applications include transient voltage suppression, voltage stabilisation and switch contact protection eg, it is connected across the component to be protected and draws only a small current at its normal operating voltage. However, should the voltage increase, (ie a surge) its resistance reduces, and it absorbs some of the energy in the surge by diverting current through itself. VOR Fig. 35 SYMBOL - VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTOR -28-DC CIRCUITS OHM’S LAW “The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it if the temperature and other physical conditions do not change”. This law expressed in a relationship between current voltage and resistance is: This triangle might help. up the quantity-that needs to be relationship is left uncovered. | This is a fundamental law of electricity ahd must be remembered. Given two of the properties you must be able to-find-the third. Examples a ~ a) _’ We know V = 6V_ 1=2 (2) We know V = 100V 100V R= 500 R= 500 8) 1=2A > We know 1= 2A R= 150 v=? 159 V=IxR= 15x 2 = 30 volts -29-ACTIVITY 3 (1) The current through a circuit of resistance 5kQ is SmA. Calculate the voltage applied to the circuit (2) A voltage of 250V is applied to a resistance of SMQ. Calculate the current in the circuit. (3) A current of SmA flows through a circuit with an applied voltage of 100V. Calculate the resistance of the circuit. Series Circuits Where several components are connected end to end in such a way that there is only one path for the current (the same current flows through each component) then we have a series circuit. ee eee Vv a Fig. 36 SERIES CIRCUIT ‘There-are-thrée points to note.about-a-sériés circuit: ae 1. The current is the same for all components in the circuit. 2. The voltage drop across each component when added together equals the supply voltage (Vs = Vi + V2 + Vs) 3. The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the individual resistors (Rr = Ri + Rz + Rs ....) 62 8Q__t 1002 — — 7 | 12 Example Total Resistance of the circuit is: Rr= Ri + Re+ Rs =6+8+10 = 240, -30-‘The current in the circuit is I ~ z 1-22 -0.5a 24 Being a series circuit this is the current throughout the circuit. As the emf (12V supply) forces electrons through the resistors there is a loss of voltage through each resistor called a voltage drop. The voltage drop is, using ohms law, 1x R. It is essential when finding “voltage drops” that only the voltage and current to that particular resistance is used. In our case voltage drop across. R) =1xR Veurply = Vi + V2 + V3 b—- 7 { 12 =34+44+5 9, ACTIVITY 4 For both circuits shown below find the: (a) Total resistance. (o) Total current. {c) The voltage drop across each resistor. @ (2) 2507 200V 150 Voltage Division Because a voltage drop is developed across a resistor when current flows through it, several resistors can be used in series across an applied voltage to give a division of voltage in a circuit. When resistors are connected in this way it is called a Potential Divider. -31-In figure 37 the total resistance is R = Ri + Re + Rg, so R is 200. Knowing the total resistance and also the voltage the current can be calculated: ‘This current flowing through each resistor develops a voltage drop across each resistor. In Ri, the voltage drop V; is IR) = 2 x 12 = 24V In Ra, the voltage drop V2 is IR2=2x6= 12V In Ra, the voltage drop Vs is IRg=2.2= _4V 40V = Applied voltage. Fig. 37 A POTENTIAL DIVIDER From this we can see that the applied voltage of 40V is divided among the resistors in proportion to their resistance, and the proportion method of division as described above may be used as a double-check. We can develop this a stage further. Each voltage drop has a polarity as. indicated in figure 38. If we ‘earth’ point D (figure 38 a)) then because Rs has a voltage drop of 4V across it in the polarity shown, we say that point C is 4V positive with respect to earth Similarly, because Rz has a voltage drop of 12V across it in the polarity shown we can say that point B is 12V positive with respect to point C and 12 + 4 = 16V positive with respect to earth. In the same way point A will be found to be 40V positive with respect to earth. -32-vs=40) Point D earthed Point C earthed fa) (b) Fig. 38 OUTPUT VOLTAGES RELATIVE TO EARTH If poitit Cis earthed then the Voltages at the various outpiit points, would be as shown in figure 38[b]. The voltage division is the same but the voltages at the output relative to earth are different. } Potential dividers are used to apply different voltages for various circuits from a single supply voltage. ON ee Parallel Circuits’ / Components connected in such a way that they provide alternative paths for current flow are parallel connected and the circuit is a parallel circuit. L la Ip Fig. 39 PARALLEL CIRCUIT ‘There are three points to note about this parallel circuit. (1) There is a common voltage across all the components. (2) The current divides among the components depending on the value of each resistance. If they all have the same resistance value then they will all have the same current irrespective of the voltage. -33-NOTE: The current through the component is dependent on the voltage applied and the resistance of the component, it is not affected by the resistance of any component connected in parallel with it. The total current flowing into a system is the same as that flowing out and all currents in the various branches must add up to the total current So supply current [r= li + Ie +s (3) The total resistance of the circuit can be found by the formula fe et + i -2 {add fraction’ by using a common denominator) 8) Ry e =50 (invert both sides of the equation) Remember, for the non-mathematicians amongst us an equation cannot be inverted as at (3) above (unless you really know what you are doing) while there is a plus or minus sign as part of the fraction - as in 1 plus 1 in (2) above. So work the equation out to a simple fraction without any plus or minus signs and then invert as in (3) above Note. There is a quick way of find out the resistance of two resistors in parallel of the same value, without using the formula. Where resistors of the same value are in parallel the total resistance is half one of them. This idea can be extended to any number of equal resistances connected in parallel. Their total resistance will be one resistance divided by the number in parallel. eg, 10 resistors in parallel of 100 each would be 2 =19 oaa5Example 2 Ri [ jon | 120 Using the formula _ Ry 1 a mG) 12 ee eet S Re 12) 12 product sum Another way of doing this with two unequal resistors is the rule. In this case Ry = 6Q a R2= 129 product - 6x12 ium? = HUD. produc 72 sum 18 Note also another important point, the total resistance is always less than the lowest resistor in the parallel branch. Example 3 -35-Note, the total value is less than the smallest resister (49). The formula can be extended to cover any number of parallel resistors. Example 4 Find (a) The total resistance of the circuit. | (b) The current through each branch of the circuit. Total Resist ‘The voltage across each branch is the same ie, 60V. Vv _ 60 Se 1,=—=—=12A OER a6:Ve 00. > *—~=6A a S10) Vv _ 60 V 80 oy R, 30 Total Current lr=h+htls eee ogi Proof. Total resistance = 3 [ . R. - T n= 6A ‘ Lh=3A Ip=2A 60V Ri | || — Seriés/Parallel Circuits nee Most electrical supply systems use parallel circuits - domestic house wiring for example. Some systems use series circuits - Christmas-tree lights for example. Some electrical systems use both series and parallel circuits in the one circuit and these are called series/parallel circuits. A series /parallel circuit is shown, in figure 40. wv, a ToRE (Boon, 4Ka Fig. 40 SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS a7When working out the total resistance of this type of circuit always deal with the parallel branches first and reduce them to one value of resistance. Then you have a series circuit. So find out the total resistance for the 3, 12 and 4kQ resistors first. This one resistance could take their place as a series resistor in series with the 5009 resistor, then find out the total value of the two series resistors. ACTIVITY 6 For this circuit find: (a) Total circuit resistance. (b) Total circuit current. (c)_ Current through the 4kQ resistor. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS Kirchhoff (Gustav Robert - German physicist 1824 — 1887) made several discoveries in the field of electries; Some.of his laws we need to cothmit to memory. Kirchhoff’s First Law (sometimes called the Current Law) v This states that the total current flowing towards a junction|in a circuit is equal to the total current flowing away from that junction, that is, the algebraic sum of the currents flowing towards the junction is zero. i 312-0 at the junction“ o- where © means ‘the algebraic sum of In more basic terms this can be expressed as the current flowing towards a junction must equal that flowing away from the junction. To put it in hydraulic terms ~ all the fluid flowing to a pipeline junction must equal all the flowing away from that junction - unless there are leaks of course. JUNCTION 5A 6A 4a Fig. 41 JUNCTION 1 eceIn figure 41 there is 11A flowing towards the junction (SA + 6A) and only 4A flowing away plus the unknown current. This unknown current must be 11A - 4A = 7A to make 11A flowing towards the junction and 11A flowing away. With reference to figure 42, what is the value and direction of the unknown current? 6A 2A Fig. 42 JUNCTION 2 A current of 6A flows towards the junction and a current of 5A flows away from the junction. According to Kirchhoffs 1st law the current flowing towards a junction must equal that leaving the junétion, so to make up the 6A'leaving the unknown current must be 1A flowing from the junction ACTIVITY 7 / lee? i 12=6A c Ts=3A Find the value and direction of the following currents hy, Js, Ie and Ir. Kirchhoff’s Second Law (sometimes known as the Voltage Law) ‘This law states that in any closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the potential drops is equal to the algebraic sum of the emf's acting in the loop. ZIR=LE Putting it another way - all the voltage drops in a closed circuit when added together equals the applied voltage to that circuit (we have already covered some of this] ag")——_—_—_—v Vevitve+ Va Fig. 43 VOLTS DROPS - 1 gel es 450) 138V Fig. 44 VOLTS DROPS - 2 With reference ’to figure 44 the total voltage'applied to the circuit is 180V and the Voltage drops around the circu: 185 +45=180V0 Fig. 45 VOLTS DROPS - 3 In figure 45 the applied voltage is 120V - 60V (the batteries are connected in opposition positive to negative) = 60V which again equals the sum of the voltage drops 45 + 15 = 60V. -40-ACTIVITY 8 120V 35V Find the voltage drops across resistors Rz and Rs THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 1 The arrangement of resistors shown in figure 46 is called a Wheatstone Bridge, It can be used for; I \e _/ | Temperature measurement ~ acting as a| temperature contro! device for heated-windscreens for example... Measuring strain = fitted to landing gear for the accurate measurement of aircraft weight and C of G position for example. Measuring electrical values ~ used in measuring instruments. Fig. 46 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE -41-Consider the current flow from A to D (you could think of it as fluid flow in a set of pipelines) and assume that all the resistors are the same value then the same amount of current will flow down arm ABD as in arm ACD. The voltage at B will be the same as at C (there will be the same volts drop across R1 as R2) and the voltmeter will show zero. In this condition the bridge is said to be balanced. A volts drop is sometimes expressed as an IR drop (V = I x R} so: Ri = Re As the voltage drop across Rs must equal to the voltage drop across Rs then: TRa = laa Dividing one equation by the other: LR LR; eRe So ‘at balance’ this ratio of resistances is.true. : a ‘The Wheatstone Bridge may be used to measure unknown resistances. Assuming R4 is the unknown resistor, Rs is a calibrated variable resistor, Ri and Re being of known values, kts would be Adjusted until the meter is reading zero (bridge balanced) and the valué of Racan be found by py Bae R, R; Ra z Unknown Fig. 47 FINDING THE UNKNOWN RESISTOR - 1 Figure 47 shows the bridge where Re, R3 and Ri are all known values and the unknown value can be found using the equation above. ~42-If the bridge is used for temperature control systems eg, windscreen heating then one of the resistors is placed inside the screen next to the heater. Try the next one yourself. ACTIVITY 9 Work out the value of the unknown resistor R13 in the drawing. ‘Assuming the blag tobe Dalanceating Ris POWER, WORK & ENERGY = ~~~ Energy: and Work i ' Energy is the capacity to do work. A suspended weight has Potential Energy, and has potential to do work when it fall under the influence of gravity. A moving object has Kinetic Energy because it can do work when it hits something. ' The applied voltage in an electric circuit causes the electrons to move and when they do energy is transferred from the source to the circuit eg, when a lamp produces heat and light! s fa) All energy is measured JOULES (J) including electrical energy. If one joule of electrical energy is changed into other kinds of energy when one coulomb passes through a component, the voltage across the component is one volt ie, Joules (J) = coulomb (C) x volts (v). Since the Coulomb Q = Current (A) x time (s) joules amps x volts x seconds energy VxIxt joules Example 1 How much energy is expended when a 3009 resistor is connected to a 150V supply for 1 hour. Energy VxIx t joules -43-= 150 x 132 x 60x60 300 270,000 joules 270 or .27MJ Example 2 If the energy supplied to a circuit for 2 hrs is 200 joules/sec. Find the enerey expended. 200 Joules/sec = 200 watts Watt = VxI Energy expended = VxIxt 200 x 2 x 60 x 60 1.44 MJ (Mega Joules) Power ce = This is the rate at which work is done and ig measured in WATTS (W). It is the power developed in a circuit when an applied voltage of one'volt causes a current of one amp to flow. | Poo = VxI We know from ohm’s law that I = Substituting irf the formula also V=1xR So substituting again P IxRxI PR So the three formulas for power are: y? Vxi, PR, «(WATTS Energy (work done} As Power = 7 time taken ~44-Vit joules t seconds Watts Joules/sec (joules per second) and transposing the unit of energy can be expressed as a watt second. Examples 1=2A Resistance 12V vxl unknown 12x 2=24W 1=2A Voltage / PR = unknown = 2x2k6 = 24W Current unknown 12V R=62 | Power= Power Rating of Components When current passes through a resistor, the resistor becomes hot, if it gets too hot it could be damaged. The heat developed by a current in a resistor is PR watts, thus the rate at which heat is produced is proportional to the square of the current. Therefore if the current is doubled the rate at which heat is produced goes up four times. ‘The same consideration would apply to voltage to a resistor - as the power va developed ie, M. . R Electrical components can only stand a certain amount of heat without damage and is normal to give a wattage rating on the identification plate of the component. If this rating is exceeded the component will overheat. -45-For example a 6V 12W lamp means when connected to a 6V supply its resistance develops 12W of power and it is intended to work at this rating ie, it consumes 12W only at the correct voltage. However, if it is connected to a higher voltage than 6V the power is increased and the lamp may burn out. As we have seen previously, resistors are rated in different wattage ratings, the larger the resistor the greater the wattage rating ie, it can dissipate the heat better. Ifa 4Q resistor has a power rating of 36 watts, the maximum current it could carry would be: P =PR 36=Px4 Also vy? 36 = 4 4x 36= 144 _ 4 vi44 V = 12 volts maximum. So the current must not exceed 3 amps and the voltage must not exceed 12V. Example 6Q 182 aoeFind (a) The power developed across each resistor. (b) The total power in the circuit and also indicate what the power rating of each resistor should be. Total resistance of the circuit is 6 + 18 = 249 Ve 12 Los, R24 As it is a series circuit the current through both resistors is the same. ‘The power consumption across the 60 resistor is PR. = 0.5x0.5x6= L5W Across the 89 resistor the power is PR = 05x05x18 ‘The total power consumption is‘the sum. ofthe two 4.5 + 1.5 =6W As acheck VxI= 12x 0.5 = 6W The 60 resistor would be rated at 2W-and’the 180 resistor at SW, using the nearest standard wattage above thé calculated power. / A point worth noting, when calculating power across a component using the voltage or current formulas, it must be the voltage across the component and the current through it that has to be used. ACTIVITY 10 Find the power dissipated across Ri, Re and Rs and find the energy expended if the circuit (shown below) is supplied for 1 minute 62 2A 20 : Ro Lid 30 Ri EE Rs 24V -47-INTERNAL RESISTANCE All electrical components have internal resistance. In batteries it is mainly due to the resistance of the electrolyte; in electrical generators it is mainly due to the machine windings, and brushes. ‘The voltage across the open-circuited terminals of a supply is equal to the emf. When a load is connected to the supply the load current flows through the internal resistance of the supply and causes an internal resistance volts drop. With reference to figure 48 the on-load terminal voltage V is equal to the emf minus the internal resistance volts drop. So: V=E-Ir This means that a certain amount of the emf at the cell is not available to drive the current round the circuit because it is lost’ inside the battery. Where. T= Current interhal resistance EMF “y V TERMINAL VOLTAGE LOAD INTERNAL RESISTANCE Fig. 48 INTERNAL RESISTANCE If the battery was 1.5V and had an internal resistance of 19 and was supplying a lamp which took 0.3A then the internal volt drop would be: 0.3 (I) x 1 (R) = 0.3V. So the terminal voltage would be 1.5 ~ 0.3v = L.2V. If we put a voltmeter across the battery that is what we would measure. We cannot measure the internal volts drop. -48-MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM ‘This states that: Maximum power is developed in a load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the supply. The example below shows a battery of EMF of 12V and an internal resistance of 2 supplying a load R. E12 r+R 2+R le Power in load = PR Fig. 49 BATTERY - INTERNAL RESISTANCE Plotting load power against load resistance using the values {romi the table below produces the graph shown below. LOAD MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER POWER in | 4A] 16w 2a| 3a] lew 4q| 2A] 16w 1oa| 1A | iow 29 LOAD Fig. 50 GRAPH OF LOAD POWER AGAINST LOAD RESISTANCE When the load resistance and supply internal resistance are equal, the load and supply are said to be “matched”. The transference of maximum power from a supply to a load is often required in electronic circuits, and a typical example being the matching of an audio amplifier to a loudspeaker. blank -49-CAPACITANCE In general terms it is the ability of two conductors to store a charge (pd) between them. Figure 51 shows a battery connected to two metal plates positioned close to, but not touching, each other. When the switch is closed, electrons from plate X are attracted by the positive plate of the battery and repelled by the negative plate of the battery to plate Y of the capacitor. As we have removed electrons from plate X of the capacitor it becomes positively charged, and as electrons have been added to plate Y then it becomes negatively charged. This momentary movement of electrons is called the ‘charging current’. When the voltage across the capacitor equals the battery voltage, electron flow stops. The plates now have a positive and negative charge between them and if we open the switch this stored energy or charge remains in the capacitor. A C SWITCH. \ “SLECTRON FLOW i TT X CAPACITOR BATTERY Y /, Fig. 51 CHARGING A CAPACITOR The capi fores an electric Charge and in its simplest form described so far consists of two parallel plates separated by an insulator known as a dielectric - air in this case. ‘The property of a capacitor to store an electric charge when its plates are at different potentials is known as capacitance. A close analogy is hydraulics and the hydraulic accumulator. It will store pressure which it will release quickly when required. The capacitor will store charge as a voltage which it will release quickly when required. We can get a similar discharge rate from a battery by shorting the terminals (THIS IS DANGEROUS DO NOT TRY IT) but it destroys the battery. The capacitor can be charged and discharged almost an infinite number of times. The capacitor can therefore be used to store charge - for engine igniter plugs for example, but it can also be used as a transducer ~ fuel tank capacity indicating systems for example. -50-The unit of capacitance is the FARAD (F) (Michael Faraday British physicist 1791-1867) which is defined as “the capacitance of a capacitor which has a potential difference of one volt across its plates when it is charged by 1 coulomb of electricity”. c=-2 v Q = CV coulombs ‘The farad is too large a unit and typically the microfarad (uF), nanofarad (nF) and picofarad (pF) are used. The energy stored in a capacitor is given by the formula: Ya CV? joules Going back to our charged capacitor in its charged state. We have created an electric field between the two plates-In-this field are atoms of-the gases which make up dir, and figure 52 shows :how-thede atoms are ‘stretched (protons attracted’ to the negative plate, electrons to the positive plate) (CHARGED CAPACITOR PLATES Fig. 52 ATOMS OF THE DIELECTRIC (INSULATOR) UNDER STRESS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD The stronger the field, the more energy is stored. We could ‘discharge’ the capacitor by disconnecting the battery and connecting the wires together connecting the two plates. This would discharge the capacitor quickly (with an accompanying ‘fat spark’). The electrons would rush to equalise their potential and the atoms in the dielectric would relax back to their normal position. -51-The electric field strength (B) experienced by the dielectric is given by the formular: volts per metre where V = Voltage applied d = distance between the plates. Factors Affecting Capacitance Factors which affect capacitance include: * Area of plates * Their distance apart. * The type of dielectric If the areaof the plates is increased, this allows a greater charge to be held and theréfore Plate area is directly proportional to capacitance -— By changing the distance between the plates, the capacitance will change. As capacitance depends on the strength of the electric field, if the plates are moved further apart (weaker field) capacitance decreases, if the plates are moved closer together then the field-is-more concentrated ahd-the capacitance is greater. ‘The capacitance is therefore inversely proportional to the distance between ithe plates. | ‘The capacitance also depends ant the dielectric material and its relative permittivity [e,) of dielectric constarit (KJ. This is the ratio of-the-capacitance of the capacitor having a given material to the capacitance of the capacitor with air as the dielectric. The dielectric constant is just a number which tells you how much greater the capacitance is going to be than when air was the dielectric. For example, if a capacitor of 100uF with air (k value = 1) as the dielectric, has the dielectric replaced with Porcelain (which has a k value of 6) then the capacitance will be 600zF ie, goes up six times. Some typical dielectric materials and their k values ar Dielectric Dielectric Constant (k value) Air 1 Paper 2 Bakelite 45-55 Glass 5-10 Porcelain 6-7 -52-The table above shows that different dielectric materials have differing abilities to store electrical energy in the form of an electric field. ‘The relationship between the factors affecting capacitance and the capacitance of a capacitor can be expressed in the following formula: c= A d Where C = Capacitance k = Dielectric constant A = area of plates opposite each other d = distance the plates are apart A> AREA d= DISTANCE k= DIELECTRIC CONSTANT Capacitors in Parallel When capacitors are connected in parallel (figure 54) the voltage is the same across each one, but their charges will be different. c Qu = charge on Ci Qe = charge on Co Qr= total charge Ce v Fig. 54 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL SoaSo Qr= Qi + Qo (Q = CV remember) Qr=CixV+CoxV CrV = CxxV + Cox V dividing through by V we get Cr=Ci+ Co For capacitors in parallel we add their values eg, 250F in parallel with 500uF capacitor gives a total capacitance of 750uF. For capacitors in series we do a calculation similar to the one for resistors in parallel. Capacitors in Series Figuré-55 shows capacitors iniseries: The. charge on each capacitor-will be the same, but the voltage will be less than the supply voltage (V). ‘ C Va ca | er Q = charge on capacitors Vv. Fig. 55 CAPACITORS IN SERIES As V=Vi+ V2 andas v= & Q2_2,Q then =~ ccc Dividing by Q gives: product sum Note this is similar to resistances in parallel so the rule could be used for two capacitors in series. caExample - if C1 = 300pF and C2 = 200.F 1 XCp _ 300X200 _ 609 _ po y5¢ C,+C, 300+200° 5 then C = Note that the answer is less than the smallest capacitor. ACTIVITY 11 (1) Find the equivalent capacitance of 5uF, 10uF and 30uF capacitors connected in series. (2) What is the combined capacitance of the network shown. Remember to sort out the parallel group first. —_ SuF E hope a Cs 10pF , fo a ) In some cases, to reduce the size of the capacitor for a given capacitance, an interleaved construction is used (figure 56): Fig. 56 INTERLEAVED CAPACITOR ‘The capacitor shown has seven plates and six dielectrics, it therefore effectively consists of six capacitors in parallel. Working Voltage ‘The insulating materials forming the dielectric have very few free electrons available to form a current under normal conditions, but if they are subjected to an intense electric field, electrons may be torn from their atoms and current will flow, and “dielectric breakdown” will have taken place. SoaThe working voltage is the largest voltage (dc or peak ac] which can be applied across a capacitor without the dielectric breaking down and is often marked on the capacitor eg, SOV WKG. If it is exceeded dielectric breakdown will occur and current will flow. Leakage Current No dielectric is perfect, so each dielectric has a few free electrons, therefore when the capacitor is charged, a small leakage current will pass between the plates and for all practical purposes this can be neglected. Capacitor Coding Usually only ‘preferred’ values are manufactures similar to resistors. One method, similar to resistor-coding, uses the sub-multiple to indicate the position of the decimal point eg, 2:2nF-is Shown as 2n2 and 4:7pF.a8.4p7. In another method the colour coding similar to the resistor colour code is used with tolerance figures A further method uses a version ofthe resistor colour code using numbers, the first two numbers are the first two-numbers of the value and the third is the number of 0's to be added. > 101 —>//100pF = O.1nF = } 0.0001pF 333 <>! 33000pF +33nF ~=-0.033yF Tolerances are printed as shown in the resistor colour code. CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR Charging a Capacitor Through a Resistor (CR Circuit) When the switch is closed on the circuit (figure 57) the voltage of the capacitor rises and the current falls. When the switch is closed the current rises immediately to V/R amperes and the capacitor begins to charge up, ‘The capacitor continues to charge and the current keeps falling (since Vv-V, 1 c amperes). The charging curve is known as an exponential curve. ceeVer -V Ve ic 63.2% |- switch Vo 1 2 3 4 5 time (in CR) Fig. 57 CHARGING A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR Time Constant — ‘The time constant is the time taken for the'capacitor to reach 63.2% of the applied voltage, were: \ ‘T= CR seconds Where T is in seconds ~ Cis in Farads Ris inohms Discharge of a Capacitor Through a Resistor With reference to figure 58 assuming the capacitor is at V volts, when the switch is closed the capacitor voltage and current fails as shown. The current immediately increases to V/R amperes and the capacitor begins to discharge In CR seconds the capacitor has discharged to 36.8% of the pd across the plates (ie, it has fallen by 63.2%). The capacitor is fully discharged in 5 CR seconds. Once again the curve is an exponential curve -57-switch ‘ = 3 7 5 time (in CR.) Fig. 58 DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR Example: - A circuit has a capacitance of 14/F and a resistance of 1M with an applied voltage is 100V. Find (a) the time constant (b).__ the time to fully charge the capacitor. (2) time constant = CR seconds a = (1.x 10%)x (13/109 So this capacitor takes1 second for the voltage to rise to 63.2% of its final value, 5CR 5 x (1 x10) x (1 x 109) 5 seconds (b) Time to fully charge wud ACTIVITY 12 A capacitor of 80uF and a resistance of 2MQ are connected in series across @ 100V supply. Find (a) _ the time constant (b) the time to fully charge the capacitor (c) the charge on the capacitor. blank foes‘TYPES OF CAPACITOR Polyester ‘Two strips of polyester film acting as the dielectric are wound between two strips of aluminium (the plates). Values range from 0.014F to 10,F, and it uses the resistor colour code for value of the capacitor. Good all round properties. Can operate at high voltages ie, a few thousand volts. POLYESTER FILM INSULATION ast NUMBER (DIELECTRIC) ‘ang NUMBER ‘TOLERANCE NUMBER OF Os GREEN 5% ee WORKING VOLTAGE RED= 250 ALUMINIUM FOU. (CAPACITOR ‘YELLOW = 400v PLATES) Fig. 59 POLYESTER CAPACITORS_____ Mica Plates are formed by depositing a silver-film on mica or using interleaved sheets of metal foil (aluminium), Has-high stability and low toleranice/(#1%). Working voltage is high, leakage current is low. Values range fron 0.01F to 10,000pF. Metal foil Fig. 60 EXAMPLES OF MICA CAPACITORS Ceramic ‘These come in many forms eg, disc, rod or plate, shaped with the ceramic as the dielectric. Figure 61 shows a rod type. Small capacitance types range from 1pF to 1uF, with a high working voltage (up to a few thousand volts} oo.Other types may use a ceramic compound (barium titanate) which has a very high dielectric constant so gives a very high capacitance for a small physical size. Stability and tolerance are poor. OUTER CERAMIC TUBE SILVERED ELECTRODES ‘CERAMIC ROD Fig. 61 CERAMIC CAPACITOR Electrolytic ‘Thistis known as a polarised type>"The-most common typeis the aluminium type, Which consists of thin sheets of aluminium foil interléavedwith a material such as paper saturated with an electrolyte: When passed through an electrplytic bath, oxide film forms on one of the aluminium foil sheets, this forms'the-positive, the oxide film acting/as the dielectric, usually the aluminium(carract as the negative. A This gives a very/large capacitance for a small physical size (up to 150,000yF), | The main disadvantages are wide tolerance; high leakage current, poor stability, and-can only be used in.circuits‘where the supply.never reverses, (the dc leakage current maintains the oxide layer, reversed polarity will cause the layer to breakdown) It must therefore be connected the correct way in a circuit ~ positive terminal is marked + or by a groove. CconNecTions /\ case.) ELECTRODE PAPER IMPREGNATED iweontacr ‘WT ELECTROLITE. Warn ease ALUMINUM ELECTRODE: CouweereD To +vE Fig. 62 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS ecoVariable Capacitors (a) Consists of fixed (stators) and movable (rotors) vanes usually made of aluminium. When they move they overlap with each other and change the effective area (A in the equation), (b) ‘They usually have air as the dielectric. (c)_ Typical range being from SOpF to 500pF. ROTORS ROTOR CONTROL STATORS. Cr Fig. 63, VARIABLE CAPACITOR Pre-set Capacitors or Trimmers (a) This is a smaller version of the-air‘dielectric type shown-above/ but the width of the gap (d in the equation),is, usually varied asroppésed to the effective area. (v) There are mica compression and variable ceramic types available. (c) Typical values from 2pF to 50pF. _/ / ADJUSTING SCREW, MICA SHEET METAL PLATES connections Fig. 64 PRE-SET OF TRIMMER CAPACITOR Testing of Capacitors ‘An analogue multimeter or digital multimeter set to the high resistance range can be used to test a capacitor. Non-polarised Types ~ if the resistance is iess than about 1MQ it is allowing current from the battery in the multimeter to ‘pass’ so it is leaking and is faulty. Note - there may be an initial short burst of current as the capacitor charges up. -61-Polarised Types ~ for the dielectric to form in these types a positive voltage must be applied to the positive side of the capacitor (marked + or a groove). In most analogue multimeters the terminal marked ~ (black) is the positive of the internal battery when selected to the ohms setting. For digital meters the manufacturers instructions will have to be consulted. When the capacitor is first connected to the multimeter its resistance is low but rises as the dielectric forms, otherwise the capacitor is faulty. Capacitors are extensively used in electronic circuits as well as high energy ignition units and strobe light systems. More details in other modules in this series. ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES AND EXTRA QUESTIONS (EQs] FOR THE B1 STUDENT Activity 1 NoeffectasR=pl = = pfx 2 a Ax2 EQ If the length is incréaséd four times and the cross-sectional area is decreased to one half its original value, what is the effect on its resistance? : Answer: eight times increase-~“~ Activity 2 (1) Yellow, violet, orange, gold (2) ‘Green, blue, red, silver (3) Orange, black, gold Printed codes (1) 47kd (2) sk6k (3) 3R EQ1 What is the colour code for the following resistors? () 1500 + 1% Gi) IME #10% Answers: (i) brown, green, brown, brown (i) brown, black, green, silver EQ2 What is the value of the following resistors? () Red, red, green, gold (i) Green, blue, yellow Answers: (i) 2.2 M+ 5% (i) 560k -62-Activity3 (1) V=IxR = 5x103x 5x103 = 25v Q1=V = 9580 = 50x10 = SOA R 5x10¢ (3) R= Vv 7 = 20x103 = 20kQ I 5x10 EQ1 Calculate the current through a 2.8kQ resistor when 5.6v is applied to it. Answer: 2mA EQ2 Ifa voltage of 4v causes a current of 0.4mA to flow through a resistor, calculate the value of the resistance Answer: 10kQ. 5Q3,_A resistance of 6kQ-has a current of 1.5mA through it, ~~ Calculate the voltage applied. Answer: 9v Activity 4 1. (a) 250 (15+10) (b) 10 (250/25) (2 —_-150v across 159 resistor (10x15) 100v across 102 resistor (10x10) oS 000 (b) 4A {c) 40v across 109 resistor 56v across 149 resistor 104v across 260 resistor EQ1 For the current shown, find the total resistance and the voltage across cach resistor. 35Q 102 Ri Re ov Answer: a) 450 b) Ri = 7v, Ro = 2v Sos)ActivityS Ri = 60/3 = 202 Re = 60/2 = 30Q Ra = 60/1 = 602 EQ1 Find the combined resistance of the following circuits: 10kQ 10kQ Answer: = 1,5kQ__-’ Activity 6 First find the resistance of the parallel branch: i ei fe eo Gl RT 3 12 4 12 12 RT = 12 = 15k0 8 Sototal resistance = 1.5k2+5002 = —-2kQ Total circuitcurrent = IsV = 12 = 12 R 2kQ 2x108 = 6mA The voltage across the parallel branch is: IxRr = (6x109) x (1.5.x 108) a enCurrent through 4kQ resistor is: Ce eS R 4x108 Activity 7 Kirchoff’s Laws Current flowing towards point A must equal that flowing away from it, as there is 10a flowing away (Io + Is), I, must equal 10A. Current flowing towards point C is 6A so there must be 6A flowing from that point as Is = 3A, then I; = 3A flowing towards point B. Flowing towards point B is now 7A so Ie must equal 7A flowing away, Activity 8 Kirchoffs Laws ~ As total voltage across-circuit,is 120v then voltage across Re must be (120-45) = 75v. \ The total voltage across Rs and Ra is 75v -.Voltage across Re must equal (75-35) = 40v. oo Activity 9 Wheatstone Bridge So Riz f ( Rin é eo a 24. Ris = 24x6 = 20 6 Ris 72 Work Done EQ A 12v battery supplies a load of 120 ohms for 1 minutes. Find the work done. Answer: 720 Joules Activity 10 Resistance of parallel branch = 20 Total Resistance of circuit = 242 -40 Total Current = 24 = 6 amps Voltage across Ri = = 6 = 12volts -65-Voltage across parallel branch = 24-12 = 12 volts ” Power across Ri = V2 = 12x12 R 2 72 watts Power across Re = V2 = 12x12 = 24 watts R 6 Power across Rs = V2 = 12x12 = 48 watts R 3 Energy expended = Vxixt = 24x 6x60 = 8640 Joules -EQ~ A capacitor has a'charge of 400 pc the applied voltage is 200v. “What is the value of the Capacitor? ‘ Answer: 2pF In the above question find theenergy stored Answer: 0.04 joules Activity 11) 3uF —(i}4uF - Sut 12pf 3yf 4uf EQ Find the equivalent capacitance of the circuit. Answer: 2yf Activity 12 1 (a) 160 seconds (b) 800 seconds () .008 Coulombs 66EQL EQ2 A capacitor of 20pf and a resistance of 4MQ are connected in series to a 200v supply and fully charged. a) Find the time taken for the capacitor to discharge to 36.8% of its charged value b) The time taken to fully discharge the capacitor. Answer: a) 80 seconds. b) 400 seconds A 20pF capacitor is connected in series with a 1MQ resistor. How long will it take to fully charge the capacitor? Answer: 100 us Per.Book 2 Module 3 MAGNETISM INDUCTANCE Licence By Post Licence By Post © copyright B 3.10to 3.11 ISSUE 383AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this bois far study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer’s handbook You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority {the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.CONTENTS Magnetism ‘The solenoid Permeability Magnetic materials Magnetisation Demagnetisation Reluctance ‘The hysteresis cycle Induetio Mutual inductance Lenz’s law Induction in a de circuit Extra questionsHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Magnetism and inductance are subjects for the B1 and B2 licensed personnel only. They do not apply to the A line mechanic It is important to have a sound knowledge of these subjects — at least to level 2. Much of the book need only be read once for the information to sink in but some parts will need more detailed study - particularly those areas where equations are involved Any details of scientists have been included for interest only and details need not be remembered.MAGNETISM The Earth’s Magnetic Field - Angle of dip The earth behaves as if it is a magnet. In fact it is an enormous electro-magnet that changes its polarity every 100,000 years or so. It has a considerable effect on magnetic compasses and can be considered as an imaginary magnet as shown in figure 1 The magnetic poles do not align with the geographic poles so that geographic north (on the spin axis of the earth) is different from the magnetic north (on the magnetic axis of the earth) EARTH'S MAGNETIC POLE (WORTH 6 x \\ THEEARTH GEOGRAPHIC os neneTic— SOUTH POLE EQUATOR mile % B eanticsmacnene pour tsournh Fig. 1 THE EARTH AS A MAGNET If a compass needle is suspended in such a way that it can rotate laterally as well as vertically then it will align itself with the earth’s magnetic field in such a way that it will “point north” and “dip” towards the actual magnetic pole. This pole is within the earth’s crust as shown in the drawing. Incidentally the drawing only shows one half of the field for clarity If a compass needle is suspended at the equator it will lie in the parallel lines of the earth’s magnetic field. Its north pole will point north (an actual south pole} and it will sit horizontal {ie no dip) When moved towards the poles the compass needle ‘dips’ downwards towards that pole. The angle of dip is the angle between the direction of the earth's magnetic flux and the horizontal. The angle of dip being greatest at the poles and least at the magnetic equator Dip angle is 0° at the equator and 90° at the poles.MAGNETS As early as 600BC the Greeks knew that a certain form of iron ore known as magnetite, or lodestone, had the property of attracting small pieces of iron. If a piece of lodestone was dipped into iron fillings it was noticed that the fillings clung in tufts, usually at two places, few iron fillings were attracted to the centre of the bar. The places where the attractive forces are concentrated are called poles. A lodestone is a natural magnet. A piece of iron stroked with lodestone becomes magnetised itself and forms an artificial magnet. We shall see later how artificial magnets can be made electrically and how other materials are used to form temporary and permanent magnets Properties of a Magnet When a bar magnet is freely suspended it may rotate to and fro for a short period of time but then comes to rest orientated in an approximate North- South, direction, = . \ Fig. 2 ALIGNMENT OF A BAR MAGNET ‘This is because the earth itself is considered to be a large natural magnet. The freely suspended magnet will have one end pointing to the earth’s north magnetic pole and is called the north-seeking pole or north (N) pole of the magnet, the other end is the south seeking or south (S) pole. If the north pole of a magnet is brought towards the north pole of a suspended magnet the two poles repel each other and the suspended magnet will move away. The effect is the same if the two south poles are brought together. However, if the south pole of the suspended magnet is brought close to the north pole of another magnet then attraction occurs.The attraction of poles can be summarised in the rule: LIKE POLES REPEL UNLIKE POLES ATTRACT Fig. 3 ATTRACTION AND REPULSION ‘The Spacé surrounding a magriet in-whichia magnetic force is-exertéd is called a magnetic field. Diagrammatically this may be represented by lines of magnetic flux, drawn to start at the N pole and ending at the S pole,'the lines of flux are assumed to pass through the magnet from south to north, so forming a continuous loop. Figure 4 shows.the-magnetic field and lines of flux for a bar magnet. ee Fig. 4 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A BAR MAGNET The invisible flux lines may be confirmed by placing a compass near the magnet at many different positions and plotting the direction of the compass needle. If iron fillings or magnetic inic is sprinkling on a piece of paper covering the magnet then the flux line pattern will also be shown Flux lines have the following properties: (a) The direction of a line of magnetic flux is that in which the north pole of a compass needle will point when placed on the line.(b) Each line of flux is a closed loop ie, is continuous N to S outside the magnet and S to N inside the magnet. (c}__ Lines of magnetic flux never cross. (d) Lines of flux may be considered in tension, they act like elastic bands, and try to straighten or contract in length. (}_ Magnetic lines of flux lying side by side and in the same direction tend to repel each other sideways. () Where lines of magnetic flux are close together the flux density is high and where they are further apart the flux density is low. Fig. 5 MAGNETIC FLUX LINES - BOTH MAGNETS ALIGNED Figure 5 shows two bar magnets parallel to each other. As the lines of flux are tightly packed between the two magnets (flux density is high) they will repel each other, the magnets will move away from one another until the flux becomes weaker and the repulsion ceases. The force between two magnets is, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them If the magnets are arranged as shown in figure 5 their individual fields will joint together and form one field. Some of the flux lines, starting from the N pole of one magnet, will cross to the S pole of the other magnet, pass along its length to the N pole, and then return to the § pole of the first magnet, completing its loop at the N pole where it started. These lines of flux tend to contract in length, resulting in a force of attraction between the magnets.Fig. 6 MAGNETIC FLUX WITH UNLIKE POLES OPPOSITE EACH OTHER Magnetic/Field Due to an Electrical Current When a conductor carries a current a magnetic field is produced around that conductor. Assuming we are looking at the conductor end on, then current flowing into the conductor {away fromthe reader into the page) is represented by a cross ®. Current flowing out of the page towards the reader is indicated by a dot ©. This may be remembered by the “William ‘Tell arrow”. If it is coming towards you (hopefully not), you will see the point of the arrow as a dot. If it is going away-from-you,-you will see the-tail-flights or feathers of the arfow as a cross. To determine the direction of the magnetic field around a conductor the CORKSCREW RULE is used. “A corkscrew (as when opening a bottle of wine) advancing in the direction of the current turns in the direction of the magnetic field (clockwise)” ‘The strength of the magnetic field round a conductor depends on the current, but even at high currents it is comparatively weak. If two conductors carrying current in the same direction are close to each other then the fields combine to give a force of attraction. If the current is in the opposite direction the two fields oppose each other to cause repulsion between the two conductors.ape CURRENT FLOWING INTO PAPER, CURRENT FLOWING AWAY FROM THE READER OUT OF PAPER TOWARDS THE READER Fig. 7 FLUX LINES AROUND A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR ATTRACTION a REPULSION. | Fig. 8 ATTRACTION/REPULSION BETWEEN CONDUCTORS The Solenoid” ; To obtain a stronger magnetic field from a conductor we need to wind the conductor in the form of a coil, where the magnetic effects of each winding in the coil are added. When a dc current is passed through the coil the flux pattern is similar to that of a bar magnet. Fig. 9 AN ELECTROMAGNET‘The polarity of this magnetic field is found by using the RIGHT HAND GRASP. RULE. “If the solenoid is grasped in the right hand with the fingers in the direction of the current, then the extended thumb points to the north pole” Refer to figure 9 We now need to introduce some more magnetic terms, and recap on those already discussed Flux is measured in WEBERS (wb) (pronounced Vayber) and has the symbol & {phi). It is the total flux emitted from the poles of a magnet. ) The flux density is the flux per unit area (2) and is measured in TESLA (T) and has the symbol B The magneto motive force (mmf) is the force that establishes the flux around a coil due to current flow through the turns of the coil. It is measured in Ampere turns (At) munf = I (amps) x‘N-(Turns)-At om Example. If 2 coil has 20 turns and has a current of 5A passing through it, the mmf is: 5x 20 = 100At The mmf sets up a flux in the coil, but we want to know how ‘strong this magnetic field is. / For instance, a 100 turn coil having a length of 0.1m would have a stronger magnetic field than the same 100 turn coil which was 0.5m long. In the second case the same flux is stretched over a longer distance. So to get some idea of the strength of the field we need to look at the mmf per metre length of the magnetic circuit, and this is called the MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH (also called MAGNETISING FORCE) it has the symbol H and the unit At/m. y= WADxN (turns) _ 44. 1 (metres) where | is the mean length of the magnetic flux path. Example A 400-turn coil carries a current of 2.5A; the length of the coil is 0.1m. Find the magnetic field strength of the coil. ee ea 1 H = 25x 400 0.1= 10,000 At/m The solenoid can have its magnetic field strength increased significantly by putting a core between the coil - typically made of soft iron. This is the principle of the electromagnet, which is used in relays, contactors, motors and generators for example Permeability This is the ability of a material to accept lines of flux and increase them. So when we passed current through a coil which has an air core then the flux produced is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength The ratio of B (Flux Density) to H (magnetic field strength] is a constant and is called the PERMEABILITY OF FREE SPACE, given the symbol uo (Greek letter ‘mu). — He = 2 = 4nx.10-7 H/m (Henry/metre) If we now place a soft iron bar inside the toil the flux will increase significantly. ‘The ratio of the flux produced with a soft iron core to the flux produced with an air core is called RELATIVE PERMEABILITY and has the symbol ,, So this effectively tells us the flux multiplyilig power of the material for the’same magnetic field strength. as Air hag a ur = 1, the value of p, for other materials is not a constant, it varies depending on the magnetic field strength {H). It is usual to represent the relationship-between flux density (B}-and magnetic field strength graphically for various ‘materials. 18 SHEET STEEL 18 = WROUGHT IRON 14 i 12 FLux East STEEL DENSITY (T) 4 CRSTIRON os | —— oa 02 AIR ° 2 s00 1000 ©1800 «2000-2800 «30003500 MAGNETIC FIELO STRENGTH Atm Fig. 10 GRAPH OF FLUX DENSITY AGAINST FIELD STRENGTH -8Looking at the graph you can see that at 3000 At/m magnetic field strength, the flux density of air is approximately 0.004T while that of sheet steel is approximately 1.6T, therefore, the relative permeability is: flux density in material oe flux density in air for same magnetic field strength _ 1.6 0.04 Bro = 400 bt the flux density is increase 400 times. Some materials can have a p; of 100,000. Note for air wo = B - ~ H for magnetic material your is known as the ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY and is given the-symbol u. MAGNETIC MATERIALS : Materials‘caii broadly be classified-as being either magnetic of-non-magnetic but, between these two extremes liéa rumber of groups of iriagnetic materials (a) Ferromagnetic ‘The relative permeability of these materials is very high, which include iron, steel, nickel, cobalt as well as a number of alloys. These materials may be further classified as ‘HARD’ or ‘SOFT’, ‘The harder the material, the harder it is to be magnetised, but once magnetised will retain its magnetism so they are suitable for permanent magnets eg, steel. Soft materials retain their magnetism while still under the influence of the magnetising field eg, soft iron placed in a coil, but once the soft iron is removed it returns to an un-magnetised state, so these materials are suitable for temporary magnets(b) Paramagnetic These materials have a relative permeability whose value is slightly greater than unity and become weakly magnetised in the direction of the magnetising field eg, aluminium, chromium, manganese and platinum. (c) Diamagnetic ‘These materials have a relative permeability of less than unity, they become weakly magnetised but in the opposite direction to that of the magnetising field eg, antimony, copper, gold, silver, zinc and glass. MAGNETISATION Domain Theory The basic theory is that the electrons spinning around the atom’s nucleus of a ferromagnetic material also spin on their own axis, each having.a small magnetic-field. A number of these-atoms group together toform-domains. In an unjmagnetised state these domains Have a magnetic axes that i randomly oriented, so magnetised domains tend to caincel each other out. i The overall effect is the materia] shows tig‘polarity. If however the material (eg, steel) is placed inside a current|carrying solenoid these magnetic-domains coincide with the mmf of the solenoid, therefore increasing theflux density. ‘There is an initial rise of flux as most of the/domains ‘ine up’ very quickly, then a very slow increase as thé next line up, and a point is reached where any further iricréase/of the magnetic field has little effect on inereasing flux density. This is known as SATURATION (see figure 11). SATURATION FLUX DENSITY H MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH Fig. 11 GRAPH OF MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH AGAINST FLUX DENSITY -10-So, to magnetise a steel bar we place the bar in a current carrying solenoid. ‘The polarity of the magnet can be found by the right hard grasp rule, as shown in figure 12. Grasp the coil with the right hand with the fingers pointing in the direction if the current - the thumb points to the north pole of the magnet Igeseesea aT Fig. 12 SOLENOID STEEL BAR ~Fig.'13 STROKING. METHOD OF MAKING MAGNETS A steel bar can be magnetised by stroking the bar with a magnet as shown in figure 13. Note the polarity produced at the end of the bar where the stroking is finished is at the opposite polarity to that of the stroking pole If magnet is broken into two halves, each half will have two poles as shown in figure 14. Fig. 14 BREAKING A MAGNET -ll-DEMAGNETISATION ‘The best way to achieve this is to use a circuit as shown in figure 15. Place the magnet inside a solenoid which is carrying alternating current. While the current is still flowing the magnet is withdrawn slowly to a distance of several metres in an E-W direction. ac supply Lon Step-down transformer —-Specimen —withdrawn aT a long distance West <—P East Solenoi Fig. 15. DEMAGNETISATION es So fifty times a Second (with a SOHz supply) the material is subjected to reversing-magnetic cycles. The’ magnet is held E-W so that it will not have any residualmagnetism due to the-earth’s magnetic field. This is sometimes called de-Gaussing (Karl Friedrich ~ German mathematician 1777-1855). CARE OF MAGNETS Any vibration or rough treatment such as dropping or hammering will cause weakening of the magnetism, also excessive heat can destroy the magnetism. A bar magnet tends to become weaker with age due to self demagnetisation, the magnetic domains at the poles tend to reverse polarity. To prevent this, bar magnets are stored in pairs with their opposite poles adjacent, with small pieces of soft iron called keepers placed across their ends ‘These keepers become strong induced magnets keeping the magnetic domains in line via the closed loop of the magnets and keepers. -12-Magnet Soft iron keeper N Bn Pairs of s N | Sj poles neutralise fone another Fig. 16 BAR MAGNETS WITH KEEPERS MAGNETIC SHIELDING (SCREENING) It is sometimes necessary to isolate equipment from the effects of magnetic fields. As there are no known insulators from magnetic lines of flux, another technique is required. Typically the piece of equipment might be surrounded with soft iron. Magnetic lines of flux will pass easily through soft iron. Materials which will pass lines of flux easily are said to have LOW RELUCTANCE - example - soft iroti_ Airhas HIGH RELUCTANCE>~Magnetic lines of flux will take the path of least reluctance so they will pass through the soft iron rather than through the air. SOFT IRON. Fig. 17 MAGNETIC SCREENING OF SENSITIVE INSTRUMENTS IN A MAGNETIC FIELD Reluctance The high values of yi in ferromagnetic materials implies that a small air gap in a ferromagnetic circuit will greatly reduce the flux. This is true, and an air gap is said to have high RELUCTANCE (8). Reluctance in magnetic circuits can be likened to resistance in electrical circuits. It is the opposition of a circuit to the magnetic flux. igsGap | jal Fig. 18 EFFECT OF AN AIR GAP ON A MAGNETIC CIRCUIT The Hysteresis Cycle Ifa magnetic material is taken through a complete cycle of magnetisation and demagnetisation and a graph plotted of flux density (B) against magnetic field strength (H) then the graph figure 19 is the result Points on the graph explained ~0 to'Q Initial magnetisation curve from start to-saturation. QtoR The magnetisation force is reduced to zero.! The length O-R represents the remanence or residual magnetism (RETENTIVITY) Rtos To reduce the flux density to zero the magnetising force is reversed and|the length, O-S represents the COERCIVE FORCE. = StoT Increasing the reversedjmiagnetising force causes the / magnetic material to reach saturation in the reverse / * direction. | “TtoQ” | Reversal of-magnetising force again makes material saturated if Hie original direction. (ampere turns/metre) Fig. 19 THE HYSTERESIS LOOP -14Hysteresis Loss Energy is required to magnetise and demagnetise a piece of magnetic material and this energy is dissipated in the form of heat. The area bounded by the curve represents the energy loss for each cycle of magnetisation and demagnetisation Large loss material Large coercive force |_— High remanence ie permanent magnet such as Ticonal Low foss material Small coercive force Low remanence ie temporary magnet such as Stalloy INDUCTANCE When a conductor is in a changing magnetic field an emf is pFoduced i in it This can be shown by moving a magnet into a coil, holding it in the coil and then withdrawing it. Figure 21] shows a volfmeter connected to a coil. As the magnet is moved into the coil the voltmeter will register, byt only when there is movement.If it is now held rotionless-iri the coil the volfmeter will show zero If it is withdrawn, the voltmeter will again register but in the opposite sense. N com Ue Fig. 21 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION -15-‘The result would be the same if the coil is moved and the magnet is stationary. When magnetic lines of flux cut or are cut by the coil an emf is said to be induced into the coil, this is the basis of a fundamental law of electromagnetic induction known as FARADAY’S LAW which states: “When a conductor cuts or is cut by a magnetic field an emf will be induced into the conductor. The magnitude of the emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux” What will make the induced emf larger? ‘The most important point to remember is that the greater the rate at which the magnetic field changes, that is the faster the magnet is moved, the greater is the induced voltage. If the number of turns on the coil is increased then more flux ‘cutting’ will take place, then again the emf would increase. If the strength of the magnetic field is increased (a stronger magnet) then once agaifi the emf would increase. So the|induced voltage depends on: , (1), Rate of change of flux. (2), Number of turns. : (3) Magnetic field strength. ~ i Mutual Induction i | We Have just seen that a charige of flux through a coil indtices’a voltage in the coil. This can be achieved without any physical motion by varying the current through the coil. SWITCH (OPEN) BATTERY Fig. 22 MUTUAL INDUCTION - 1 fiesConsider two coils as shown in figure 22. When the switch is closed the current rises, therefore the magnetic field is changing, this changing field in coil A ‘cuts’ coil B inducing an emf into B. When the current reaches its steady de value, there is no changing flux, so no emf is induced [AS SWITCH IS CLOSED THE wth STEADY CURRENT THE CunnENT NeREASES, THs CAUSES FLUX CHANGE THROUGH FLUX Ss STEADY AND THERE Is Cols -Tie METER DEFLECTS INDUCTION OCCURS Fig. 23-MUTUAL INDUCTION - 2 When the switch is opened, the current starts to fall, there is a changing flux, therefore an emf is induced. When the current falls to zero, there is no magnetic field and no induced emf... ‘AS SWITCH OPENS, CURRENT FALLS & FLUX LINES CHANGE BACK THROUGH COIL B & METER SWITCH OPEN. NO CURRENT. DEFLECTS IN THE OPPOSITE NO MAGNETIC FLUX & NO DIRECTION - INDUCTION OCCURS INDUCTION Fig. 24 MUTUAL INDUCTION - 3 ‘The effect of changing current in one coil and the resultant change of flux inducing an emf into a coil close to the first coil is called MUTUAL INDUCTION and the two coils are said to have mutual inductance (M). eng‘The unit of inductance is the henry (H) and the mutual inductance of two circuits is one henry when a current changing at the rate of one ampere per second in one circuit produces a mutually induced voltage of one volt in the other circuit. Another way of expressing this is If two circuits possess mutual inductance (M) of M henrys and there is a iy rate of change of current with respect to time (¢ J} the emf induced in \ the other circuit is: e- M& volts at Example A circuit possess a mutual inductance of 4H and the current changes at a rate of 50 Amps/sec then the emf induced is: e= Mi votts at e=4x50 \ 200 volts i How can the magnitude of the voltage induced in the second coil_bé improved? (increase the mutual inductance). \ 7 . i i | (a) _ By increasing the number of turns on/the first coil, produces a larger flux for the safle current. | (b) “Increasing the turns on the secorid coil, flux cutting more turns so more emf induced. (c}__ By placing the coils closer together, this ensures nearly all the flux in the first coil, cuts the second coil. (4) By placing the coils on top of one another on an iron core, the permeability of the iron will increase the flux produced by the first coil. (ce) The rate of change of current in the first coil, if this is increased, increased cutting of the second coil takes place and more emf is induced. If the first coil (primary) was connected to ac where there is a continual rate of change of current then a steady voltage would be induced in the second coil (secondary). This is the basis of the transformer which will be discussed later. It should also be noted that the position at the coils with respect to each other also effects the mutual inductance (M). olgeIf the second coil is at right angles to the first then very little of the first coils flux is cutting the second coil, the flux being parallel to the coil, therefore emf. induced is low and mutual inductance is low. Coupling Coefficient When two coils are placed together, most of the flux produced by one coil passes to the other and the coils are said to be ‘tightly coupled’. If the coils are placed well apart then only a small fraction of the flux of one coil is linked with the other and they are said to be Joosely coupled’. When there is linkage the mutual inductance (M) can be found from the formula: M= KVLiLe Whege- Kis the coupling coefficient (a number between 0 andunity] which is the proportion of the flux linkageywith-the\secondary winding — Example Two coil$ wound in a common magnetic circuit have inductances of JH and 0.64H1 If 50% of the flux is transferred,.find the mutual inductanée./ i iG M? KVL: a M=.0.5./i% 0.64 Lenz’s Law * “The direction of an induced emf is always such as to oppose the effect producing it”. In other words a sort of resistance. So in the case of a circuit with mutual inductance, the emf induced in the second coil, and assuming we have a complete circuit, will drive a current in the second coil circuit to oppose the increase of flux due to the increase of current in the first coil circuit. ‘This law is a fundamental law of electrical theory. More examples will follow. (* Lenz, Heinrich Friedrich Emil, Russian physicist 1804 to 1865) -19-Self Inductance Figure 25 (a) shows steady current flowing through a coil producing a steady flux. If the switch is now opened (b] the current will fall to zero, however in doing so there is a flux change and therefore there must be a self induced voltage across the coil. switch CLOSED SWITCH OPENS possiBLe ARCING BATTERY CURRENT & SELF-NDUCED a FLURFALL. «Bq VOLTAGE TOZERO ACROSS COIL BATTERY THE FLUX RISES @ INDUCES CURRENT ABACK emt ACROSS THE COlL. THIS OPPOSES THE RISE IN BATTERY CURRENT Fig. 25 SELF INDUCTANCE Where a voltage is self induced due to change of current in the coil itself, this is knows as SELF INDUCTION. ;By Léniz’s Law this self induced voltage will oppose what produced it, so this voltage will oppose the fall in current and try to keep the current flowing, as the circuit is open circuit no current should flow. However, if the voltage is high enough it may be able to drive a current across the switch producing an are. In figure (c), when the switch is closed again, flux is rising, this changing flux cuts the coil inducing an emf, by Lenz's Law this induced emf is in opposition to the battery voltage and therefore opposes the rise of the current in the circuit. This self induced voltage acting in opposition to the applied voltage is often referred to as a BACK EMF. Any circuit that has a voltage induced in it by a change of current through the circuit itself has self inductance. ‘The property of self inductance is to oppose any change of current by virtue of the back emf, It is in fact an additional resistance in an ac circuit where coils are concerned. - 20-The unit of self inductance (symbol L) is the henry (H). One henry is produced when a self induced voltage of one volt is produced by a current changing at the rate of one ampere per second. The self induced voltage can be increased by: (a) Increasing the number of turns on the coil. {b) Putting the coil on an iron core (increasing permeability) {c) Increasing the rate at which current changes through the coil Mathematically this can be expressed as: ai dt inductance times rate of change of current with respect to time. or N * N = number of turns times the rate of change of flux with respect totime. > oa ‘The negative sign indicating the opposing effect of the self induced emf (back emf). } Example Calculate the value of the self-induced emf in a coil of 0.5H when the current flowing through it is increased from 0.14'to’2.1A in 50ms. d= 1-1 = 2A dat = 50ms (50x 10 js Self-induced mf = e = -ldi dt = Oo 2: 2 50x103 = -20v (Negative sign just indicating opposing effect of the self-induced emf (back emf) Example A coil of 300 turns has a flux decrease from 100uWb to zero and then increases to 100uWb in 4mS. Find the value of the induced emf. Sota -Nd@ dt N = 300 d® = — 200pWb = change of flux dt = 4x103=4ms e = -300 x 200 x 10-6 4x 109 300 x .05 = -15v negative sign (back emf) The ability of a coil to produce a back emf when there is a current change is a design factor and depends on the. fa) Number of turns (N}————. ~(b)~ Cross sectional aréa (a)-in-m? (9. Length ()) in m i (4) Permeability of the core material : \ These factors are related in the equatior!; Example~ An inductor has 10 turns of wire with a cross-sectional area of 0.01m?. If the core has a permeability of .0001 and the length of the magnetic circuit is Sm. What is the value of the inductor? L = 10x10 x .0001 x .01 H 5 Lo = 200uH Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field The total amount of energy used during the time that the current changes from zero to its maximum value is given by the formula: “ALI? joules ~22-Example A coil resistance 102 is connected to a 20v supply. Calculate the steady value of current in the circuit. If the inductance is 2.5H, determine the energy stored in the magnetic circuit. The final (steady) value of current is reached when the self-induced emf has. fallen to zero, ie when di/dt = 0, the final value of current is limited by the resistance of the circuit 20 =2A Ios oy R 10 1 LP joules 2 Energy stored = 1x2.5x2x 2 joules Inductors i When a coil is used specificallyto provide inductance and thusoppose any change of currentyin a circuit it is called an ‘inductor’ or ‘choke’. The circuit symbol is shown in figure 26. i AIR CORED IRON CORED Fig. 26 INDUCTOR SYMBOLS When used in an ac circuit, where current is changing ail the time so the magnetic field is changing all the time, there is therefore always an induced voltage in the coil and a permanent opposition to the current. Types of Inductor Iron Cored. These are generally used where a large inductance is required. When used on ac circuits the flux is continually changing and by Faradays Law an emf will be induced into the iron giving rise to small circulating currents known as eddy currents, This causes the core to become hot, which gives an energy loss known as eddy current loss. - 23 -‘To overcome this problem the iron core is split into very thin slices or “laminations” each of which is separated from the next by an insulating film ‘The path of the eddy currents is thus broken up and the loss reduced Fig. 27- IRON CORED CHOKE ~ : The iron core is generally used in Jow frequency circuits eg, ‘smoothing chokes in mains power supply units, typical value 10H (large inductance) Air Cored. These are used in high frequency circuits such as radio tuning circuits and have a small inductance. Iron Dust and Férrite Cored. The iron based, cores can be used at high frequencies if the material is made into a powder form which is then coated with an-insulator and pressed together.-Used in radio frequency turned circuits. Ferrite cores are used at high frequencies. They are made up of ferric oxide combined with other oxides such as nickel oxide. Figure 28 shows the Rod Type and the Pot Type. FERRITE ROD SPACE FOR COIL col. & FORMER IRON DUST ‘CORE Ai FERRITE SYMBOL ‘por Fig. 28 FERRITE CORES ‘These types of cores increase the inductance considerably over the air-cored coil and their eddy current losses are also much reduced. -24-Inductors are also used in filters and suppressers which will be discussed later. THE PRACTICAL INDUCTOR IN A DC (LR) CIRCUIT Effect of Inductance (L) and Resistance (R) Most electrical equipment has resistance and inductance. When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing resistance and inductance the current does not rise to maximum immediately because there is a self induced emf (Lenz's Law) which opposes the build up of current. Growth of Current in an LR Circuit With no inductance the current would rise to maximum (Is > with induétance the current rises as shown below in figure-29. Vi Vr Current} max 7 value a VR L al R ) immediately but : 63.2% exponential \ switch of max rise of current Fd ieee Fig. 29 GROWTH OF CURRENT IN AN LR CIRCUIT Time Constant ‘The time constant of the circuit is the time taken to reach 63.2% of its maximum value. The time constant can be found by: = © seconds R The current reaches its maximum value in five times the time constant and the curve is an exponential curve 350Decay of Current in an LR Circuit The decay of current shows a similar pattern to the growth of current except that the induced emf tries to keep the current flowing. The value after one time constant is 36.8% of maximum value (ie, it falls by 63.2% of is maximum. value). The current reduces to zero after five times the time constant, Current |~ Example amma A coil having a resistance of 2.59 and an\inductance of 5H 1s connected across a 20v de supply,’ Find the time!constant and the time taken for the current to reach its maximum value. L seés_— 4 a 25 = 2 secs ‘The current would take 2 seconds to reach 63.2% of its final value, also when the current decays on switch off it would take 2 seconds to fall 63.2% from the maximum value. Time taken for current to reach its final value: = 10 seconds pieInductors in Series and Parallel To work out the total induction in a circuit the following formulas are used: Li L2 L3 00007 00TH _____ TOTTI. _ Fig. 31 INDUCTORS IN SERIES TOTAL INDUCTANCE (SERIES CONNECTION) Lr = Li + La +L. Fig. 32 INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL ‘TOTAL INDUCTANCE (PARALLEL CONNECTION) z = ty The total-inductance would then be-werked out in a similar way to resistors in seriés and parallel. In series the values are simply added.In-parallel the fractions are added using a common denominator. Once all the addition has been completed both sides of the equation can then be inverted to give Lr. Example ‘Three inductors of 10mH, 15mH and 30mH are connected (a) in series (b] in parallel Find the total inductance in each case. a) paeeeae a eee = 10 + 15 + 30 55mH no7eVY Se ie a Lr Lr + 1 (Note: must all be of the same units) -28-EXTRA QUESTIONS (EQs] FOR THE B1 STUDENT EQ Magnetic Field Strength H-= IxN 1 A coil of 0.2m in length and 200 turns produces a magnetic field strength of 1000 At/m. Find the current through the coil to produce this magnetic field strength Answer: 1A EQ Mutual Inductance e = Mdi dt The emf induced between two coils is 20v when the current in one -winding changes at SOOmA in.SmS. Find the mutual inductance “between the two coils. ~ . Answer: 0.2H kVLila EQ Coupling Co-efficient M = Two coils wound on a common magnetic circuit have a mutual Inductance of 0.8H, the inductances of the coils are 2H and 8H. Find the percentage of flux transferred. Answer: 20% EQ Self-Inductance e= -Ldi dt ‘The current through a coil is increased from 1A to GA in 20mS, the self- induced emf is 25v. Calculate the inductance of the coil. Answer: 0.1H EQ e=-Ndi dt A coil has a flux decrease from 200Wb to zero and then increase to 200uWb in SmS. The self-induced emf is 16v. Find the number of turns on the coil Answer: 200 turns aor eEQ EQ EQ —Inductors Series and Parallel__ Energy Stored Energy stored = % LI? The steady value of current in a circuit containing an inductance is 4A. The circuit supply is 40v and the energy stored is 20J. Find the value of the inductance. Answer: 2.5H Time Constant If the current reaches a maximum through an inductor of 10A in 15 seconds, What is the current after 3 seconds? Answer: 6.324 a ‘Three inductors of values 12mH, rH and 36mH are connéctéd in parallel. Find the total inductance: {i 7 Answer: 6mH -30-Book 3 Module 3 AC THEORY Licence By Post Ee Licence By Post © copysigh 8 3.13 to.3.16 ISSUE 483,AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/ training purposes only When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer’s handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.CONTENTS Alternating voltage & current Series ac circuits Pure inductance in ac circuits Pure capacitance in ac circuits Inductance & resistance in series Capacitance & resistance in series Resistance, inductance & capacitance in series Resistance, inductance & capacitance in parallel Power in ac circuits ‘Three phase systems Transformers Filters Differentiators Integrators } Page 13 15 18 20 24 31 35 38 45, 66 7m 72HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK This book is written to level 2 (filters level 1) for the B1 and B2 technician. Only a small part of the book (ac theory) is appropriate to the A line mechanic. It gets @ bit “heavy” in parts so you may have to read some sections more than once, but you do need a sound knowledge of resistance, inductance and capacitance in ac circuits Work is provided for you to do from time to time in the form of ACTIVITIES. You will need a calculator to work out some of the solutions, which are given in the back of the book. Note - calculators are not allowed in the CAA examinations so the questions related to equations will not require too matics ~ and all to be done mentally, or using a scrap piece of paper — to-be handed back to the.CAA at the end of the examination. Your solution/s to the activities need not be precise and approximations will do to solve the equations. The object of these exercises is to get you to use the equations to solve various problems. | Within the activity solutions there are a mimber of extra questions (EQs). ‘These are designed to give the B1 person additional practice with these type of probléms ~ but can, of course, 'be tackled by the B2 person if he/she wishes. e Any réferencé to scientists in the text is for interest only arid-details need not be committed to memory.ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT The alternating system is one in which a voltage or current periodically reverses in direction in a regular recurring manner. Figure 1 shows an alternating current (usually abbreviated to ac) plotted with current on the vertical axes and time along the horizontal axis. ‘1eyeLe "T SECONDS ro Fig. 1 ALTERNATING CURRENT © From figure 1 you can see that the ac passes through a definite sequence, it rises from zero to maximum in one direction and falls back to zero; it then reverses and goes to a maximum in the‘other direction and then-goes back to zero again. This complete sequence A\to.B is called a cycle andi repetitive. VOLTAGE 0 (a) SINUSOIDAL we VOLTAGE o| (@)sqUARE: VOLTAGE 0 7 (oy TRIANGULAR Fig. 2. ac WAVEFORMS‘The number of cycles occurring in one second is called the FREQUENCY of the alternating current. This has the symbol f and the unit HERTZ (Hz). The frequency of most aircraft ac constant frequency systems is 400Hz. In aircraft radio and radar systems many other frequencies are used ranging from 3kHz (kilo Hertz) to 30GHz (Giga Hertz). The time taken to complete one cycle is known as the periodic time or period denoted by the symbol T. (see figure1) te f T= 1 (for a 400Hz system) 400 = 2-5mS Thershape of the alternating yoltage-or-current graph is knowrras‘its waveform. Figure 2 shows somie éxaniple waveforms each having the same frequency We shall be concentrating on the sinusoidal waveform as all aircraft ac generators and invertors produce-sinusoidal outputs. The generation’ of ac in its simplest form is as shown int igure 3, It is a conducting loop rotating within a magnetic field. the loop is connected to slip rings and then via brushes to an external circuit. } Sen CENTRE LINE 27 OF ROTATION . PERMANENT MAGNET Loop SLIP RINGS OR COLLECTOR RINGS Power circu Fig. 3 SIMPLE ac GENERATOR Faradays Law states that when a conductor cuts a magnetic field an emf (clectromotive force) is induced into the conductor. Figure 4 shows the rotation of the loop through 360°ortswns co: Fig. 4 VOLTAGE INDUCED IN A ROTATING LOOP In position (a) no cutting of the flux lines is taking place as the wire is moving parallel to the lines of flux so no emf (P) is induced. As the loop rotates from this position it starts-to-cut.the lines of flux and-arremf is generated which reaches a maximum at (Q) - the coil is cutting the \ maximum number of lines of flux hence maximum emf is induced. 'A$ it rotates further the induced emf reduces to zero at (R). i The direction of the induced emf reverses‘as side A of the loop cuts the flux lines in an upwards direction, again beinga maximum at (S) and then falling to zero at (T). This waveform produced is known as a sinusoidal waveform or siné wave (got its name from the fact that if the sine of the angles is plotted against the angles from 0 to 360° a graph known as a sine wave is produced). So one complete rotation of the loop gives ‘one cycle’ of alternating voltage or current____. ae An alternative method of representing an alternating quantity which varies sinusoudally is a straight line called a PHASOR its length being equal to the maximum emf. The phasor is assumed to pivot at the end without the arrowhead and to revolve anti-clockwise once for each cycle. Consider figure 5. If the vertical height at each point of the phasor is projected across and plotted against the angle a sine wave results. Fig. 5 REPRESENTATION OF SINE WAVE BY ROTATING PHASOR oelf we assume the maximum emf in this case to be 100 volts (ie the length of the phasor represents 100 volts). Then the height AB in figure 5 and the drawing below represents the voltage at (a) on the sine wave, this point is known as an INSTANTANEOUS VALUE - a voltage at an instant in time. A 100V, Instantaneous values are given the symbol ¢ and maximum emf as Emax. By trigonometry Emax sin @ —. in this case e = 100 sin 30° ; \ 1 = 100 X05 I iG 50v - the voltage at that instant of the waveform i _ (ay ‘Therefore at all other points (angles) the instantaneous emf ¢ = Emeé sing at 907 =100xsin90° | | | 1OOx1 | ey) ) =1g0v hence the name sine wave as the voltage at any point is the maximum value times the sine of the angle It is common to use the RADIAN as the standard measure of plain angles. A radian is defined as the angle at the centre of a circle subtended by an arc of the circumference equal in length to the radius of the circle. As the circumference of a circle is 2z x the radius, there are 2n radians in a circle (360°). Just over 6 radians in a circle. So 1 radian = 360°/2n which is approximately 57-3 degrees So m radians = 180° 1/2 radians = 90° 3n/2 radians = 270° In one revolution the phasor (loop) passes through 2n radians. If it rotates at f revolutions per second it passes through 2nf radians per second. This is the angular velocity of the phasor (loop) denoted by the Greek letter © {omega}© = 2nf radians per second. After an interval of t seconds from the commencement of rotation the loop has rotated an angle @ equal to 2nft radians which is ot radians. The emf at this instant is: Emax sin@ volts. = Emex Sin ot volts. but also Or if it was a current waveform i= Imax Sin@ amps or I= Imax sin ot amps ac Values ‘The PEAK VALUE of an alternating current or voltage is the maximum value reached (either positive or negative) during a cycle, the peak or maximum value is sometimes called the amplitude. The difference between the peak positive Value and the peak wegative value is called the PEAK-TO-PEAK VALUE And is twice the peak valiié. ., PEAKTO \ PEAK VALUE 270° 360° Fig. 6 PEAK TO PEAK VALUES The AVERAGE VALUE of an ac waveform over a full cycle is zero as there are equal positive and negative values. It is usual therefore to use the average value of half a cycle ‘This can be done mathematically by dividing the waveform into a number of parts as shown in figure 7 LaLa Ls Le Ly, Ly Fig. 7 DIVIDED WAVWFORMMeasuring the value of the current at each point and adding them together and dividing by the number of values taken, in the drawing: th ttl tig tle 6 amps for sine wave this will also be: Average value = 0-637 x Peak value The EFFECTIVE or ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE (rms) is the value that is most commonly used. The heating effect of an electric current is independent of the direction of current flow. The rms value of ac is that value of current which has the same heating effect as its equivalent value de, ie 1 amp ac (rms) = 1 amp dc. Power in a dc circuit is proportiofial tothe, square of the curréiit (2R), this also applies to ac circuits. Figure 8 shows the square of the sinusoidal current plotted against time. {CURRENT}? Max. SN CURRENT Fig. 8 CURRENT SQUARED PLOTTED AGAINST TIME This gives a curve which is positive and symmetrical about the half-way line PB max. 2 The energy dissipated is proportional to the shaded area beneath the (current)? curves. However, looking at the graph you will see that crest (a) wil] fit into trough (a), crest (b) into trough (b) and so on. This is the same energy that would be dissipated by a steady value I? max. Therefore the 2 value of alternating current which gives the same heating effect as the equivalent value de is I? max 2 co1= -707 x Peak value a rms = 0-707 x Peak value It should be noted that this can also be written as rms = _1_ x peak value 2 = or = 1_ x Peak vaite 1.414 It is important to note that ‘rms’ is never/added after a voltage or current as it is normally assumed that all values are rms unless stated otherwise. ‘The FORM FACTOR for a particular waveform is the ratio of-rms-and average values. Form factor » | = rms value . mean value : For a sine wave Form factor = 0-707 x Peak 0-637 x Peak = 111 ‘The form factor is therefore an indication of the shape of the waveform, the higher its value the more ‘peaky’ is the waveform Phase Difference When two alternating quantities of the same frequency pass through corresponding points in a cycle at the same instant in time they are said to be in phase with one anotherFig. 9 TWO IN-PHASE VALUES We can represent these two quantities by phasors, the length of each representing the rms values. When in line as shown it indicates that Vand I are in phase. i If they|pass through corresponding points at different snstahoesta/ Aime, there is a phase difference between them'and one is said tofbe leading or lagging the other by a certain! phase angle Figure 10 shows the two quantities ouv/of phase. f Fig. 10 VALUES OUT OF PHASE ‘The voltage rises to its positive peak first and is said to be leading the current, alternatively the current can be said to be lagging the voltage. The phase difference is the phase angle ©. =e‘The phasor diagram below shows this more clearly, (remember phasors rotate anti-clockwise). a» @ Vieads I or Tlags V I It can be seen that it is easier to represent the sine waves by phasors. ACTIVITY 1 1) What is the periodic time of a frequency of 2000Hz? 2) If the periodic time of a sine wave is 1ms what is the supply frequency? 3), What is the instantaneous current at r/2 radians of a sine wave of peak value 200 amps?) -— q A\voltage waveform has a peak to\peak value of 200v. What is the average value? 5) _Alvoltage waveform has az! rms value of 707 volts the peak to peak value of the waveform is? ___ SERIES ac CIRCUITS We need to look’at the effect of ac applied to resistance, inductance and capacitaniéé as the results are importants we shall see.” - ‘There is no such thing as a ‘pure’ resistance, a ‘pure’ inductance or a ‘pure’ capacitance. A wire wound resistor, for instance, since it is wound in the form of a coil has inductance as well as resistance, similarly, a capacitor has resistance as well as capacitance. However, for the purposes of the next few pages we are going to assume ‘pure’ components as it makes the treatment easier and it is helpful to show the ‘ideal’ conditions.PURE RESISTANCE IN ac CIRCUITS With reference to the graph in figure 11. It can be seen that the voltage and current are in-phase and the phasor diagram would be as shown below the graph. current AC VOLTAGE V RESISTERR voutace — ¥ ‘CURRENT ==> 1 var 0 Time OR Power ‘The power is the average value of all the instantaneous values of power for a complete cycle. To find the instantaneous power at any moment, the instantaneous values of voltage and current at that moment are multiplied together. ‘Thus in figure 12 at moment x, the voltage is A volts and the current B amps. The power at this moment is therefore AB watts (V x I) and is represented by point C on the graph. io.—vortace. CORRENT Power Fig. 12 POWER - CURRENT & VOLTAGE IN-PHASE If this process is carried out over the complete cycle the power curve is produced as shown in figure 13. The power is always positive because current and voltage are in phase and when voltage and current are positive their product is positive when they are both negative their product is still positive. CURRENT AVERAGE POWER, Fig. 14 AVERAGE POWER - ac -1l-The average power over a complete cycle is the average value of the power curve and this is represented by a line halfway between maximum and minimum values of the curve, since the shaded areas above and below the line are equal. The power waveform has twice the frequency of the supply. Therefore in the diagram the power fluctuates rapidly between zero and 12 watts, but over a complete cycle, the average power is 6 watts. We are only interested in average power as the frequency of the supply is usually high and this is what the device (lamp, electric motor etc) actually consumes. ‘The average power will from now be referred to as ‘power’, is half the peak power in a resistive circuit, and this peak value is the maximum voltage multiplied by the maximum current. Pmax-=Vmax x Imax a P average = Vmax x Imax \ 2 i = Vmax xImax | v2 V2 oS P = Vrms x Irms watts. i | | As _j Vrms >“Irins xR rms xR watts then P and Irms = Vrms R then P= V?rms R- watts So to sum up. In a resistive circuit: 1) Vand Lare in phase 2) Normal ohms law calculations apply. 3) de calculations apply for power. 4) Power is produced 0PURE INDUCTANCE IN ac CIRCUITS When an ac supply is connected to an inductance, as the current is continually varying then an emf (back emf) is induced into the coil. Its value is dependent on the value of the inductor in henrys (H) (Joseph Henry 1797-1878 American physicist] and the rate of change of current (# } a = -L4 volts, The e = emf, L = inductance in henrys and the minus sign a indicates that it opposes the applied voltage. Fig. 15 INDUCTOR IN,AN ac CIRCUIT, ‘This back emf opposes the rise of currerit in the circuit and therefore delays its rise as can be seen by the waveform diagram. In a pure inductive/circuit V leads'I by 90° or I lags V by 90°-——~ ee Fig. 16 V LEADING I IN AN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT v 4 0" ' Fig. 17 PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR FIGURE 16 -13-The back-emf in the circuit provides the opposition to current flow. It therefore acts in a similar manner to a resistance in the circuit. It is a form of ac resistance but is called REACTANCE, it is given in ohms and has the symbol X, to identify it as reactance in an inductive circuit the symbol is Xi is used The inductive reactance of a coil depends upon the rate of change of current (which is dependent on frequency) and the value of the inductance. It is calculated by the formula: Xi = 2nfL ohms Where X= _Inductive reactance. 2n = 628 (approx) f = frequency in Hertz L = Inductance in henrys Yourshould commit this formule tot memory. ~ As in any circuit the opposition to current flow is always V so in the pure 1 inductive circuit XL = _V lohms es It is important for you to determine whatihappens in a pure inductive circuit when the’ frequency to a circuit is increased or decreased. Power, Similar to the process carried out in the pure resistive circuit where V and I are multiplied at each point to give a power curve as shown in figure 18 POWER CURVE POSITIVE] VOLTAGE cuRRENT 9 TIME & POWER, EGATIVE] -OWER POSITIVE POWER = NEGATIVE POWER TOTAL POWER = ZERO Fig. 18 POWER IN A PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT -14-As the voltage and current are 90° out of phase positive and negative powers are produced. In the purely inductive circuit, the total power is zero, since positive and negative powers cancel. Positive power is given to the circuit from the power supply on one half cycle and negative is returned to the supply source on the other half cycle of power. Over a compiete cycle the net power is zero. It is important to note that current flows in the circuit but no work is being done when the current is 90° out of phase with the voltage. Summary I lags V by 90° - or V leads I by 90° Opposition to current flow is INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (Xi) X= 2nfL ohms, X,= V_ ohms s = NO POWER is produced in a purely-inductive circuit ACTIVITY 2 1) What happens to the current in-a purely inductive circuit when: (a) Frequency is increased? * fe (b)_ Frequency is decreased? 2) Ifthe voltage applied to a\pure inductive circuit is 100 volts and the current is/5A what is the inductive reactance of the circuit? 3) ©“Find the inductive reactance of a pure inductive circuit if the supply frequency is 1kHz and the inductance is mH. (Assume 2n = 6-28) PURE CAPACITANCE IN ac CIRCUITS Voltage exists across the plates of a capacitor only after the current has flowed to charge the plates. With reference to figure 20 it can be seen that the current leads the voltage and in a pure capacitive circuit it leads by 90°. Remember, it can also be stated that voltage lags the current. c \ 1 VT 1h Ue v Fig. 19 CAPACITOR IN AN ac CIRCUIT FisFig. 21 PHASOR DIAGRAM ~ CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT ‘| / | / fe Lh i ' A capacitor opposes any change in-the’value of voltage appliéd, to it and so presents an opposition to currentatall times. This opposition is called CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (Xc) and is measured in ohms Xc =_1_ ohms 2nfC where: Xc= capacitive reactance in ohms 2n = 6-28 (approx) f= frequency in Hz C = Capacitance in FARADS (Michael Faraday British physicist 1791-1867) Again, this is an important formula to remember. Also as in any circuit the opposition to current flow is _V 1 You must be able to work out what happens to the current in a purely capacitive circuit when there is a frequency change. -16-Power The power curve is produced as previously illustrated in the pure resistive and pure inductive circuits. Looking at figure 22 (the shaded areas} it can be seen there are two positive peaks and two negative peaks of power over one complete cycle so the net power is zero. SUMMARY Tleads V by 90° jor | | V lags I/by 909! | ue Opposition to’ current flow is CAPACITVE REACTANCE _) \ Xc =_l_ohms Qnfe Xe = __V_ohms 1 NO POWER is produced in a purely capacitive circuit. ACTIVITY 3 1. What happens to the current in a purely capacitive circuit when a} Frequency is increased? b) Frequency is decreased? 2. If the voltage applied to a purely capacitive circuit is SOV and the current is 2 amps, what is the capacitive reactance of the circuit? 3. Find the capacitive reactance of a pure capacitive circuit if the supply frequency is 10kHz and the capacitance is 1uF (assume 2n = 6-28). 7INDUCTANCE AND RESISTANCE IN SERIES ‘The concept of a pure inductor is not a practical one, as an inductor is a length of wire wound into a coil. This then will have resistance which can be represented by a pure inductor in series with a resistor. ‘The waveform diagram (figure 24) shows that voltage and current are out of phase by an angle less than 90° and with current lagging voltage foo TUNG ! Fig. 23 RESISTANCE & INDUCTANCE IN SERIES Fig. 24 WAVEFORM DIAGRAM - RESISTANCE & INDUCTANCE To draw a phasor diagram for this circuit everything is drawn from a REFERENCE PHASOR, which in a series circuit is the current as it is the same throughout the circuit. From this current phasor are drawn the voltage phasors. The voltage across the resistor Vr is in phase with the current and therefore drawn on the same line. The voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90° and is draw vertically as shown in figure 25, Remember phasors rotate anti-clockwise. To find the supply voltage (V) we cannot just add these voltages together as you would do in a de circuit, because they are out of phase with one another, so by completing the parallelogram (phasor addition) we can find the supply voltage (V) cigsMa 1 Fig. 25 PHASOR DIAGRAM - RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE, tan O= Vi Ve as Vu = IX, Xi and—.Vp= IR ~ then tan @ = 1X, =X, IRR rls In other words the ratio of the reactance,to the resistance is the tangent of the phase angle : ‘The phase angle @ = tan? _X, Xe Impedance ‘The opposition to current flow in this circuit is provided by the resistance of the resistor and the reactance of the inductor and when there is a combination like this the opposition to current flow is called IMPEDANCE (2) in ohms. The opposition to current flow is therefore Z =_V. ohms 1 We know Vi= IXt Vr= IR V by pythogras = V? = (IX:)? + (IR)? Vos yx)? +R)? ViI= YX, -19-Ve= IR As I is common to all equations and is the same value we can redraw the diagram as follows: x p Ik h. S % . N 1 iad + x ‘This is known as the impedance triangle and once again Tan @ FX, \ i io 7 | | i | } ! SUMMARY rae 1. Current lags the voltage or voltage leads the current by some angle between 0 and 90° which depends on values of L and R Tan @ =X, R 2. Opposition to current flow is impedance (Z) ohms Z = ¥R*+X.? ohms CAPACITANCE AND RESISTANCE IN SERIES The waveform diagram (figure 27) shows the voltage and current are out of phase by less than 90° with current leading the voltage. -20-Fig, 27 WAVEFORM DIAGRAM - RESISTANCE & CAPACITANCE ‘Once again, to draw the phasor diagram use the current phasor as the reference, Ve is in phase with the current so is drawn on top of I. The voltage across the capacitor Vc is lagging the current by 90° and is drawn vertically downwards. The actual supply voltage can again be found by phasor addition. ‘The opposition to current flow provided by the capacitive reactance (Xc) and Resistance ( R) is called impedance (Z) ohms. Fig. 28 PHASOR DIAGRAM - RESISTANCE & CAPACITANCE oiOnce again Z = V ohms 1 Vr=IR V2 = (IR)? + (IXc}? Vs Yur) +Uxe)? V=IVR?+Xe? Ve = Ixe V= VR +Xe? iz= JR*+xXc? ohms Againian impedance triangle can be drawn. @-* phase angle SUMMARY 1, The current leads the voltage or voltage lags the current by some angle between 0 and 90° which depends on the values of C and R. Tan @ =Xe R ~22-2. Opposition to current flows is impedance (Z) ohms Zev Iohms = VR7+Xe? ohms ‘The word crvi can be used as a convenient way of remembering the relative position of the phase between current and voltage in capacitive and inductive circuits. Inan “INDUCTANCE sg CURRENT lags CURRENT sis leads VOLTAGE i ACTIVITY 4 1. ~ Acoil Ha’ a pure inductarice value of 0-159H and a Yesistance of 1002 and is connected to a 240V 50Hz supply. Calculate the: (a) Inductive reactance of the coil. i (b} Impedance of the coil. (c)_ Current in the circuit. (@) Circuit phase angle. 2. A 15.9nf capacitor and a 1002 resistor are connected in series across a 240V SOHz supply. Calculate the (a) Circuit impedance (b) Voltage across each component. () Circuit phase angle -23-RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE IN SERIES The circuit is shown in figure 30 where resistance, inductance and capacitance are connected in series. Fig. 30 RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE & CAPACITANCE IN SERIES aes) a = ‘The phasor diagram (figure 31) would be drawn as before ie Vr in phase, Vi 90° ahead and Vc 90° behind. As Vi and|Ve are 180° apartj in direct opposition it is the difference (Vi - Vc inthis case) that is used to find V the supply voltage. | | r | Fig. 31 PHASOR DIAGRAM ~ RESISTANCE INDUCTANCE & CAPACITANCE Note. In this circuit as Vi is greater than V¢ then current lags the voltage and is therefore more inductive. The opposition to current flow is again impedance and is: Z= JR+(X,-X )? ohms Or =v T ohms And tan @ Xe elieSeries Resonance If we have a series circuit consisting of R, L and C, and we can vary the frequency to the circuit we can vary its properties. As the frequency uses the inductive reactance Xt (2nfl) rises but the capacitive reactance Xo Ga) fe falls. At one particular frequency X1 = Xc resonance occurs, the frequency at which this happens is called the RESONANT FREQUENCY (fo). The graph (figure 32) illustrates this. K,& Xe Baie “ j eee a 4 _ “fen FREQUENCY ~~~ Fig. 32 GRAPH OF X; & Xc\AGAINST FREQUENCY At resonance we need to look at t! ditions in the circuit. X= Xe Therefore Vi = Vc The phasor diagrams are as shown in figure 33. x REZ) Xe Fig. 33 PHASOR DIAGRAMS - X; & Xc BoseIf Xi = Xc they are 180° apart (antiphase) so they will cancel leaving just the resistance of the circuit so Z = R. If Z = R then the impedance is at a minimum and therefore the current must be at a maximum. Fig. 34 GRAPH OF 2& I AGAINST FREQUENC Also as Viand Ye are antiphase they also'cancel so the applied voltage will equal the voltage across the resistor Vp =/V) Current will be in phase with the supply voltage and the power factor is/1 At resonance, as the current is high the voltages across L and C are equal and opposite so that their resultant is zero. However, when considered alone they can be very high voltages, much greater than the supply and it is this voltage magnification which will be discussed later. The circuit is very often known as an ACCEPTOR CIRCUIT and the frequency at which resonance occurs can be found by: fo= 1 ee where fo = resonant frequency in Hz 2n = 6-28 (approx) L = Inductance in henrys C = Capacitance in farads oteSelectivity The sharpness of response over a range of frequencies near resonance gives an indication of the SELECTIVITY of the circuit. Selectivity is the property of a tuned circuit which enables it to respond to a particular signal and disregard others at different frequencies. CURRENT HIGH SELECTIVITY Selects wanted signal fy only Unwanted signi file eequen FREQUENCY POOR'SELEGHVITY, {CURRENT ~~ Admitsiother signals \ & causes interference Unwanted signal 7 \ fo FREQUENCY — Fig. 35 SELECTIVITY _—/High selectivity ~ High-¢-ratio L HIGH L: R c sel CONSTANT Lowc rec) [Product LC is the same] Low selectivity Low ¢ ratio u LOWL, HIGH R R c HIGH Cx” CONSTANT Bar Q depends on R & € ratio & defines SELECTIVITY Fig. 36 FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTIVITY aoeThe selectivity of the series circuit depends on: a} Resistance As 1= V_at resonance if R is doubled the current is halved and the curve R ‘flattens’ out reducing selectivity. b) The ratio of L to C As fo = 1 QnJLC If L is doubled and C halved the resonant frequency remains unaltered. However, the ratio of L to C is increased four times and therefore improves the selectivity of the circuit. The quantity used to represent the selectivity of the circuit is denoted by the letter Q. \Reactance at resonance \ [Resistance i! Q (Qo- Q factor at resonance} substituting for f in the expression for Qo Again confirming that the selectivity of the circuit in inversely proportional to R and proportional to the ratio of _L. Cc Qand Bandwidth Series tuned circuits are used in radio to accept inputs at the resonant frequency and in the immediate neighbourhood of resonance. - 28 -In order to present a high impedance to inputs considerably removed from resonance the circuit must have a high Q value or a NARROW BANDWIDTH. The bandwidth of a circuit is the separation between two frequencies either side of resonance at which the output current has fallen to 0-707 \ ) of the maximum value BANDWIDTH indicates the degree of SELECTIVITY of a circuit CURRENT % swaic MAX VALUE BANDWIDTH POOR SELECTIVITY sone NARROW = good SELECTIVITY These points are! known as the ‘half power’ points. The relationship between Bandwidth and Q, is Bandwidth fo Hz So for good selectivity we require: a} LowR b) High _L_ ratio c ©) High Qo d) Narrow bandwidth Circuit Magnification At resonance we know the voltages across the inductor and capacitor can be very high At resonance Vi = IX Current is a maximum and equal to V_as Z = R at resonance. R -29-‘The ratio of reactance (2nfoL) to resistance (R) is the Q factor of the current Qe. Therefore the voltage across the inductor at resonance is: Vi=QoxV ie the Q factor times the applied voltage. If Qo is 100 and the supply voltage is 1V then the voltage drop across L (and C of course) is 100 x 1 = 100V. ‘That is VOLTAGE MAGNIFICATION has taken place which can be applied to another circuit. This magnified voltage is usually tapped off across C. It is usual to have a fixed inductor and variable capacitor to adjust the resonant frequency to that required - for example;.tuning a radio station: SUMMARY j : Series Resonance a X= Xe Vi= Ve Ve=V¥ 1 = Maximum” Z = Minimum =/R a Iand V in phase Power factor = 1 eel Qn Q= selectivity of circuit depends on (a) resistance ~ (b) ratio of L. c Q = Reactance Resistance Bandwidth = 30"PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS RESISTANCE ~ INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE IN PARALLEL There are many combinations of parallel ac circuits, however, we shall concentrate on the resistance - inductance and capacitive circuit. ‘The phasor diagram for figure 38 is shown jn figure 39. Note that the reference phasor is voltage as this is commion to all components in a parallel circuit. a Fig. 39 PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR FIGURE 36 ‘The current in the capacitor (Ic) leads the voltage by 90° and the current in the inductive circuit lags by some angle less than 90° due to the resistance. ‘The total current from the supply is the phasor addition of Ic and I If the frequency to this circuit was varied then at one particular frequency X= Xe, this is when the current taken from the supply is in phase with the voltage. What is happening in the circuit is that the capacitor is charging up and then discharging through the inductor, the emf induced in the inductor will then charge up the capacitor in the reverse direction and this will continue to circulate a current between the two components, aie‘The circuit is said to be at RESONANCE, so we are now looking at a PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT. The conditions above would continue forever but the inductor has resistance and there is a power loss here. In order to keep the current circulating it is necessary to ‘top up’ the circuit from the supply. At resonance the current drawn from the supply is very small and therefore the impedance is high (opposite to the series resonant circuit) Figure 40 shows the relationship of Z and | at resonance. i Fig. 40 GRAPH oF Z& PAGAINST FREQUENCY oe p 1 i | It should be noted that the actual current circulating between the inductor and_capacitor is high. | ) The phasor diagram (figure 41) shows the conditions at resonance with the supply current in phase with the supply voltage. K Fig. 41 PHASOR DIAGRAM - RESONANCE I & V IN PHASE O°The frequency at which resonance occurs in a parallel circuit can be found by: oeeecae fee 2n yee ia If the resistive losses are small then for all practical purposes the formula is the same as for a series resonant circuit. f= 2n VEC At resonance the impedance of the circuit is high, the maximum possible and is called the DYNAMIC IMPEDANCE Zp and can be found by the following formula: ‘The circulating current at resonance has alhigh maximum value and is equal to Qo (Q factor is_XL remember) times the supply current. RE } So in-a-parallel/resonant circuit CURRENT MAGNIFICATION takes place. Selectivity as we saw for the series resonant circuit is the ability of the circuit to respond strongly to the required signal at the resonant frequency and gives a poor response to other signals. The sharpness of the resonance curves for the parallel circuit indicates the degree of selectivity. IMPEDANCE Z IMPEDANCE 2 HALF POWER POINTS: wioT Fig. 42. IMPEDANCE/FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVES -33-Figure 42 shows the impedance ~ frequency response curve. As for a series circuit the Q. value and selectivity and bandwidth depend on R and the ratio of L to C. A parallel circuit is often termed a REJECTOR circuit since it presents maximum impedance at resonance. SUMMARY Conditions at Resonance ~ Parallel circuit. Jin-phase with V = minimum ° Z=L. = maximum \ cR jf oe power factor = 1 = Use of Resonant Circuits One‘of the main factors determining the use of resonant Greuits in radio circuits is the internal impedance of the supply. Selectivity is best for a series circuit when the supply source internal impedance is the same or lower than the impedance at resonance. Similarly the parallel circuit has better selectivity when the supply source is the same or higher than its impedance (Zp) at resonance. So if a source has a high internal impedance a parallel resonant circuit is used and if the source has a low internal impedance a series resonant circuit is used. ‘The first tuned circuit is normally a series tuned circuit because it is fed from a low impedance source (the aerial). Voltage magnification takes place where it is fed to an amplifier. The ‘load’ for the amplifier stages would be a parallel tuned circuit because it is being fed from a high impedance source (transistor). Resonant circuits are also used for control of rotary invertor outputs and some older aircraft generator frequency control circuits. -34-POWER IN AC CIRCUITS We have already established: a) Ina purely resistive circuit, all of the current does work and POWER is produced. b) Ina purely inductive circuit, the current does no work and NO POWER is produced. c) Ina purely capacitive circuit, the current does no work and NO POWER is produced A practical circuit will contain resistance, inductance and capacitance, and if we take the example of an ac generator supplying aircraft systems (mainly inductance and resistance) then the current will lag the supply voltage. ( | : te (reactive) Fig. 43. PHASOR DIAGRAM ‘The phasor diagram shows tHe current lagging the supply_voltage by phase angle ©. From our previous theory, power is only produced in a ac circuit when current and voltage are in phase. So we need to split the current I into its two components as shown. The component ‘in phase’ with the voltage is known as the ACTIVE OR REAL component and the component at 90° to the voltage is known as the QUADRATURE or REACTIVE component. It is very important to realise that only one current (I) flows in the circuit and this is the current that is measured by an ammeter in the circuit. ‘The power in a purely resistive ac circuit is found by multiplying together the rms voltage and current. It follows then that in a resistive reactive circuit, power dissipated can be found by multiplying together the voltage and the component of current in phase with it Prea = Vx Treat As COS@ = Igeay I Inca = Icos B aoeTRUE OR REAL POWER = V x1 x COS @ watts (W) or KILOWATTS(KW) ‘This then gives us the actual power being used by the system. The component of the current that does no work in the system still flows through the system cables and produces power which as we know cancels over one cycle so no net power is produced, V x component of current at 90° V x Iresctive Ingactive. I Irgacrve = 1sin Preactive As sin @ REACTIVE POWER = V x1 x sin @ VAR OR KVAR The unit of reactive power is VOLT AMPS REACTIVE (VAR). If the'suipply voltage is multiplied by the Current (I) this will vee the APPARENT POWER being dissipated, we know that this is apparently available but because current and voltage are not in phase then that is not the true power available from the system. | APPARENT POWER = V x I VOLTAMPS. {VA} OR KVA Power Kactor / { 2 Js y ee As We-have-seen we can work-out the apparent power of &system in KVA. What we need to know is how much of this available power is producing actual work done in a circuit, ie producing True Power. So the ratio of TRUE POWER APPARENT POWER is called the power factor (pf) Example Ifa 40kVA generator produces a power output of 30kW then the power factor is P= 30 = 075 40 - 36 -So in this case the factor of power being used is 0-75, the generator is producing 0-75 of its output as True Power ie producing power in the system. So obviously the higher the power factor the better. Aircraft generation systems are typically -75 - -9 power factor. A power factor of 1 (unity) would mean that all of the power produced is being used as true power and the circuit must be purely resistive. pf = TRUE POWER APPARENT POWER AsTP =VxICOS@ and AP =VxI then pf -¥x4 COS@ Mt pf cos @ So another formula for power factor is that it equals the cosine of the phase angle. | If we look back at the triangle related to.impedance R then the cosine @ = _R. Z So another formula for power factor is pf -_R Z SUMMARY ‘The true power is produced when current and voltage are in phase. TP = VxIxCOS @ KW RP= VxIxsin@ KVAR AP= Vxl KVA -37-ACTIVITY 5 1. Ifa SOKVA generator has a power factor of 0.8, find the True Power produced 2. A 200V 40KVA ac generator has an output current of 200 amps at a phase angle of 30° lagging. Find the: (@)__ True power {Reactive power ‘(c) Power factor THREE'PHASE SYSTEMS It is possible for an ac system to consistofone phase, two phases-of indeed as many phases,as the designer wishes. However for ac generation on aircraft a three phase system i$ used (most national power grid systems are based on 3 phase ac supplies, although there is normally only one phase supplied to-each domestic consumer). -” , } ey Or =e Fig. 44 ONE, TWO & THREE PHASE SUPPLIES -38-Figure 44 shows the basic principles of a single, two and three phase ac supply. In (a) the single phase generator has one rotating coil (wound many times} with one cable going to the consumer units (assuming an earth return via the airframe) In (b) there are two coils on the same armature at 90° to each other and there would be two cables going to the consumer units. In (c) there are three coils on the same armature at 120° to each other producing three outputs at 120° phase difference. ‘Three supply cables would be used - one for each phase, each going to its own bus on the aircraft. It is usual to connect the phases together into either a STAR (A) configuration or DELTA (A) configuration. It is standard practice. each’ phast in a three phase system-as Red (R), Yellow (Y),and-Bly This is their phase sequence or phase rotation. identify B). STAR CONNECTED AC GENERATOR OUTPUT ah In this system, the finish of each'winding is connected to a'commién point calledithe NEUTRAL or STAR point. The three LINES are taken from the start of each phase winding, as shown in,figure 45. LINE! NEUTRAL Fig. 45 STAR CONNECTED GENERATOR It can be seen from the diagram that the Line Current and Phase Current are the same: b= Ip - 39 -It can also be scen that Line Voltage is derived from the two phases that are connected across each pair of lines. Because the phase voltages are 120° out of phase with each other, the Line voltage is found by multiplying the Phase Voltage by V3 Box Ven The following points should be borne in mind: (a) When a NEUTRAL Line is connected, two separate systems and voltages are available. (This is the main advantage of this system). 1, Three separate single-phase (Line-to Neutral} systems, each operating at Phase Voltage. The UK domestic phase voltage is 240 volts at 50 Hz, whilst aircraft phase voltage is 115 volts at 400 Hz. A three-phase (Line-to-Line) system. The UK domestic line ~ | voltage is 415 volts at 50_Hz}.whilst aircraft line voltage is 200 ' volts at 400 Hz. | | (b} Although the Neutral Lire is connécted to ‘earth’, it must NOT be \confused with the ‘earth’ connection in a three-pin domestic socket, for example, which is a separate éarth provided for fault-protection. (0) __If the individual loading across each of the three phases is identical, the loads/are said to be BALANCED. When such a condition exists, no current (ll flow along the|neutral/line to or from the generator. The (neutral line only carries’out-of-balance currents in_the'system. ‘—(Becausé a three-phase line-to-line load (eg a motor} is-bound to be balanced, no neutral connection need be made to it) (4) Phase voltage (Vpn) is measured between any line and the neutral line. (e) Line voltage (Vi) is measured between any two lines. () Frequency is ALWAYS expressed as the frequency of a SINGLE PHASE ----- it is not multiplied by three for a three-phase system. DELTA CONNECTED GENERATOR By reference to the drawing it can be seen that LINE voltage (Vi) and PHASE voltage {Vpa) is the same Vi= Ven -40-1 Fig. 46 DELTA CONNECTED GENERATOR It cap-also-be seen that the LINE-cusrent is derived from the currents that are flowing inthe two windings that.are-conneéted to that particulariine As the phases are 120° out-of-phase with each other the LINE current! (I) is found by multiplying PHASE current (I) by 3B | i] a Ten eos The following points should be noted: (a) ‘There will/bé no circulating Current in the closed Delta loop because the Phasor sum of the three emfs is zero. Instantaneous values of current and “voltage in a three-phase system always total zero. (This poiht is dealt with later) {b} As the Delta system is a three-wire system, it is not possible to provide an earthed neutral line. (See Star connected systems) v Fig. 47 THREE PHASE -41-The Three Phase Voltages As the output windings of the generator are identical, their outputs will be of equal amplitude. These outputs are represented both graphically and as phasors in figures 47 and 48. Fig. 48 THREE PHASE’ PHASOR DIAGRAM It can be seen that, if values above the Zero are called +’ and those below zero are called ‘-, the sum of the voltages at any instant in time is always zero A Symmetrical Three-Phase system | eS oo \ ‘This is.one.in-which the phase Voltages are ‘of the same magnitude and of the same phase displacement. (The phase currents may have differing magnitudes and phase displacements, depending upon the type and magnitude of the phase loads). Fig. 49 BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM -42-A Balanced Three-Phase System. This is one in which the phase loads are equal and, therefore, the phase currents are equal in magnitude and are operating at the same phase angle. The phasor diagram is shown in figure 49. (As with the voltages on the previous page, the sum of the instantaneous currents in a BALANCED system always equals zero). | Fig. 50 PHASOR DIAGRAM - BALANCED =~" ‘ THREE PHASE SYSTEM The relationship/Between Line and Phase Voltages If the instantaneous values of two-phases (Say, A and B) are-added together, the result will be a third waveform (line AB). To do this with phasors, it is necessary to reverse one of the two (say B) and then add the two phasors as shown in figure 51. If this process is repeated in the same order for the other two pairs of phases, the result will be as shown in figure 52. copuase vortaaey ‘AB (UKE VOLTAGE) Tiruase vourace) (phase VOLTAGE) Fig. 51 ‘ADDITION’ OF PHASORS 1 43 -‘(PHASE VOLTAGE) cine. OUTAGE} (AB (LINE VOLTAGE) (Pnase VoLTAGe) 1 (LINE VoLTAGE Fig. 52 ADDITION,OF PHASORS 2 | ~ \ The following points should be nbted: (2) The three phase voltages are 120° apart from each other. —— (b) The three line voltages are|120° apart from each other. (c]__ There is a phase angle of 30% between any phase voltage and it’s associated line voltage: ji, (a) There is a phase angle of 90° betiveen‘any phase voltage ahd its ‘opposite’ line voltage. This relationship is often overiooked but is important to understand as it is widely used in control circuitzy. 1. Phase A voltage is at 90° to Line BC voltage. 2. Phase B voltage is at 90° to Line AC voltage. 3. Phase C voltage is at 90° to Line AB voltage. Power in a Balanced Three-Phase System In the Star and Delta connected loads shown in figure 53, the True Power in each phase is given by: P = Vrslrn cos © Watts In a symmetrical and balanced system, the total True Power is given by the sum of the phase powers P = 3 Vrulpn cos @ Watts -44-It is however, usual to express True Power in terms of line values, in which case it is given by: P = V3 Vil. cos Watts A x : a : : [ Fig. 53 POWER IN,A BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM \ r ~ \ ~ TRANSFORMERS 1 A transformer consists of two coils adjaceht’to each other and an ac supply is applied to one coil known as the PRIMARY:.The other coil is known-ds the SECONDARY. The changing current in the primary creates a fluctuating magnetic field that] induces,a voltage in the secondary coil {mutual inductance) / | MUTUAL INDUCTANCE SECONDARY Fig. 54 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE For a transformer to work efficiently, all the lines of flux created by the current in the primary should link with the secondary. This is not possible but to try and get close to this on low frequency transformers an iron core is used. It is suitably laminated to reduce eddy current losses. Because of its high permeability the iron concentrates, and increases the lines of flux, and flux loss is small. reIRON CORE laminated to eee reduce eddy currents ee INPUT ac Sieur VOLTAGE output SECONDARY Mn PRIMARY WINDING FLUX LINES einb Ine Fig. 55 IRON CORED TRANSFORMER The pfinciple is shown in figure-§5;Each winding in the coil is insulatéd and the two coils are insulated from one another and the iron core. If the secondary is connected to a load, a secondary (ac) current flows and power is developed in the load. A transforiner does not generate power it merely transfers power from the primary to-the sécondary. / Turns Ratio ! If the-primary “and secondary coils are identical, assuming nolosses and the secondary Coil is open circuit, the enif iriduced in the primarycoil will be almost equal to but opposite in phase to the applied voltage. This secondary coil will produce a mutually induced voltage which is exactly the same as the primary back emf appuco ee PRIMARY Back” a a —— ‘Seconpary votrace, Fig. 56 PRIMARY & SECONDARY VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS aeIf the number of turns on the secondary is increased its inductance increases, and hence the induced emf increases. If the secondary has twice the number of turns of the primary the secondary voltage will be twice the applied voltage at the primary With three times as many turns on the secondary as the primary, the secondary emf will be three times that in the primary Secondary voltage (Vs) is T times the primary voltage (Vp) Vs = Tx Vp Where T is the TURNS RATIO. " Number of turns on the secondary {Ns} Number of turns-on-the primary (Ne) ou Vg = Ns x Ve Ne Or Vs = Ns 7 , Ve = Np eee ‘Transformation Ratio (T) ‘The ratio Of Vs to Vp (or Ns to Np)is kniowh aé the Transformation-Ratio. If Vs is smaller than Vp, then the output will be less than the input and the transformer is called a Step-down transformer. A Step-up transformer is one in which Vsis greater than Vp. When using Transformation Ratios, IT IS CONVENTIONAL TO ALWAYS PUT THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE BEFORE THE PRIMARY VOLTAGE. ‘Thus, a transformation ratio of 4:1 means that the output voltage will be four times the input voltage (step-up) and a transformation ratio of 1:3 means that the output voltage will be one-third the input voltage (step-down). Any chance of confusion on this point can, of course, be obviated by the use of the appropriate term of ‘step-up’ or ‘step-down’ after the stated ratio. -47-Example A transformer is wound with 100 turns on the primary and 450 tums on the secondary. The primary is connected to a 250 volts ac supply. Find the secondary voltage. Vs = Vex _Ng Np 250 x 450 100) = 1125 volts If there are more turns on the secondary than on the primary ie T greater than 1 the secondary voltage is greater than the primary and we have a STEP-UP transformer ——~ —— = NUMBER OF SECONDARY TURNS NUMBER OF PRIMARY TURNS. av ‘SECONDARY 1000 TURNS PRIMARY 100 TURNS” Fig. 57 STEP-UP TRANSFORMER | If there are fewer turns on the secondary than on the primary ie T less than 1 then the secondary voltage is less than input voltage and we have a STEP-DOWN transformer. al 0 I Vp = 230V ac E | Vs = 23V ac PRIMARY 100 TURNS, SECONDARY 10 TURNS Fig. 58 STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER - 48 -Assuming no losses then the input power of a transformer equals the output power. Velp= Vs Is Is = a STEP UP 'p j High voltage Ve 8 Vs LOADS Low current Vole =Vsls ; va ——_ STEP DOWN i Low voltage Ws lel LOAD 3~Higtrcurrent Therefore in a step-up transformer where the|voltage is stepped up the current is stepped down and’ in a step-down transformer where the voltage is stepped down the current is stepped up. 1 id = oe As Vplp=Vsisthen Ip = Vs ¢ : Is Ve andas Vs ~ Ns Ve Np then ele Vat Na Is Vp Ne ACTIVITY 6 A transformer has a primary voltage of 250 volts and a secondary of 1000 volts Find the current taken by the primary if the secondary load is 1009. -49-‘Transformer Losses We have been neglecting losses in the transformer and in most calculations we do indeed neglect the losses. However there are losses and you should be aware of them. Losses may be due to IRON LOSSES and COPPER LOSSES. LOSSES IN IRON CORE RESISTIVELOSSES INWINDINGS |= FLUX LINKAGE LOSSES ‘Not all the primary ux links with the secondary a Fig. 60, “TRANSFORMER LOSSES | Iron losses are due to two causes, eddy currents and hysteresis; From/book 1 in this module you should appreciate’ that to reduce eddy current losses’ we laminate the core and hysteresis losses are redtiGed, by choosing a material suck as silicon steel, stalloy or permalloy which have low hysteresis loss. | The resistive losses in the wires are called copper losses, which are due to FR losses Of passing current through the resistance of the coppey wire forming the windings. / ~ Cc If all the primary flux does not link with the secondary then flux leakage occurs, these may be reduced by the design of the core (see later text). All these losses are taken into consideration in the design of a transformer and in most transformers the losses are small and high efficiencies result (98% to 99%) (The average motor car efficiency is 30 to 40 %) Transformer on No Load The primary in figure 61 has a 100 volt ac supply and it’s secondary is open- circuited (no load). The current that flows in the primary will cause an alternating flux in the core which will induce a voltage of 200 volts ac in the secondary winding. (Check the turns ratio) ~50-ve(100v) __s (PRIMARY OFF-LOAD i CURRENT) 200Vac (COPPER 4100V ac output LOSSES) SUPPLY a. he FLUX VECTOR: (MAGNETISING CURRENT) Gi, = 2H) Fig. 61 TRANSFORMER - NO LOAD ‘The primary alternating flux will also induée a back-emf into-the primary winding in opposition to the applied emf. The effective emf acting on the primary\is therefore very small and only a very small cutrent will flow into the primary winding, ‘The foregoing is, of course, a description of inductive reactance, XL-The very small current that flows in the primary is that current which is necesSary to overcome losses and to magnetise the core. ‘The primary and secondary voltages are in/anti-phase and it is usual to show them.in this-mianner on a phasor diagram. , Because the circuit is inductive, the off-load primary current will lag behind the primary voltage. The in-phase component of this current is overcoming copper losses and the quadrature component is magnetising the core. Transformer On Load If the secondary is now carrying current it is important to note that this current provides a flux in the core which opposes the primary flux and so reduces the total flux in the core. This means that the primary back-emf is reduced, with a consequent increase in effective emf in the primary and so an increase in primary current, Therefore increase in loading on the secondary increases primary current. The phasor diagram below shows the transformer on load. -S1-‘The phasor diagram shows how the load current (Is) is transformed through 180° to become the primary load current (Ir) this is combined with the off load current (lou). To give the total primary current (Iprora.) a phasor drawing as shown below is produced. Fig. 62 PHASOR DIAGRAM.FOR A TRANSFORMER Transformer Connections can have|a secondary winding with various tapings to give differing output voltages, jor it can, have a combirlation of both. It is therefore a very versatile piece of equipment. It must be realised that the individual loads on|all these secondaries will/all combine to bb effectively one load as far as the primary winding is concerned. E a c A= sac 240VaC ae 120 TURNS Sv 1200 TURNS ee ove, ove TRANSFORMER WITH ‘TRANSFORMER WITH TAPPINGS 3 SECONDARY WINDINGS ON THE SECONDARY Fig. 63 SECONDARY WINDINGS -52-Phasing Dots ‘The next diagram shows a transformer with three secondary windings. The dots at the ends of the windings are called phasing dots, they show that the polarity at those points will be the same at the sarne moment in time, ie points A D and E will all be positive together and ail negative together. ‘The centre winding is therefore of opposite polarity to the other two secondary windings. That is windings 1 and 3 will have a 180° phase shift from the input while winding 2 will be in phase with the input. it will of course be wound in the opposite sense. PRIMARY WINDING. ! A; lacy F 1 2< 3 cf | SECONDARY WINDINGS | 7 Fig, 64 PHASING DOTS EFFICIENCY AND REGULATION Efficiency The efficiency of a transformer is Output power x 100% Input power As the input is equal to the output + losses, so efficiency may be expressed as Output power x 100% Output power + copper losses + iron losses Iron losses are reasonably constant, but copper losses vary as the square of the currents flowing, Efficiency is greatest when copper losses are equal to iron losses. -53-Regulation As more current is drawn from the secondary of a transformer the terminal voltage falls as copper losses increase. The difference between the secondary voltage at no load and the secondary voltage at full load is expressed as a percentage and is known as the REGULATION of the transformer. REGULATION = NO LOAD VOLTAGE ~ FULL LOAD VOLTAGE x 100% FULL LOAD VOLTAGE, ‘Typically this is 1- 2% TRANSFORMER TYPES Low Frequency Transformers ‘These are Usually used within the af (audio frequency) range. ‘The core or former of a transformer on which the coils are wound is invariably one of two types, the CORE type or the SHELL/type. The coils forming the Primary winding and the Secondary winding(s)-are wound so as to be in the closést proximity to each other in order to.achieve the maximum flux linkage (low flux leakage) t _\ ae Winding the primary of a step-up transformer nearest to the core and then winding the secoridary on top of it has the/added advantage of keeping the primary insulation between the-higher™ Core type. The laminations are either U-and I-shaped or L-shaped. They are staggered when assembled to provide a single magnetic circuit. The windings can de on one limb or split between the two limbs (see figure 65). Shell type. The laminations are usually T- and U-shaped and are staggered when assembled to give a three-limbed former. ‘This gives two magnetic paths and this type, whilst more expensive to build, is more suitable for use with large values of current. When used for single-phase work, each limb is allocated to the primary and secondary windings of one particular phase. (This point is covered later) It should be noted, that af transformers can be used as ‘matching’ impedances. (Again, see later in these notes}. They may also be used as isolation transformers when the primary and secondary have the same number of turns so Vp = Vs, It is a way of isolating electrically one circuit from another without altering the ac conditions. oa‘SHAPED STAGGERED L SHAPED STAGGERED EAMINATIONS j— Pray SeconoARY SECONDARY SECONDARY ‘CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER Fig. 65 TRANSFORMER TYPES High Frequency Transformers Radio frequency (rf) transformers are USéd in radio transmitters/and receivers and are designed to work at frequencies from 100kHz to 100 MHz. rf transformers do not have iron cores because iron losses would be high at such high frequencies. Some high frequency transformets consist of the primary and secondary/wound on an insulating tube made of paxolin of polystyrene. Ail of the primary! Mux does not link with the secondary. j TERMINATIONS, M/ INSULATING TUBE OR FORMER WAVE WOUND cos Fig. 66 HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER ‘They are inefficient for power transfer and secondary voltage is no longer equal to T (turns ratio} times the primary voltage rf transformers often have iron dust (ferrite) cores which are used to adjust the coil inductance or modify the coupling effect between the two coils. Other rf transformers might have the coils wound on a ferrite rod to act as an aerial receiving arrangement. In nearly all cases, one or both of the coils will be tuned by parallel capacitors to be resonant at one fixed frequency or adjustable over a range of frequencies. -55-ACTIVITY 7 1. An ideal transformer has 1000 primary tums and 3500 secondary turns. If 250V is applied to the primary, find: a) Vs, b) —_Isif connected to a 872 load. c} _ Ipwith the load connected 2. What would be the effect on a transformer designed to operate on one particular frequency if it is inadvertently connected to a: a) Lower frequency. b) Higher frequency. ‘The Auto Transformer ‘This is-e-special type of transformer that-has only a single winding-which serves as both the primary and the secondary-it follows that a portion-of the winding is common to both the input and the output) It may be used either as a\step-up or as a step-down transformer. The single winding is wound on & laminated iron core forming @ closed magnetic circuit. STEP UP Ve PRIMARY BR Fig. 67 AUTO TRANSFORMER If an ac supply is applied to the primary terminals, an alternating current will flow through those coils connected across P] and P2, This will set up an alternating flux which will link with all of the turns on the former, inducing a voltage in each. The output voltage is therefore that which appears in the coils across terminals S1 and S2. Loading the secondary will have the same effect as described for the Power Transformer. If the current flow is considered for one particular half-cycle, it will be seen that the primary and secondary currents are opposing each other in the common portion of the winding aoe‘The actual current flow in the common portion is therefore the difference between the two currents. This means that the cross-section area of the copper can be decreased in the common portion, bringing about a saving in weight. This saving is obviously most beneficial on auto-transformers where the input voltage and the output voltage are very close together and the vast majority of the winding is common. One disadvantage of this type of transformer, especially when used as a step- down jis that, in the event of an open-circuit occurring in the common portion of the winding, the input voltage will be applied to the load. They are increasingly found in aircraft lighting circuits for example. ‘The Quadrature Transformer or Mutual Reactor This device'was known about for many_years but no practical use waémade of it until the advent of constant frequency ac systems in aircraft with their associated control systems. i A device was required that gave a phase angle of 90° between the current in one circuit and a signal being put into another-circuit. The angle between the primary current in a quadrature transformer and its ‘secondary voltage is-{for all practical purposes) 90°. To explain its opefation, consider first of all a normal power transformer and its basic off-load phasor diagram thigure-68)- Vp I {Copper Losses) (primary Off-load Current) ® 7 lux Im (Magnetising Current) vv, Fig. 68 OFF-LOAD PHASOR DIAGRAM oTFig. 69 QUADRATURE TRANSFORMER, If an air gap is cut in the former of the transformer, more current will be required to magnetise the core to overcome the increased reluctance. As the magnetising element of the primary current is at 90° to the applied voltage, it can be seen that the primary current is increased and at the same time moved around until it is almost 90° behind the applied voltage. It also follows that the primary currént iS almost at 90° ahead of thé Secondary emf. , lo (With air gap} oe Flux @ FOR ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES, THE PRIMARY CURRENT LEADS THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE BY 90° v Vs Fig. 70 PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR QUADRATURE TRANSFORMER This is the purpose of the Quadrature Transformer. In understanding the use to which it is put, it is best to forget the applied voltage and to remember that if a current is forced through the primary, the secondary emf will occur 90° after it. ‘The air gap has an optimum size and is usually beneath the windings, so it looks just like any other small transformer. It is only used to obtain signal voltages and cannot be loaded to any great extent. -58-The Current Transformer The Current Transformer is designed to enable circuit currents to be measured without breaking into the circuit, as is necessary with an ammeter or its shunt. ‘The output of the current transformer may be applied directly to an instrument or be used in control circuits. It works on the principle of mutual inductance but its construction and mode of operation are different to that of the voltage transformer. It has a step-up turns ratio with the primary being the load’s supply cable as shown in figure 68. The secondary winding (of many turns of fine wire) is wound on a non-laminated toroidal core of silicon iron. SECONDARY {tons} Fig. 71 THE CURRENT TRANSFORMER Operation When-the'load passes through the supply cable, it creates a-magnetic field along its whole length which is constantly building-up, collapsing, reversing, building- up, ete. It is this flux which induces emfs into the coils of the secondary winding, As the ring former and secondary coil only take up a very small length of the primary cable, it is obvious that, whatever happens at the secondary, the effect on the primary will be virtually nil. The primary, which depends on the load, may therefore be regarded as a constant current/constant flux supply. The voltage in the secondary winding causes a current to flow through its load and through the secondary winding. This produces a secondary flux which opposes the primary flux and so keeps the core flux to a very low level. This is a most important point to remember because, if the primary is operated with the secondary winding disconnected from its load there will be no secondary emf to oppose the primary emf. This will result in a high core flux; increased eddy currents in the core; increased voltages in the individual secondary coils; and overheating. -59-‘The result is that the current transformer will burn out. (Even if the mistake is realised and the system is switched off before it actually burns out, the core may be pre-magnetised, or biased, and cannot therefore be relied upon to be accurate) If it is necessary to operate the primary when the secondary load is disconnected, short together the secondary terminals. This will cause a secondary current and flux and so keep the core flux to a minimum. If the current transformer is supplying a load such as an ammeter, then the actual connections may not matter and the ammeter will indicate whichever way it is connected-up. This is not true, however, when the current transformer is feeding signals into control circuits, where it is essential to get the phasing right. If the secondary connections are crossed, the output will be turned through 180° causing untold havoc in the control circuit. It is absolutely essential to get the secondary connections correct. In the sarfie way, if a current trinsformenis iS being fitted over its primary, cable, it is absolutely essential to physically position\it the right way round. SUMMARY When fitting a current trajsiormer hake sure itis fitted tHE TGHt way round. 2. When connecting the secondary to its load, make sure it is correctly fitted. 3. Never operate the primary fireuit with the secondary open-circuited. Short it Ge i 4, Never operate a current trator on anything otherthan its designed “Toad. 5. In some cases, the current transformer and its Joad are a matched pair. (They may even carry the same serial numbers). If one is changed, then the other must also be changed. 6. | When they are used in control circuitry, remember that the secondary output is a supply source proportional to the primary current flow. The Impedance Matching Transformer Besides using transformers to change ac values of voltage and current, we can also use them between a source of supply and a load circuit to ‘match’ the impedance’s of the two circuits. In any circuit Impedance Z = V/I ‘Therefore, in a transformer, the impedance Zs of the secondary is the ratio of secondary voltage to secondary current and the impedance Zp of the primary is the ratio of the primary voltage to the primary current. eoThe primary and secondary voltages and currents are related to each other by the Turns Ratio of the transformer and so it follows that the impedances must be related also. This relationship is given by: Z Zs/T? This means that a secondary load impedance of Zs appears to the source of supply to be an impedance (Zp) to the value of Zs/T?, As an example. If a transformer with a turns ratio (7) of 3 is connected to a load impedance (Zs) of 9000ohms, the supply source ‘sees’ an impedance of 9000/9 = 1000 ohms. MATCHING TRANSFORMER i SPEAKER, POWER 1 —, OUTPUT ADJUSTED P . Fig. 72 IMPEDANCE MATCHING - 1 It should already be known that maximuth power is transferred from a source of supply-to-a-load-circuit only when-the-load! impedance is equal-to the internal impedance of the source of supply. If we have a case where they are not equal and we want maximum power to be transferred, we can use the impedance matching effect of a transformer to achieve the necessary conditions. It is not very difficult to make a load impedance appear to the supply source to be equal to the supply source’s own impedance. As an example: The 4 ohms impedance shown in figure 73 must be made to appear to the supply source to be equal to 10,000 ohms From the formula Zp = Zs/T?, we need to find T. By transposition, T? = Zs/Zp = 4/10,000 = 1/2,500 Therefore T = 1/50. ‘This means that a 50:1 step-down transformer will transform the 4 ohms in the secondary to 10,000 ohms in the primary and maximum power is then transferred to the load. -61-Tat mmm rapes sm mm Internal impedance source LOAD 4 OHMS Vac INPUT ~ ' 1 ' ' | of supply ! 1 ' 1 ACTIVITY 8 Find the reflected impedance in the primary of the following circuit: Eb / / 20:4 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS ~~~“ A3 phase transformer is effectively three interconnected single phase transformers with their windings combined on a single magnetic circuit. The most common method of construction is the core type shown in figure 74. Py Si a = \ wo PP, Pe B a B primary |'82 | J Seconpary WINDINGS WINDINGS Py Ss c fi c CD J J Fig. 74 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER -62-There are four combinations for three phase transformers: * Star-star * Delta-delta * Delta-star * Star-delta PRIMARY SECONDARY A STAR B DELTA DELTA D STAR “ye STAR DELTA STAR DELTA Til Fig. 75 CONFIGURATIONS OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS R . a2 | ar ‘ 82 2 Y Bt bt 8 B oy 2 N on Cl w Fig. 76 STAR-STAR THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER -63-32 sar rer A at Y 82 ba bt B 81 ‘et + 7 Calculations for STAR-STAR transformers’ ‘are as for single phase raKisformers except for power. Power = ¥3 Vi he cos @. There is no phase shift between input and output LINE VOLTAGE ys Agaitt; for DELTA-DELTA transformers Single phase calculations“apply except for power, Power = ¥3 Vil. cos ©. Again there is no phase shift between input and output (V)LINE VOLTAGE Fig. 78 STAR-DELTA THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER -64-LINE VOLTAGE v LINE VOLTAGE | Xv PRIMARY ‘SECONDARY Fig. 79 DELTA-STAR THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER The STAR-DELTA transformer hasia V3 step-down ratio iffjaddition to the effect of the turns ratio. Figure 78 assumes 1:1 tums ratio. With this step-down in line voltage there is a 30° phase shift. : | ij The DELTA-STAR transformer has'a"1:7/3

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