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    Method Qualitative PDF

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    Daniela Ocampo

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    ch design and the specific procedures in conducting your study. A research includes various interrelated elements reflect its sequential nature. This chapter ‘exended to show the reader that you have understanding of the methodological ications of the choices you made and, in cular, that you have thought carefully 1 the links between your study"s purpose research questions and the research roach and research methods that you e selected, ‘Note that in the proposal’s chapter 3, you =t what you will do based on what you wv about the particular methods used in tative research, in general, and in your tra- mor genre in particular; hence, it is written furure tense. In the dissertation’s chapter 3, 2 report on what you have already done. fou write after the fact; hence, you write in s: tense, As such, many of the sections of tet 3 can be written only after you have ally conducted your study (Le. collected, [s=alyzed, and synthesized your data). To write this chapter, you need to conduct Gecrature reviews on the methodological cs involved in qualitative research design. je material is, _ CHAPTER 3 resenting Methodology d Research Approach You need to show the reader that you (a) have knowledge of the current issues and discourse, and (b) can relate your study to those issues and discourse. In this regard, you need to explain how you have gone about designing and conducting your study while making sure that you draw supporting evis dence from the literature ior the decisions and choices that you have made. This chapter, which is usually one of the dissertation’s lengthiest, is essentially a dis- cussion, in which you explain the course and logic of your decision making throughout the research process. In practice, this means describing the following: + The rationale for your research approach + The research sample and the population from which it was drawn ‘© The type of information you needed ‘+ How you designed the study and the meth- ‘ods that you used to gather your data © The theoretical basis of the data-collection ‘methods you used and why you chose these + How you have analyzed and synthesized your data + Ethical considerations involved in your study ‘+ sues of trustworthiness and how you dealt with these Limitations of the study and your attempt to address these | COMPLETING YOUR QUALITATIVE DISSERTATION Following are the two sections that make up this chapter. Section T offers instruction ‘on how to develop each section of chapter 3, Section I illustrates application by way of the example used throughout this book and gives you some idea of what a complete chapter 3 should look like, Note that Section includes various “how-to” matrices, charts, and figures. Although not all of these may make their way into the main body of your final dissertation, they can and often do appear as “working tools” in the disserta- tion’s appendix. | CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Chapter 3 Objectives Section I: Instruction ‘enti the key components of the methodotogy chapter: (a) Introduction and overview, (b) research sample, (c) overview of information needed, (d) research design, (e) methods of data collection, (f] methods for data analysis and synthesis, (g) ethical considerations, (h) issues of trustworthiness i) limitations of the study and () chapter summary. ‘+ Provide explanation of how each component of the research ‘methodology must be developed and presented + Show that you understand how all of the components combined forts a logical, interconnected sequence and contribute tothe overall snethodological integrity of the study. Section Ul: Application + Presentation of a completed methodology chapter based on the content and process as described previously. SECTION I: INSTRUCTION “The dissertation’s third chapter—the meth dology chapter—covers a lot of ground. this chapter, you document each step th you have taken in designing and conduct the study. The format that we present for th chapter covers all the necessary compone: of a comprehensive methodology chapt Universities generally have their own fi structural requirements, and so we recom: mend that, before proceeding to write, you discuss with your advisor how to structure the chapter as well as the preferred order of the sections and how long each section should be. Most important, make sure (a) your sections are in a logical sequence, and (b) what you write is comprehensive, clear, precise, and sufficiently detailed so that others will be able to adequately judge the soundness of your study. Table 3.1 is a roadmap intended to illustrate the necessary clements that constitute a sound methodol- ogy chapter and a suggested sequence for including these elements. As pointed out previously, although qual- itative research as an overall approach is based on certain central assumptions, it is characterized by an ongoing discourse regarding the appropriate and acceptable use of terminology. Current thinking over the years has caused some qualitative researchers to develop their own terminology to more effectively reflect the nacure and distinction of ‘qualitative research, whereas others still bor- row terminology from quantitative research. Throughout this chapter, we point out stances in which you should be aware of these differences so that you can make an informed choice. I 8: Issues of Tr This section d cedibility, dep have a clear us you employed 4: Research Des This section ou: fa greater det his section is of szeps involved, Data-Collec Explain that a indicate that th methods you t discussion any critical reading each method o} Jireratare says separate secic 6: Data Analys Report on how findings (chap. important 10 n the findings an Ethical Cons This section sh Introduction and Overview ‘The chapter begins with an opening para- graph in which you restate the study’s pur- pose and research questions and then go on co: j eapcer—the metho- = = lor of ground. In sent each step that Se and conducting Bee ve present for this Say components Sebodology chapter. Bae their own fixed sed so we recom- eins to write, you Sex bow to structure «the preferred order we Hong each section ieectant, make sure i = logical sequence, see & comprehensive, Seetiy detailed so that “sdegpaely judge the met Table 3.1 is a Birate the necessary © = sound methodol- sessed sequence for = Sess. although qual- | ccall approach is Seal assumptions, it = Sxzoing discourse Se aad acceptable use te chinking over the Sgestextive researchers SSssnology to more see and distinction of esses others still bor p gessitative research. see, we point out fe sould be aware of Sie fou can make an ‘an opening para~ See the study's pur- fees and then go on Presenting Methodology and Research Approach | 67 Table 3.1 Roadmap for Developing Methodology Chapter: Necessary Elements 1: Intcoduction and Overview Begin by stating purpose and research questions. Go on to explain how the chapter is organized. Then provide a rationale for using a qualitative research approach, as wel asa rationale for the particular qualitative tradition/genre you have chosen. Provide a brief overview of your study. 2: Research Sample Describe the research sample and the population from which that sample was drawn, Discuss the sampling strategy used. (Depending on the qualitative research tradition, a sample can include people, texts, artifacts, or cultural phenomena.) In this section, describe the research site if appropriate (progranvinstitation/organization). 3: Overview of Information Needed Describe the kinds of information you will need to answer your research questions. Be specific about exactly what kind of information you will be collecting. Four general areas of information are needed for most qualitative studies: contextual, perceptual, demographic, and theoretical information, 4: Research Design Overview “This section outlines your overall research design/methodology. It includes the lst of steps in carrying ‘nt your research from data collection through data analysis, The two sections that follow elaborate in greater detail on the methods of data collection and the process of data analysis. The narrative in this section is often augmented by a flowchart or diagram that provides an illstration of the various steps involved. 5: Data-Collection Methods Explain that a selected literature review preceded data collection; although this informs the study, indicate that the literature is not data ¢o be collected, Identify and present all the data-collestion methods you used, and clearly explain the steps taken to carry out each method. Include in the discussion any field tests or pilot studies you may have undertaken. To show that you have done a critical reading of the literature, you may be required to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of ‘each method of data collection used. In this regard, you may either include in this section what the Literature says about each of the methods you will be using, or the literature on methods may be a separate sect sera Sere ee ee eee eee eee eerste 66: Data Analysis and Synthesis Report on how you managed, organized, and analyzed your data in preparation to report your findings (chap, 4) and then how you went on to analyze and interpret your findings (chap. 5). Ieis important ro note that this section of chapter 3 can thus be written only after you have written up the findings and analysis chapters of your dissertation. 7: Ethical Considerations ‘This section should inform the reader that you have considered the ethical issues that might arise visei-vis your study and that you have taken the necessary steps to address these issues. 8: Isues of Trustworthiness This section discusses the criteria for evaluating the trustworthiness of qualitative researcl— credibility, dependability, and transferability. Moreover, you must indicate to the reader thas yo= have a clear understanding of the implications thereof vis-i-vis your own study and the stratexex you employed to enhance trustworthiness, (Continued) COMPLETING YOUR QUALITATIVE DISSERTATION Fiebte 3.1 (Continued) '&: Limitations of the Study ‘Ge all potential limitations and your means to address these limitations. The discussion should ‘eclude problems inherent in qualitative research generally, as well as limitations that are specific so your particular study, Regardless of how carefully you plan a study, there will always be some JEmnitations, and you need to explicitly acknowledge these. 10: Chapter Summary ‘A final culminating summary ties together all the elements that you have presented in this chapter. Make sure that you highlight all the important points. Keep your concluding discussion concise and | precise. se eee ete tee be oer to explain the chapter's organization. You then proceed to discuss how your research lends itself toa qualitative approach and why this approach is most appropriate to your inquiry. Critical to a well-planned study is the consideration of whether 2 qualitative approach is suited to the purpose and nature of your study. To convey this notion to the reader, itis necessary to provide a rationale for the qualitative research approach, as well as your reasons for choosing 2 particular qualitative tradition—namely, case study or multiple case study, ethnography, phe- nomenology, biography, or grounded theory. In your discussion, you begin by defining qualitative inquiry as distinct from quantita- tive research. Then you go on to discuss the values and benefits derived from using a qualitative approachs in other words, its strengths. You would not talk about its ‘weaknesses heres you will do that in the last section of the methodology chapter called “Limitations.” Make sure that this first sec- tion flows logically and that you structure your discussion well by using appropriate headings and subheadings. Once the overall approach and supporting rationale have been presented, you can move on to explain who the research participants are, the sampling strategies you used to select the participants, what kind of data were needed to inform your study, and the specific data-collection and data-analysis strategies employed. The Research Sample In this section, you need to identify and describe in detail the methods used to select the research sample. This provides the reader with some sense of the scope of your study. In addition, your study’s credibility relies on the quality of procedures you have used to select the research participants. Nore that some qualitative researchers object to the use of the word sample in qualitative research, preferring terms such as research participants or selected participants, This is another example of the discourse among qualitative researchers that was mentioned previously. Some research is site-specific, and the study is defined by and intimately linked to one or more locations. If you are working with a par- ticular site, be it a particular place, region, organization, or program, the reader needs some detail regarding the setting. Although it is typically mentioned briefly in the beginning pages of chapter 1, in this section of chapter 3 you need to talk more specifically about how and why the site was selected, ‘After discussing the site, if applicable, you proceed to tell the reader about the research sample—the participants of your study. You also need to explain in some detail how the sample was selected and the pool from which it was drawn. This discussion should include the criteria used for inclusion in the sample, how participants were identified, how they were contacted, the contacted, and the 5 agreed to participate You also need to < method of sample : sidered most approp In qualitative re: research sample is p 2002). This type of referred to as purpo 1998) or judgment & Airasian, 2006). sampling lies in se ceases, with the obje and understanding o: investigation. This n she random samplin ‘acterize quantitative ‘on statistical proba sampling controls ‘enables generalizatio Jarger population— five research. Reme senets of qualitativ esearch setting is w people and context ‘cher’s intent is to ext in depth, not t context or populatic ‘qualitative research about themselves an Asits name sugges has reasons (purpos participants, events, poseful selection of : xepresents a. key esearch. Thus, in ¢ ‘identify and provide sampling. strategy choose depends on ‘and you need to ma cussion, For examp! study, you might sampling.” Criterio when. all the indiv ‘were contacted, the number of individuals contacted, and the percentage of those who agreed to participate (ie., the response rate). You also need to discuss why the specific method of sample selection used was con- sidered most appropriate. In qualitative research, selection of the esearch sample is purposeful (Patton 1990, 2002). This type of sampling is sometimes referred to as purposive sampling (Mersiam, 1998) or judgment sampling (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2006). The logic of purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-rich cases, with the objective of yielding insight and understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. This method is in contrast to the random sampling procedures that char- acterize quantitative research, which is based ‘on statistical probability theory. Random sampling controls for selection bias and enables generalization from the sample to a larger population—a key feature of quantita- ‘ive research. Remember, one of the basic tenets of qualitative research is that each research setting is unique in its own mix of “Secession should me that are specific a alseays be some ged i chis chaprer. sesion concise and ect = identify and beds used to select movies the reader see of your study. sedibilty relies on jos have used t0 Seents. Note that es object to the use Galieative research, sch participants “Bis is another people and contextual factors. The rescar- Seong qualitative cher’s intent is to describe a particular con- sesed previously. ‘ext in depth, not to generalize to another sctie and the study context or population. Representativeness in & Gaked to one or ‘qualitative research is secondary to the par- eecking with a par- ticipants’ ability to provide information tae place, region, ae reader needs sete. Although it ® so the beginning sexsion of chapter 3 Beally about how =i shese issues, Ssary steps to Smstances, you = the potential quantitative research. While some qualitative say qualitative researchers argue for a return to terminology = mot specific to for ensuring rigor that is used by mainstream Sef buman sub- science (Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olson, & Spiers, 2002), others object to the use of tra- ditional terms such as validity and reliabili ly preferring instead credibility and dependabil. ’. This contrast is a matter of institutional Seo in social Se is that you she ceader that ses heed of the Seemed consent and/or personal preference, and we recom Sssthe principle mend that you check with your advisor in Seman subjects this regard. Lincoln and Guba (1985) and Sy to judge for Guba and Lincoln (1998), among others, ech taking for belong to the latter camp, proposing various Seatific know!- criteria for evaluating the trustworthiness of jesant that you bey of the con- me sindy. A: Sependix ‘qualitative research: Credibility: This criterion refers to fher the participants’ perceptions match ‘with the rescarcher’s portrayal of them. In ther words, has the researcher accurately epresented what the participants think, feel, and do? Credibility parallels the criterion of validity (including both validity of measures ‘and internal validity) in quantitative research. Evidence in support of credibility can take several forms: a. Clarify up front the bias that you, as the researcher, bring tothe study. This selfreflection creates an open and honest attitude that will resonate well the standards si for good and sizy and relia- Slearly reflects HE work is reli- = srudying the © ap with com: for evaluating Presenting Methodology and Research Approach | 77 with readers. You should continually monitor their own subjective perspee- tives and biases by ecording reflective field notes or keeping a journal trough- out the research process Discuss how you engaged in repeated and substantial involvement in the Bld. Prolonged involvement inthe field fcii- tates a more in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study, convey. ing detail about the site and the par- Xicipamts chat lends credibility to your account. ©. An aspect of eredibility involves checking on whether your interpreta tion of the processes and interactions inthe setting is valid. Typically, qual- itative researchers collect multiple sources of data. The information pro Vided by these different sources should be compared through triangu- lation to corroborate the researcher's conclusions. 4. ‘Triangulation of data-collection meth- os also lends cedibility. Using malt ple methods corroborates the evidence that you have obtained via different © Present negative instances or dis- ccepant findings. Searching for varia- tion in the understanding of the phenomenon entails secking instances that might disconfirm or challenge the researcher's expectations or emergent findings. Because real life is composed of different perspectives that do not always coalesce, discussing contrary information adds to the credibility of {. To ensure chat the researcher's own biases do not influence how partic pants’ perspectives are portrayed, and to determine the accuracy ofthe Find ings, you can make use of “member checks,” which entails sending the transcribed interviews or summaries of the researcher's conclusions to participants for review. Use “peer debriefing” to eahance the accuracy of your accouae. This process involves asking a colleagu COMPLETING YOUR QUALITATIVE DISSERTATION your field notes and then ask you ques- tions that will help you examine your assumptions and/or consider alterna tive ways of looking at the data, 2. Dependability: This criterion parallels reliability, although it is not assessed through statistical procedures. Dependability refers to whether one can track the processes and pro- cedures used to collect and intespret the data: a. Provide detailed and thorough expla- nations of how the data were collected and analyzed, providing what is known as an “audit trai.” Although it is not possible to include all of your dara in the findings chapter, many qualitative researchers make it known that their data are available for review by other researchers. b. Ask colleagues co code several inter- views, thereby establishing inter-rater reliability. This process of checking on the consistency between caters reduces the potential bias of a single researcher collecting and analyzing the data. 3. Transferability: Although qualitative researchers do not expect their findings to be generalizable to all other settings, it is likely that the lessons learned in one setting might be useful to others. Transferability is not whether the study includes a represen- tative sample. Rather, it is about how well the study has made it possible for the reader to decide whether similar processes will be at work in their own settings and communities by understanding in depth how they occur at the research site. Thus, transferability refers to the fit or match between the research context and other contexts as judged by the reader. As a cri- terion of trustworthiness, transferability is assessed by the following factors: ‘a, The richness of the descriptions included in the study give the discus- sion an element of shared or vicarious experience. Qualitative research is indeed characterized generally by “thick description” (Denzin, 1989/2001) Thick description isa vehicle for com- ‘municating tothe reader a holistic and realistic piceare b. The amount of detailed informa that is provided by the researc regarding the context and/or backsro also offers an clement of sha experience. This section of the dissertation’s chapter 3 addresses this central question: How do we know that the qualitative study is believable accurate, and plausible? To answer this ques- tion, one must have some knowledge of the criteria of trustworthiness in qualitative research and the approaches to addressing these criteria. You need to discuss the criteria for evaluating the trustworthiness of qualita- tive research and to indicate to the reader that you have a clear understanding of the implications thereof vis-i-vis your own study. As the researcher, you are expected to display sensibility and sensitivity to be the research instrument. Begin this section by discussing what validity and reliability in qualitative research involves, using references from the literature to support your state- ‘ments. Then go on to talk about the strate- gies that you have employed to enhance the trustworthiness of your own study vis-A-vis validity (credibility), reliability (dependabil- iny), and generalizability (transferability). that you ct is withe anticipates Limitations of the Study Confusion sometimes exists around the terms delimitations and limitations, and this issue deserves some clarification. Delimitation clarify the boundaries of your study. They are a way to indicate to the reader how you narrowed the scope of your study. As the researcher, you control the delimitations, and you should make this clear. Typical delimita- tions are selected aspects of the problem, time and location of the study, sample discussion c ‘The applica eleton view ¢ should look = as evidence lengthy, and Pexzin, 1989/2001). ss xchicle for com- sak: a holistic and Sted information SS she researcher = and/or background Sent of shared sation’s chapter 3 Sen: How do we eady is believable, “seswer this ques- Keowledge of the = in qualitative Ee to addressing scuss the criteria siess of qualita- = to the reader Escanding of the Ss your own se are expected to Seirity to be the = shis section by sed reliability in & sing references Sport your state- “about the strate- ei co enhance the ee scady vis-i-vis Ey (dependabil- Sesferabilty). Sess around the sation, and this Sex. Delimitations seer study. They = szader how you jee scudy. As the SSenitations, and Typical delimita- ef the problem, = sndy, sample selected, and so on. Limitations of the study expose the conditions that may weaken the study (Locke, Spirduso, & Silverman, 2000; Rossman & Rallis, 2003). In this section of chapter 3, you cite poten- tial imitations and your means of addressing! ‘guarding against these limitations. Regardless of how carefully you plan a study, there are always some limitations, and you need to explicitly acknowledge these. This section describes the problems inherent in qualitative research and how you can control for these limitations to the extent possible. In most instances, you ean control for limitations by acknowledging them. Limitations arise from, among other things, restricted sample size, sample selection, reliance on certain tech- niques for gathering data, and issues of rescarcher bias and participant reactivity. Discussing limitations is intended to show the reader that you understand that no research project is without limitations, and that you have anticipated and given some thought to the shortcomings of your research. Stating the limitations also reminds the reader that your study is situated with a specific context, and the reader can make decisions about its use- fulness for other settings. Chapter Summary The purpose of a final culminating sum- ‘mary is to tie together everything that you have presented in this chapter. Provide a short summary overview, making sure t0 cover all the sections of this chapter, recapping and highlighting all the important points. Keep the discussion concise and precise. ‘The application section that follows is a skeleton view of what a methodology chap- ter should look like. The methodology chap- ter, as evidenced from the prior instructions, is lengthy, and much derail is required in each section. In an actual dissertation, each section of this chapter would be more Presenting Methodology and Research Approach | 79 thoroughly elaborated, and hence would require a much more extensive discussion. SECTION I: APPLICATION Se (CHAPTER III Methodology Introduction The purpose of this multcase study wes to explore with @ sample of doctoral candidates their perceptions of why they have not managed to complete their dissertations. The researcher believed that a better understanding of this phe nomenon would allow educators to proceed from 4 more informed perspective in terms of design and facilitation of doctoral programs. In seeking to understand this phenomenon, the study addressed five research questions: (a) On comple. tion of their coursework, to what extent did par ticipants perceive they were prepared to conduct research and write the dissertation? (b) What did participants perceive they needed to learn to complete their dissertation? (c) How did partic- pants attempt to develop the knowledge, skis, and attitudes they perceived are necessary to Complete the dissertation? (d) What factors did participants perceive might help them to com- plete the dissertation? (e) What factors did par ticipants perceive have impeded and/or continue to impede their progress in working toward com- Pleting their dissertation? This chapter describes the studys research methedology and includes discussions around the following areas: (a) rationale for research approach, (b) description of the research sample, (c) summary of information needed, (d) ovenew of research design (e) methods of data collection, (f) analysis and synthesis of data, (g) ethical considerations, (h) issues of trustworthiness, and (limitations of the study. The chapter culminates with a brief con- cluding summary 8) ) GOMER YOUR QUALITATIVE DISSERTATION ‘Rationale for Qualitative Research Design Qualitative research is grounded in an essen- tally constructivist philosophical position, in the sense that itis concerned with how the complex- ties of the sociocultural world are experienced, interpreted, and understood in a particular con- text and at a particular point in time. The intent of qualitative research is to examine a social situation or interaction by allowing the researcher to enter the world of others and attempt to achieve a holistic rather than a reductionist under- standing (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998; Locke et al, 2000; Mason, 1996; Maxwell, 2005; Merriam, 1998; Merriam & Associates, 2002; Patton, 1990; Schram, 2003; Schwandt, 2000). Qualitative methodology implies an emphasis on discovery and description, and the objectives are generally focused on extracting and interpreting the mear- ing of experience (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998; Denzin & Lincoln, 2003; Merriam, 1998), These objectives are contrasted with those of quantitative research, ‘where the testing of kypotheses to establish Facts and to designate and distinguish relationships betwen variables is usually the intent. It was the researcher's contention that purely quantitative methods were unlikely to elicit the fich data necessary to address the proposed research purposes. In the researchers view, the fundamental assumptions and key features that distinguish what it means to proceed from a qual- itative stance fit well with this study. These fear tures include (a) understanding the processes by which events and actions take place, (b) develop: ing contextual understanding, (c) Facilitating inter: activity beoween researcher and participants, {(@) adopting an interpretive stance, and (e) main- taining design flexibility. Rationale for Case Study Methodology ‘Within the framework of a qualitative approach, the study was most suited fora case study design. As a form of research methodology, case study is an intensive description and analysis oF a phenomenon, social unit, or system bounded by time or place (Berg, 2004; Creswell, 1998; Merriam, 1998; Merriam & ‘Associates, 2002; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Stake, 1994, 1995, 2000, 2001}. As Merriam (1998) indi- cates, qualitative case study is an ideal design for undestanding and interpreting educational phe nomen, As she describes i, ‘A.case study design is employed to gain an in pth understanding ofthe situation and mean ing for those involved. The interest is in process rather than outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable, in discovery rather than confi mation. Insights gleaned from case studies can directly influence policy, practice, and future research, (Merriam, 1998, p19) “The present research fit well with Meriam’s ci tefia because it sought to better understand why certain people who complete the coursework do nat go on to complete the cissertation and hence do not graduate with a doctoral degree The Research Sample AA purposeful sampling procedure was used to select this studs sample, To yield the most infor ‘mation about the phenomenon under study, pur poseful sampling is a method that is typical of case study methodology (Patton, 1990; Silverman, 2000}. The researcher sought to locate individuals ata variety of universities, Thus, a snowball sampling strategy, sometimes referred to 25 network or chain sampling (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Patton, 2002), was employed, whereby participants were asked to refer other individuals whom they knew to be ABD. The cftria for selection of particpants were: ‘©All participants were enrolled in @ doctoral pro- ‘gram for atleast 3 yeas, and All participants completed the coursework and passed the cetification examination. A delimiting time frame of 3 years was decided on by the researcher to ensure adequate experience in a doctoral program. Purposeful sampling allowed for sampling across various Jecations in the pie included 1 sample were in + nine univers ‘wayne State Uni University of | California, Ur University, Ford University. Purp satiation acros ssi. Althoust oral candidat stem along th time spent in

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