Atlas of Stress Strain Curves-ASM International (2002)

Atlas of O71 | | Stress-Strain ; Curves he SECOND EDITION | REESE ESSEIRES Pea SB ABS eTAtlas of Stress-Strain Curves Second EditionTA 460 - ARS Zod Curae ert ‘ieee woot No per of this took may be reproduc sore ina etal ten or wasted cay fom ory any mess, elect ‘mechanical, shotocpying cording, or obese, without the writen permission of the copia ownen inst proting, December 202 (Great cae is aken inthe complain and production ofthis book, brit should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR [A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Athoogh his informaon is tlieved tn be accurate by ASM, ASM canct gurantee tat favorable results Wil be obtained from the eof this publication alone. 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Comments. citicisns, and saggesons ae lito, snd shuld be forwarded to ASM Iteration Prepared ander the direction ofthe ASM Imernational Techical Book Commies (2001-2072), Charles A, Parker, Char Prepared wath assistance from the ASM International Materials Properties Database Commitee, Pd, Sikorsky, Chai. ‘ASM Interaional sa who worked on ds projet included Charles Mocebrugger, Technical Editor Veronica Flint ‘cauisitions Eiltor; Bone Sanders. Manager of Production; Carol Terman, Production Project Managers and Scot Henry, Assistant Director of Reference Publications, Litwary of Congres Cansoyingio-Publiention Dat Atlas of sets carves —2ad od. em SAN: 206-586—Tp, vero, ISBN: 0-87170-730-X 1. Soess-szuin curves Atlee. 2. Mtale—Testin 1LASM Intemational “TAKS 4862002 620,763—e 21 2onne76. ASM Incemational® ‘Motels Park, OF 44973-0002 ‘wor asniniemstional. org Printed in the United States of AmericaContents Preface... eee eee cveeeteeteteee 7 peeabuGed ceeelv Representation of Stress-Strain Behavior. ...« Ferrous Metal Cast Iron (CD « Carbon Steel (CS) Alloy Steel (AS)... High-Strength Steel (HS) Stainless Steel (SS) Tool Steel (TS)... Nonferrous Metals. Cast Aluminum (CA)... Wrought Aluminum (WA) . Aluminum Laminates (LA). Copper (Cu) ‘Magnesium (Me) Nickel (Ni) Reactive and Refractory Metals (RM) . Titanium (Ti). Pure Metals and jiscellaneous Alloys (MA). Alloy Index .....22660+ UNS Index....++Preface In this information age, mechanical property data are lentil, However, locating needed information quickly, judging the validity of| the data, and making reasoned comparisons of data can be daunting. Suress-srain curves condense much information about the mechanical ‘behavior of metals into convenient form. From these basic curves the ‘engineer can extract such information as the strength, ductility, formability, elasticity, and other information useful in prediting the performance of « particular alloy under stress, ‘ASM International published the fis edition ofthe Atlas of Stress Sirain Curves, a collection of over $50 curves, in 1986, This book, along with the Atlas of Farigue Curves, Atlas of Creep and Siress. Rupture Curves, and the Atlas of Stress-Corrosion and Corrosion Fatigue Curves, bas formed a set of useful materials propery resources forthe engineer, materials scientist, and designe. Well over three years ago—with the encouragement, assistance, and guidance of the ASM Technical Books and Materials Properties Database Commitees—ASM International embarked on the project to ‘create this updated, expanded, and improved Second Edition of the Atlas of Stress Serain Curves, Some of the overriding goals of this roject have been to: (© Add curves for materials that are especially useful to key indusees, including serospace, automotive, and heavy manufucturing Seek out curves with a “pedigree” so readers can trace the source of, te information and have some indication regarding its reliability Include as much pertinent information as possible for each curve. Factors such as heat-treat condition, product form, thickness, specimen size, orientation, history esting temperature, and testing rate all affect materials performance and may be helpful whe inter= ‘retig the curves Normalize the presenti among different materials ‘of the curves to facilitate comparisons ‘We feel ASM International has been reasonably successful in achieving these objectives in this edition. Many people are involved in a project of this size, and we would like to thank those who have contributed to, or assisted, this elfr. First and foremost, ASM International thanks the materials researchers Who created the original curves-—without their efforts this volume would not exist. Donna M. Walker, FASM, Stressolvers Inc., and Veronica Flint, ASM staf, initiated the project to revise and expand this book. ASM. Intemational thanks them for their effors in helping to define the goals for this project and in aequiring many of the new curves to be added 0 the book Special thanks are extendod to Special Metals, Gil Kaufman, FASM, Kaufiman Associates, and Broce Boardnman, FASM, Deere & ‘Company, for their contributions of stress-strain curves, Hiro Okamoto and his associates performed the huge task of ‘edrawing the curves to normalize their presentation, and we are grate= ful for their accurate and timely work. ‘The organization and final quality of dhe data as seen in the book ‘are my responsibility, and any errors, omissions, or misclassifications of alloys are mine. Thank Heather Lampman, the principal copy e ‘or, and the members ofthe ASM International production staf, who have worked diligently o keep any errors to a minimum. However, in any endeavor ofthis scope, there will be mistakes. Corrections, coat- ments, and criticisms are invited It should be noted that most of the data included in this book are ‘ot specified as being minimum, typical or having any defined confi- ence level associated with them. The reader may want to refer tothe souree of a particular curve to find additional details. The “Introduction” in this book provides a review ofthe information that can be extracted from stress strain curves, a clarification of terms used in describing mechanical behavior, and a guide tothe limitations ofthe accuracy and precision ofthe information given Charies Moosbrugger ‘Technical Editor ASM IntemationalRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior Charles Moosbrugger, ASM International IT IS APPROPRIATE that a collection of stress-srain curves is named an atlas. An alas isa collection of figures, chars, or maps, so named because early books pictured the Greek Titan, Atlas, om the ‘over or title page, staining with the weight of the world and heavens ‘nm his shoulders. This concept of visualizing the reaction to mechan ‘eal stess is central to development and use of stress-strain curves "This introductory section provides a review of the fundamentals of the mechanical esting that is represented in th curves, The mathematical interpretation of aspects of the curves will aid in analysis of the curves. A lst of terms common to stress-strain behavior is given atthe end of this section. (Ref 1,2). Tensile Testing ‘The simplest loading to visualize is a one-dimensional tensile test, in which a uniform slender test specimen is stretched along its long central axis, The stress-strain curve is representation ofthe performance ‘of the specimen as the applied load is increased monotonically usually to fracture, ‘Stress-strain curves are usually presented as © “Engineering” stress-strain curves, in which the original dimensions ofthe specimens are used in most calculations. f¢ “True” stress-strain curves, where the instantaneous dimensions of the specimen at each point during the test are used in the calculations. This results in the “rue” curves being above the “engineer ing” curves, notably in the higher strain portion ofthe curves. ‘The development ofthese curves is described in the following sec tions. "To document the tension test, an engineering stress-strain curve is ‘constructed from the load-elongation measurements made on the fest Specimen (Fig. 1). The engincering stress, §, ploted on this stress- strain curve isthe average longitudinal stress in the tensile specimen, It Eroneergaan Fig. 1 Engineering ressinin curve, ntnection fhe dhe Ine wih the cue iB 1 [cece he ot yd seth, is obtained by dividing the load, P, by the original area of the ross section ofthe specimen, Ao a £ ean ‘The strain, e, plotted on the engineering stress-strain curve, i the aver: age linear strain, which is obtained by dividing the elongation of the ‘gage length ofthe specimen, 8, by its original length, L Blak Ln oy ‘Because both the stress and the strain are obtained by dividing the load and elongation by constant factors, the load-elongation curve has the Satine shape asthe enginoering stress-strain curve. The two curves fre= ‘quently afe used interchangeably. ‘The units of stress are forceength squared, and the strain is unitless. The struin axis of curves waditionally are given units of inJin, or -mmimam rather than being listed a a pore number. Stain is sometimes ‘expressed a8 a percent clongation. ‘The shape ofthe strest-strain curve and values assigned tothe points on the stress strain curve ofa metal depend on is 42) © Composition {© Heat treatment and conditioning (© Prior history of plastic deformation © The strain rte of test ‘Temperature Orientation of applied stress relative o the test specimens structure Size and shape ‘The parameters that are used to describe the stress-strain curve of a metal ae the tensile strength, yield strength or yield point, ultimate ten sile strength, percent elongation, and reduction in area. The frst three ae strength parameters; the last two indicate ductility The general shape of the engincering stress-strain curve (Fig. 1) requires further explanation, Ths curve represents the full loading of specimen from initial load to rupture Iisa “fullrange" curve. Often engineering curves are truncated past the 0.2% yield point. This isthe tase of many of the curves inthis Ailas. Other test data are presented asa “fullrange” curve with an “expanded range” to detail he initial parts ofthe curve. Linear Segment of Curves From the origin, O, the initial straight-line portion is the clastic region, where sess is linearly proportional to strain. When the stress is removed. ifthe stain disappears, the specimen is considered completely elastic. “The point st which the curve departs from the straight-line proportionality , isthe proportional limit Modulus of elasticity, & also known as Youn’s modulus, is the slope of this inital inear portion ofthe stress-strain curve: «>2/ Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves where Sis engineering stess and se is engineering train, Modulus of elasticity is a measure ofthe siffness of the material. The greater the ‘modulus, the steeper the slope and the smaller the elastic strain resulting from the application ofa given stress. Because the modulus of eas ticity is needed for computing deflections of beams and othe structural ‘members, it isan important design valve, ‘The modulus of elasticity is determined by the binding forces between atoms. Because these forces cannot be changed without changing the basic nature ofthe material, the modulus of elasticity is ‘one of the most structure-insensitive of the mechanical properties, Generally, i is only slightly affected by alloying additions, heat weat- ment, or cold work (Ref 3). However, increasing the temperature decreases the modulus of elasticity. At elevated temperatures, the mod- uli is often measured by a dynamic method (Ref 4). Typical values of ‘modulus of elasticity for common engineering materials are given in ‘Table I (Ref 5). Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when ‘deformed elastically and to return it when unloaded. This property usu ally is measured by the modulus of resilience, which is the strain ‘energy per unit volume, Up, required (0 sess the material from zero sures f0 the yield stress, 5, The strain energy per unit volume for any point on the line is just the area under the curve: 1 Yor Ser ea From the definition of modulus of elasticity and the above definition, the maximum resilience occurs a the yield point and is called the mod ‘lus of resilience, Up Ls mats 2S a= 5 Soba SF 3) EE ‘This equation indicates thatthe ideal material for resisting energy'loads in applications where the material must not undergo permanent istor- Table 1_Typical values for modulus of elasticity Met om Wee ‘ras 3.20 Pg 1s Coonan » Copper 0 “Son au at i ed 16 Sagres & Mayhem mm Nake ‘son 1 Notion Ios ‘thee * ‘is an 207 Oise 20 sos D736 tats a m2 Te) set i jor Tol wel anos im Bs ‘Snes 28 8c as 33 ele hs 2 ‘Tings a 36 vein Bs iss Bie as 182 “(a Re gon fs pe bw «fo Fig, 2 suesatsin cues forsee secs, Soc: Ref? tion, such as mechanical spring, is one having a high yield siess and 2 low modulus of elasticity For various grades of stel, the modulus of resilience ranges from 100 104500 ki/m? (14.5 10 650 bt inJin.’), with the higher values rep- resenting steels with higher carbon of alloy contents (Ref 6). This can be seen in Fig. 2, where the modulus of resilience for the ehromium- tungsten alloy would be the greatest of the stels, Because it has the highest yield strength and similar modulus of elasticity. The modulus of resilience is represented as the tiangllr areas under the curves i Fig. 3 Figure 2 shows that while the modulus of elasticity is consistent for te given group of steels, the shapes of the curves past their propor ‘onality limits are quite varied (Ref 7). Highearbon spring soe! rane ig. 3. Comparison of sreseaain caves fra hghatrengthhighation sping Fi. 3 ecands ovecteng srl sel Pe ee cai at spingel pin 8 ne dane Ina of icra ale cosrhched Va Hes re he mechs of race (i. Tee a ary ae work don On Rates ange he ore esting farce wi te maraeNonlinear Segment of Curves to Yielding ‘The elastic limit, B, on Fig. 1, may coincide with the proportionality limit, o it ay occur at some preater stress. The elastic limit is the ‘maximum stress tat can be applied without permanent deformation to the specimen, Some curves exhibit a definite yield point, while others fdo not. When the stress exceeds a value corresponding to the yield strength, the specimen undergoes gross plastic delormation. I the load is subsequently reduced to 0, the specimen will remain pempanent]y Seformed. ‘Measures of Yielding. The stress at which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin depends on the sensitivity ofthe stain measurements. With most materials, there isa gradual transition from Clastc to plastic behavioe, and the Point at which plastic deformation begins is difficult to define with precision. In tests of materials under Uniaxial foading, three criteria for the initiation of yiekdng have been ‘sed: the elastic Timi, the proportional limit, and the yield strength. Elastic limit, shown at point B in Fig, 1, isthe greatest stress the ‘material can withstand without any measurable permanent strain remaining after the complete release of load. With incressing sensitiv ity of strain measurement, the value of the elastic limit is decreased tnt it equals the tre elastic limit determined from microstrain meas- ‘urements, With the sensitivity of stain typically used in engineering studies (10-* mnvfaxm oi.) the elastic limit is greater than the proportional limit. Determination of the elastic limit requires 2 tedious Incremental loading-unloading test procedure. For this reason, itis often replaced by the proportional limit ‘The yield strength, shown at point YS in Fig. 1 is the stress required to produce a small specified amount of plastic deformation. The usial definition ofthis property is the offset yield strength determined by the stress coresponding tothe intersection of the stress-strain curve offset bya specified strain (sce Fig, 1) In the United States, the offset is ust ally spocified as a strain of 0.2% or 0.1% (e = 0.002 or 0.001) (Offet yield strength determination requires specimen that has been Yoaded to its 0.28 offset yield strength and unloaded so that itis 0.2% Jonger than before the test. The offset yield strength is referred to in 180 Standards asthe proof stess (Ry, oF Ryq.)- Inthe EN standards for materials that do not have a yield phenomenon present, the 0.2% proof strength (Ryg2) 0.5% (&yq.s) is determined. The nonpropor- Tional elongation is either 0.1%, 0.2%, of 0.5%. The yield strength ‘oblained by an offset method is commonly used for design and speci- FReation purposes, because i avoids the practical dificulties of measur ing the elastic limit or proportional Limit. ‘Some materials have essentially no linear portion to their stress strain curve, for example, soft copper or gray cast iron. For these mate rials, the offset method cannot be used, and the usual practice is to define the yield strength asthe stress to produce some total strain, for example, ¢ = 0.005. The European Standard for general-purpose cop- Der rod, EN 12163 (Ret 8), gives approximate 0,2% proof strength (Ryo) for information, but itis not a requitement. This approach i fl- Towed for other material forms (bar and wire), but for some copper tuhes, a maximum Ryo2 is specified For copper alloy pressure vessel plate and some spring strip, a minimum Ryo is specified. Materials with Yield Point Phenomenon. Many metals, particularly annealed low-carbon stel, show a localized, heterogeneous type Of transition from elastic to plastic deformation tat produces a yield point in the stress-strain curve. Rather than having a flow curve with a ‘gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior, such as Fig. 4(0, "cals with a yield point proce a low curve ora load-elongation di ‘gram similar to Fig. 4(b). The load increases steadily with elastic strain, Representation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 3 ~ Elongation Tiongason Fig. 4 lene los of ese sin} Contacus ying condition.) Discon 1B 4 aoe eng with an upper i ol Aaa elaely costa yet ing wes Bue drops suddenly, fluctuates about some approximately constant value of load, and then rises with further strain. Tn EN standards for materials exhibiting yield point, the upper yield strength, Re may be specified. The upper and lower yield stess (Re, Fa) are specified in some EN and ISO standards in units of Nim (ENimum?= | MPa), EN 10027-1 (Ref 9) notes te term “yield strength” as used inthis European standard roles to upper or lower yield strength (Rag oF Rx), proof strength (Re), or the proof strength (otal extension (R), depending on the requirement specified in the relevant product standard. This serves as caution thatthe details on how the “yield strength of “yield point” is defined must be known when making ny ‘comparisons or conclusions as to the materials characteristics “Typical yield point behavior of low-carbon steel is shown in Fig. 5. The slope ofthe initial linear portion ofthe stress-strain curve, desig nated by B, isthe modulus of elasticity. The load at which the sudéen drop occur is called the upper yield point. The constant load is called the lower yield point, and the elongation that occurs at constant load is called the yield-point elongation. The deformation occurring through ‘out the yield-point elongation is heterogeneous. At the upper yield Point, «discrete band of deformed metal, often readily visible, appears ata siess concentration such asa fillet Coincident with the formation ‘of the band, the load drops to the lower yield point. The band then Propagates slong the length ofthe specimen, causing the yield point longation Tn typical cases, several bands form at several pons of stress concentration. These bands are generally at approximately 45° to the ten4/ Allas of Stress-Strain Curves re bSovtton | Fig, 5. typical yl point behavior of iow-cbon tt sile axis. They are usually called Liders bands, Hartmann lines, or stretcher strains, and this type of deformation is sometimes referred to asthe Piobert effect They are visible and canbe aesthetically undesir- able. When several Liders bands are formed, the How eurve during the yiekd-point elongation is iregular, each jog corresponding to the formation ofa new Liders band. After the Lders bands have propagated to cover the entre length of the specimen test section, the flow will Jncrease with strain in the typical manner. This marks the end ofthe yield-point elongation. The transition from undeformed to deformed ‘matecal atthe Liters front ean be seen at low magnification in Fig. 6 ‘The rough surface areas are the Liders bands inthe low-carbon steel ‘These bands are also formes in certain sluminum-magnesium alloys, Nonlinear Segment of Continued Deformation Strain Hardening, The stress required to produce continued plastic deformation increases with increasing plastic strain; that is, the metal strain hardens. The volume of the specimen (area x length) remains constant during plastic deformation, AL = Aol, and as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area decreases uniformly along the gage length Inidally, the strain hardening more than compensstes for this ecrease in area, and the engineering stress (proportional to load P) continues to rise with increasing strain. Eventually, a point is reached ‘where the decrease in specimen cross-sectional area is greater than the increas in deformation load arising from strain hardening, This condi tion will be reached fist at some point in the specimen that i slightly ‘weaker than the rst. All futher plastic deformation is concentrated in Fig, 6 ders bands roughenad areas) which have propagated along the lng "© ls specinan of eal stel shew Wot wae teed it terion, Unplitied,cnetched Low magicston ‘his region, andthe specimen begins to neck oF thin down locally. The strain up to this point hss been uniform, as indicated on Fig. 1, Because the cross-sectional area is now decreasing far more rapidly than the ability to resist the deformation by strain hardening, the actual load required to deform the specimen decreases and the engineering sttess defined in Eq 1 continues to decrease until fracture oceuts, at X. The tensile strength, oF ultimate tensile strength, Sy 6 de max- mur oad divided by the original eoss sectional area of he specimen = fam £46) The tensile strength isthe value mos frequently quoted from the results of a tension test. Actually, however, iti a vale of little Fundamental significance with regard tthe strength of a meta. For ductile metals, the tensile strength should be regarded as a measure of the maxim Toad that a metal can withstand under the very restrictive conditions of ‘uniaxial loading. This value bears lite elation tothe useful strength of the metal under the more complex conditions of stress that usually are ‘encountered For many years, it was customary to hase the strength of structural ‘members on the tensile strength, suitably reduced by a factor of safety, The current trend isto the more rational approach of basing the static design of ductile metals onthe yield strength. However, because of the long practice of using the tensile strength to describe the strength of materials, it has become a familiar property, and as such, i isa useful identification of a material in the same sense thatthe chemical composition serves to identity a metal or alloy. Furthermore, because the fen- sile strength is easy to determine and isa reproducible property itis useful for the purposes of specification and for quality control of a product, Extensive empirical coreations between tensile strength and properties such as hardness and fatigue strength are often useful, For brite materials, the tensile strength is a valid design criterion, Measures of Ductility. Curealy, ductility is considered « qualita tive, subjective propecty of a material. In general, measurements of Auctlty are of interest in three respects (Ref 10) © To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without {racture in metalworking operations such a8 rolling and extrusion ‘© TToindicate tothe designer the ability of the metal to flow plastically before fracture. A high ductility indicates that the material is “for giving” and likely to deform locally without fracture should the designer erin the stress calculation oF the prediction of severe loads, (© To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions. Ductlity measurements may be specified to assess material quay, eventhough no direct relationship exists between the ‘ductility measurement and performance in service. ‘The conventional measures of ductility that arc obtained from the tension fest are the engineering strain at fracture, cy, (usualy called the elongation) and the reduetion in area at fracture, q. Hlongation and reduction in area usually are expressed as a percentage. Both of these properties are obtained after fracture by putting the specimen back together and taking measurements of the final length, Le and Binal specmen cross section, Ar 7 An=Ae . es) Because an appreciable fraction ofthe plastic deformation will be ‘concentrated in the necked region ofthe tension specimen, the value of|Representation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 5 will depend on the gage length Lo over which the measurement was. taken (ee the section of ths article on ductility measurement in teasion testing) The smaller the gage Tength the greater the contribution to the ‘overall elongation from the necked region and the higher the value of fr Therefore, when reporting values of percentage elongation, the gage Tength, Zo, should always be given ‘Reduction in area does not sufer from this difficulty. These values can be converted into an equivalent 2ero-gage-length elongation, ey From the constancy of volume relationship for plastic deformation (AL = Aol) L oo 9) ‘This represents the elongation based on a very short gage length near the fracture. Another way to avoid the complications resulting from necking is fo base the percentage elongation on the uniform stain out to the point at which necking begins. The uniform elongation, ey, co relates well with stretch-forming operations. Because the engineering stress strain curve often is quite flat in the vicinity of necking, it may be difficult o establish the stein at maximum load without ambiguity. In this case, the method suggested in Ref 1 is useful ‘The toughness of « material is its ability to absorb energy up tothe point of fracture or rupture. The ability to withstand occasional stresses fbove the yield stress without fracturing is particularly desirable in parts such as feight-car couplings, gears, chains, and crane hooks, ‘Toughness is a commonly used concept that is difficult to precisely define. Toughness may be considered to be the total area under the Stress strain curve tothe point of fracture. This area, which is refered tos the moduls of toughness, Ur, is the amount of work per unit vol- tame that can be done on the mutetil without causing i to rupture Figure 3 shows the stres-srain curves for high- and low-toughness saterials. The high-carbon spring stel has a higher yield stength und tensile strength than the medium-cazbon structural steel. However, the structural steel is more ductile and has a greater total elongation, The total area under the stress-strain curve is greater forthe structural see; therefore, itis a tougher material. This ilustrates that toughness is a parameter that comprises both strength and ductility ‘True Stress-Strain Curves “The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true indication of the deformation characteristics of a metal, ecause i is based entirely on the orginal dimensions of the specimen and these dimensions change continously during the test. Also, a ductile metal that is pulled in tension bbecomes unstable and necks down during the course ofthe test. Because the cross sectional area ofthe specimen is decreasing rapidly at this stage in the test, the load required to continue deformation lessens. "The average stress based on the original area likewise decreases, and this produces the downturn in the engineering stress-strain curve beyond the point of maximum load, Actually, the metal continues to stain harden to fracture, so thatthe tess required to produce further defor ‘mation should also increase If the rue stess, based on the actual eross- sectional area of the specimen, is used, the stress-strain curve increases ‘continuously to fracture. Ifthe stain measurement is also based on instantaneous measurement, che curve that i obtained is known as true- stresgrue-sran curve. Flow Curve. The «me scres-strain curve js also known as a flow curve, beeause it represents the basic plastc-flow characteristics of the ‘material. Any point on the flow curve can be considered the yield stress {ora metal strained in tension by the amount shown on the curve. Thus, ifthe load is removed at his point and then reapplied, the material will ‘throughout the entire range of reloading The true stress, 0, i expressed in terms of engineering sess, S, by: (6410) ‘The derivation of Bq 10 assumes both constancy of volume (AL ‘AgLe) and a homogeneous distribution of stain along the gage length ‘of the tension specimen. Thus, Eq 10 should be used only until the ‘onset of necking. Beyond the maximum load, the true sress should be determined from actual measurements of load and cross-sectional area, rn on 2 1p ‘The true strain, ¢, may be determined from the engineering or con: ventional strain, e, From Eq 2: Mtl bh ky ‘To determine the tue stain, the instantaneous change in length (dis divided by the length, HL tate) 412) (&q13) exin(er)) 41s) ‘This equation is applicable only tothe onset of necking forthe reasons discussed above. Beyond maximum load, the tue strain should be based on actual area or diameter, D, measurements: A (x Divs Do ole on SOM oa es Figure 7 compares the te-stress/rue-srain curve with its comesponding engineering stress-strain curve. Note that, because of the relatively lange plastic strains, the elastic region has been compressed into the years, In agreement with Eq 10 and 14, the tue-stress/rue-strain ‘cuve is always fo the left of the engineering curve unil the maximum Toad is reached, Necking. Beyond maximum load, the high, localized strains in the necked region that are used in Eq 15 far exceed the engineering strain '* Meximum lose © Fracture Fig. 7 Comparison of engineering and wesresstestain coves6 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves 3 5 | ae 8 oping lt of seston cue. nthe tn hadeig ox Fig 8 Teer the seg cout aed calculated from Fi 2. Frequently, the flow curve is linear from mani- mum load to fractare, while in other cases its slope continuously decreases to fracture. The formation of a necked region or mild notch introduces triaxial stresses that make it difficult to determine accurately the longitudinal tensile stress fom the onset of necking until fracture ‘occurs. This concept is discussed in greater detail in the section “Corrected Stess-Stran Curves” in this anicle. The following param ers usually are determined from tho trve-stress/tre-stain curv. ‘The true stress at maximum load comesponds to the true tensile strength. For most materials, necking hegins at maximuan load at a value of strain where the tue stress equals the slope ofthe flow curve. Let oy and e, denote the ue stress and true stain at maximum load when the cross-sectional area of the specimen is Ay. From Eq 6 the engineering ultimate tensile strength can be defined a 415) 1) (ea 18) ea where ¢ isthe base of natural logarithm, so ye 4% The true fracture stress isthe load at fracture divided by the cross- scetional area at facture, This stress should be corrected forthe trax Jal state of stress existing inthe tensile specimen at fracture. Because the data requited for this correction frequently are not availabe, trbe fracture stress values ae frequently in eror ‘The true fracture strain, ey isthe true strain based onthe original area, Ag, and the area after facture, A tents Ae a1 rata A ea) This parameter represents the maximum tue stsin tha dhe material can withstand before fracture and is analogous othe total strain to frac- (ure ofthe engineering stress-strain curve. Because E14 isnot valid beyond the onset of necking, itis not possible to calculate from Fig. 9 Various ams of power cares = et measured values of ep However, for cylindrical tensile specimens, the reduction in ares, qis related to the te fracture strain by ta 42) ‘The true uniform strain, ey is the true strain based only on the strain up to maximum load, ft may be calculated from either the spec- ‘men cross-sectional area, 4, oF the gage length, Z, at maximum load. Equation 15 may be used to convert conventional uniform stra to trae ‘uniform strain. The uniform strain frequently is useful in estimating the formability of metals from the results ofa tension test an eam The true local necking strain ys the strain required to deform the specimen from maximum load to fracture: ea) ‘Mathematical Expression of the Flow Curve. The flow curve of ‘many metals in the region of uniform plastic deformation can be expressed by tho simple power-curve relation on Ke (ea25) where m isthe strain-hardening exponent and K isthe strength coefficient. A log-log plot of true stress and true stain up to maximum load will result in a straight line if Fq 25 is satisfied by the data (Fig. 8) ‘The linear slope ofthis line isn, and K isthe tre stress at € = 1.0 (corresponds to q = 0.63). As shown in Fig, 9, the stain-hardening ‘exponent may have values from n =O (peefectly plastic solid) to m = 1 {elastic solid), For most metals, n has values between 0.10 and 0.50 (see Table 2) Table 2 Values for n and K for metals at room temperature 005% exon ied Annee os > SAL Anedod Oise os OGiccatonsel —Guencdanengert DID 151228 500°C (000) Soe cubonsest —Qlentedsodenperd 019 BT 78S 708" 300" Songer meals os mas Sab tse ‘wes 08 BeRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 7 ‘The rate of strain hardening do/de isnot identical to the strain hardening exponent. From the definition ofn ogo) _ ddne) _ 2, ogo) ~ dine) ~ oat . €426) tions from Bq 25 frequently are observed, often at low strains (10) or high strains (@ = 1.0), One common type of deviation is fora Tog-log plo of Eq 25 to result ia two straight lines with different slopes. Sometimes data that do not plot according to Eq 25 will yield a straight Tine according to the relationship: = Keore" eam qcan be considered tobe the smount of strain hardening thatthe material received prior tothe tension test (Ref 14). Another commen varia tion on Eq 25 is the Ludwik equation: = 09+ Ke 428 where isthe yield stress, and K and n are the same constants as in Eq 25. This equation may bo more satisfying than Eq 25, because the latter implies that at 0 rue strain the sires is 0, Tt has been shown that {9 can be obined from the intercept ofthe strain hardening portion of the stess-strain curve and the elastic modatus line by (Ref 15): o-(S)"" 429) The true-sress/rue-sran curve of metals such as austenite stainless steel, which deviate markedly from Ei 25 at low strains (Ref 16), can be expressed by: Om Ker cho chi et 430) ‘where eX; is approximately equal to the proportional mit, andy isthe slope of the deviation of suess from Eq 25 plotted against e. Other expressions forthe flow curve are available (Ref 17,18). “The true strain term in Eq 25 10 28 properly should be the plastic rt 2 eas where eg opresets cae sin, Sahisaly, ss shown on te engineering curve as gion of cla longaion anda opon op ongaton sre geet ‘omuke ool congue Instability in Tension, Necking generally begins at maximum load daring the tensile deformation of ductile metal. An ideal plaste material in which no stain hardening occurs would become unstable in ten- Sion and begin to neck as soon a yielding occurred. However an actual metal undergoes strain hardening, which tends to increas the load-car- fying capacity ofthe specimen at deformation increases. Ths effect is ‘opposed by the gradual decrease inthe cross-sectional area of the spec- ‘men as it elongates. Necking or localized deformation begins at max- ‘mum load, where the incroase in stress due to decrease inthe cross- sectional ara ofthe specimen becomes greater than the increase in the Toad-carzying ability of the metal due to strain hardening, This condition of instability leading to localized deformation is defined by the condition that Pisa its maximum, dP. , ea) From te eons olan eosin = a and fm ns cotioe 4 32): oe cea39 soit ata pont es nai a) Se oe a $ ” =| apie Fig. 10, Gopi option rch crion the pil ego a ‘tum lod canbe cred Forth tuestestnasatan cave y finding lahheponton te cane hangs sng o unity or the pen hee doe = Fig, 11 Comicon othe derision fh pit of sen8 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves Therefore, the point of necking at maximum load can be obtained from the true-stress/irie-strain curve by finding the point on the curve hav inga subtangent of unity (Fig. 10a) or the point where the rate of strain hardening equals the stess (Fig. 106). The necking criterion can be expressed more explicitly if engineering stan is used. Starting with Eq 36 iene ee HEB aye £. by Ga [Equation 37 permits an interesting geometrical construction forthe determination ofthe point of maximum load (Ref 19). In Fig. 11, the stress.srain curve is plotted in terms of rue stess against engineering strain, Let point A representa negative strain of 1.0. ine drain fom, point A. which is tangent to the stress-strain curve, will establish the point of maximum load, because according t9 Eq 37, the slope at this point is a(t +) By substituting the necking criterion given in Bq 36 into Fag 26, a simple relationship for the stain at which necking occurs is obtained This strain is the rue uniform strain, ey fon (438) Although Bq 26 is based on the assumption thatthe flow cure is given bby Eq 25, ithas been shown that ¢, = n docs not depend on this power- law behavior Ref 20) Corrected Stress-Strain Curves Stress Distribution at the Neck. The formation of a neck in the tensile specimen introduces a complex triaxial state of stress in that region. The necked region isin effet a mikd notch. A notch under ten sion produces radial stress, 6, and transverse stress, cy, Which raise the value of longitudinal stress required to cause’ the plastic flow. Therefore, the average true stress atthe neck, which is determined by dividing the axial tensile load by the minimum cross-sectional area of the specimen at the neck, is higher than the stress that would be required to cause flow if simple tension prevailed ig, 12 Sues dtbion atthe rack ofa tetle specimen. a) Geomety of Fig 12 veedrepon fishes cunt of heels eso an es ate nek, EF Sess acing on eee apo othe esi the ‘lt dct: heal sro, he cave ss igure 12 illustrates the geometry at the necked region and the stresses developed by this localized deformation, Ris the radius of cur= ‘ature ofthe neck, whieh can be measured ether by projecting the con ‘our ofthe necked region on a screen or by using # tapered, conical radius gage. Bridgman made 2 mathematical analysis that provides @ correction to the average axial stress to compensate for the introduction of transverse stresses (Ref 21). This analysis was based on the following assumptions {The contour ofthe neck i approximated by the arc ofa ciel. '© The cross section of the necked region remiins circular throughout the tet, ‘The von Mises criterion for yielding applies. (© The strains are constant over the cross section of the neck: ‘According to this analysis, the uniaxial flow stress corresponding to that which would exist in the tension testi necking had not introduced teaxial stresses is 39) where (6) the measured sires inthe axial direction (load divided by minimum cross section). Figure 7 shows how the application of the Bridgman correction changes the true stess/true-strain curve. A correction forthe triaxial siresses in the neck ofa flat tensile specimen has been considered (Ref 22). The values of a/R needed forthe analysis can be obitined either by straining a specimen a given amount beyond necking and unloading to measure a and R dicecty, or by measuring these parameters continuotsly past necking using photography or & ‘tapered ring gage (Ref 23). ‘Toavoid these measurements, Bridgeman presented an empirical rela- sion between a/R and the re strain in the neck. Figure 13 shows that {his gives close agreement for see! specimens, but not for other metals with widely different necking strains. A much better correlation is jobiained between the Bridgman correction and the true stain i the neck minus the tre strain at necking, ey (Ref 25). Suein.« 13 Selon twee Bran conection fa eng aed ue seRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 9 ‘Measurement in Tension Testing. The measured clongation from a tension specimen depends on the gage length of the speci men or the dimensions ofits cross section. This is Decause the total txtension consists of two components: the uniform extension up 10 recking and the localized extension once necking begins (Fig. 1). The «extent of uniform extension depends on the metallurgical condition of the material (Whrough ) and the effect of specimen size and shape on the development of the neck. The shorter the gage length, the greater the influence of localized ‘deformation atthe neck on the otal elongation of the gage length. The ‘extension of a specimen at fracture can be expressed by: ly lo=a+ eo e440) ‘where cris the local necking extension and eyl9 is the uniform exten sion. The tensile elongation is then: as) ‘This clearly indicates thatthe total elongation is function of the spec imen gage length The shorter the gage length, the greater the percent elongation. "Numerous attempts have eon made to rationalize the strain distri= bution in the tension test. Perhaps the most general conclusion that can be drawn is that geometrically similar specimens develop geometr- cally similar necked regions. ‘Further details on the necking phenomenon can be found inthe article "Mechanical Behavior under Tensile and Compressive Loads” in Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Volume 8 of the ASM Handbook (Ref 25). Notch Tensile Test. Ducilty measurements on standard smooth ten sile specimens do not always reveal metallurgical or environmental ‘changes that lead to reduced local ductility. The tendency for reduced ‘doctility inthe presence ofa triaxial stress field and steep stress gradients (uch a8 arise a a notch) i called notch sensitivity. A common way of ‘evaluating notch sensitivity is tension test using notched specimen, Compression Testing ‘The compression test consists of deforming a cylindrical specimen to produce a shorter ylinder of larger diameter (upsetting). The compression testis a convenient method for determining the stress-strain response of materials at large strains (¢ > 0.5) because the testis not subject tothe instability of necking that occurs in a tension test. Also, itmay be convenient t0 use the compression test because the specimen, is relatively easy to make, and it does not require a large amount of material. The compression testis frequently used in conjunction with evaluating the workability of materials, especially at elevated tempera ture, because most deformation processes, such as forging, havea high ‘component of compressive stress. The test is also used with brittle ‘materials, which are difficult to machine into test specimens and difficult to tensile test in perfect alignment "There are two inhctent difficulties wit the compression tes that must be overcome by the test technique: buckling of th specimen and barel- ing of the specimen. Both conditions cause nonuniform stess and strain lstribation in the specimen that make it dificult to analyze the results. Buckling is a mode of failure characterized by an unstable lateral material deflection caused by compressive stresses. Buckling is con trolled by selecting a specimen geometry with alow length-4o-diameter ratio, /D should be less than 2, and a compression specimen with LID = Lis often used, It also is important to have a very well-aligned load train and to ensure that the end faces ofthe specimen are parallel and perpendicular to the oad axis (Ref 27) Often a special alignment fix ture is used with the testing machine to ensure an accurate load path (Rel 28). Barreling isthe generation of a convex surface on the exterior of a cylinder that is deformed in compression, The cross section of such a specimen is barrel shaped. Burelin is caused by the ition between the end faces of the compression specimen and the anvils that apply the Toad. As the cylinder decreases in eight (h), it wants to increase in siameter (D) because the volume of an incompressible material must remain constant xin Bik, aks. Dat 2 i a £ i 7 ; 10 fi B é rocking | : co sss i 7 2's) | 310920059. —S0 a a a “hu tin conse san ig, 15 Flo canes 2M aly teed in conresion vs hbk Fig 14 cops ot rm si cnn csi, FA 1S re ga encom fig ent ‘andor iran conons| or Al2Mg aly Cove 2, Molo spay curve 4, boron mide alco cue 5, tllon » Malye spay, cuve 8, nse te Sores He 30. cure 3, bro aie pay carve 4 boron re shell carve 3 Teflon sd Molise spay cone posed ry anil carve 7 grooved anv Soca! Re 3010 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves Compress unger nosis, GPa So ale” a «| sco Sot anda ane ong St | — 2 SN “© _| 220 » 1 a ° eee oe Oe Stain 0001 in. Compressive angen mosis? 10 pet Fig. 16 cans contig composi ssn wth compe tt ‘As the material spreads outward over the anvils, itis restrained by the fiction at this interface. The material near the midheight position is less restrained by friction and spreads laterally o the pretest extent, ‘The material next ro the anvil surfaces is restrained from spreading the ‘most; thus, the creation ofa barreled profile. This deformation pattem also leads to the development of a fegion of relatively undeformed ‘materials under the anvil surfaces, ‘This deformation behavior clearly means thatthe sess state is not uniform axial compression. In addition tothe axial compressive sess, 1 circumferential tensile stress develops asthe specimen barels (Ret 29), Beeause barreling increases with the specimen ratio Dh, the force to deform a compression eylinder increases with Dih. Calculation of Compressive Stress and Strain, The calculation of stress and strain forthe compression testis based on developing a test ‘condition that minimizes fiction (and barreling) and assumes the stress State is axial compression. When fiction can be neglected, the uniaxial ‘compressive stress (No sires) i elated tothe deformation fore P by: Ph A pees £8 44) ‘where the last term is obtained by substituting from Eq 42. In Bq 43, subscript I refers to the initial values of D and A, while subseript 2 refers 10 conditions at some subsequent value of specimen height, Equation 43 shows that the flow stress ean be obtained directly from the load P and the instantancous height (ia), provided that friction can be neglected. ‘The tre strain inthe compression testis given by: cow(e) 203) erie th dpa oft amir ameter othe se- Intron wed wise sme como ea ‘Minimizing barreling ofthe compression specimen can be accom= plished by minimizing fiction between the ends ofthe specimen and the anvils. This is dane by using an effective lubricant and machining ‘concentric rings on the end of the specimen to retain the lubricant and keep it from being squeezed out. An extensive series of tests have shown what works best (Ret 30). Figure 14 shows the te stess-true strain curve (low curve) for an annealed Al-2Mg alloy. Stess and strain were calculated as desribed in the previous section. Note how the flow curve in compression agrees ‘with that determined ina feasile rest and how the compressive curves extend 10 much larger strains because there is no specimen necking. Figure 15 extends the strain over double the range of Fig. 14, Note that fonce beyond e > 0.5, the curves begin to diverge depending on the effectiveness ofthe lubrication. The highest curve (greatest deviation fom uniaxial stress) is for grooved anvils (platens) that dig in and pre~ vent sidewise flow. Te last friction is forthe condition where a Teflon (EL DuPont de Nemours & Co, Inc., Wilmington, DE) film sprayed With Molykote (Dow Corning Corporation, Midland, MI) is placed between the anvil and the specimen. stesso) —e ‘Suess fo) ° Stain) —e « °% © Seain() Fig, 17 Diforncesbaxoen constant ses incterens and cost stain neem) qual tes increments eu in sans of ncresing cements) Equal san Inerrons ein docresing sess ncerensRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 11 Wee tht ie pe Se Siain rate") ce | ummauny (hematin air | Hghucaty ‘ ("Some | unpect | ‘tempat : Tag amagua ORR comontoat | iyaoueor Lari IMeSume TS at mated suns Macog | someone |mctinat | eae | “aie oF oading ' aches | “Tne 1 gullet i i i 1 1 T T ein ven te | Meo | eae | sea creo rate [i ascmen [plane wave | propeon ‘woes | Niece) (meee oyramie i oe | ' ‘considerations. |. ners nagiectes—el-+———inti faceimgonant ——>] 19 [eterna r= Aaaoate——> pane ent > Pane sain Exsentally no barreling occurs in room-temperature compression tests when Teflon film is placed hetween the anvil and the end of the specimen. Because the film will eventually tar, tis necessary to run the test incrementally and replace the film when an electrical signal tndcates that there is no longer a continuous film. ‘Obviously, the need to run the test incrementally is inconvenient, A seties of single-increment compression tests on a range of materials ‘with strain-hardening exponents from n = 0.08 10 049 showed that Tubricant conditions do not become significant until > 0.5 so long as este ame, Paste (nasi) range ‘Sin hardening ange ‘Yiekeint elongaton brereago nyo pat cused Eran paren ‘veces —~ Fat unioacng ¢ fan roan sata sing {-—— Duct aor rat loacng — Sean Decay ater uety of gin materi ge 19 lcs ot ws lading on sres-tan bhai, te saps nt Fig, 19 ie: th saline rprsose fe behavior og plese Te ted line specimen that hasbeen arioaed A and then rel The dashed Une Iepreseis second unnading B. ineach ease the sess based on the cose "na rex ofthe specmen messi ser he woud, ig- 18 rainste ranges and aocitd experimental equipment condtions and consequences > 0115, For stains € $ 1.0, 2 grooved specimen with molybdenum disulfide (MoS) grease lubricant gave consistenlly good results. Nearly as good results ae achieved with smooth anvils and spray coat of MoS (Ref 30). Another approach to minimize the effects of barreling is to rema- chine the specimens to their original diameter after some degree of deformation. This is costly and incoavenient and adds uncertainties to the results, For additional details on compression testing, see the article "Uniaxial Compression Testing” in Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Volume 8 of the ASM Handbook. Suess,12 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves Tangent Modulus Curves The tangent modulus, point on the curve. a ae ss the slope ofthe stress-strain curve at any & e445) Below the proportionality limit, has the same value as B, Figure 10 has a construction of E,= | atthe point where the stain was 2, The slope has the same units asthe stress ‘Many of the curves inthe Avas have the pot of the tangent modulus superimposed on the stress-strain curve, These curves have dual units along the x-axis, one set for strain and one set for B. Figure 16 is an ‘example, The modulus of elasticity canbe visually estimated on the in- ‘ear segment of the stress-strain curve as slightly more than 280 MPa/4 > 0,001 = 70,000 MPa or 70 GPa (40 ksi/4 X 0.001 = 10,000 ksi, o 10 X 10® psi). This corresponds tothe constant value (vertical line) on the tangent modulus curves up to the proportionality limit. At higher sires, the stress-strain curves flatten and the tangent modulus curves eerease in value. Torsional Testing Torsion tests can be cartied out on most materials to determine mechanical properties such as modulus of elasticity in shear, shear yield strength, ultimate shear strength, modulus of rapture in shear, and ‘ductility. The torsion tet can also be conducted on full-size parts (shafts, axes, and pipes) and structures (beams and frames) t0 deter- ‘mine ther response to torsional loading. Ia torsion testing, unlike tensile testing and compression testing, large strains can be applied before plastic instability occurs, and complications de to friction between the fest specimen and dies donot arise. ig, 21 wo. ype of hss ses sin logs ring fom Bachingr Fie 21 rec lnstantu alloy Torsion tests are most frequently carried out on prismatic bars of cit cular eross section by applying a torsional moment about the ongit- inal axis. The shear stress versus shear strain curve ean be determined from simultaneous measurements ofthe torque and angle of twist ofthe test specimen over a predetermined gage length ‘When converted from torque (in units of newton-meters or inch pounds) and angular displacement (in degrees or radians) torsional stress-strain has the same units as engineering sirest-strain, but the variance from “true” stress-strain i typically much less. On cylindi- cal specimen that does not buckle, the difference is 5% or less from engineering to “trac” stross-strain, even i the plastic (nonlinear) range. ‘There is evidence that torsion testing of hollow tubes is one of the better ways to determine the effects of strain, strain rate and tempers ture on the flow stress of materials over the range of these variables usually encountered inthe metal working process. Details on torsional ‘esting and analysis ean be found in the articles "Fundamental Aspects of Totsional Loading” and “Shear, Torsion, and Multiaxial Testing” in ‘Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Volune 8 of ASM Handbook. Mechanical Testing Details For credibility and repeatability, tests that are the basis ofthe stress strain curves are conducted in accordance with some industry, national, ‘or multinational standard. Inthe Alas, when the source documentation cites @ standard, iti so indicated in the caption. These standards pro- Vide insight to interpret the data, Details of testing methods are found in Mechanical Testing and valuation, Volume 8 of ASM Handbook. Pertinent articles include: ‘© “Testing Machines and Strain Sensors” ““Acereditation of Mechanical Testing Laboratories” ‘© “Mechanical Behavior under Tensile and Compressive Loads” “Stress Strain Behavior in Bending” “end Testing” Fundamental Aspects of Torsional Loading” “Uniaxial Tension Testing “Uniaxial Compression Testing” © “Hot Tension and Compression Testing” “Tension and Compression Testing at Low Temperatures’ © “Shear, Torsion, and Multiaxal Testing 22. swe stain loop fr constant cycingRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 13 carte ty ‘Steady sats hysteresis oops = = ete ose tn cane Fig. 23. Consrucion of eye tes-tran curve by jing ps of sbi ysere loops Test Variables “The condition of the test environment, composition, conditioning, size, shape, and history of the specimen are among the factors affecting the stres-srain data, These parameters are given tothe extent that they are available Test Temperature. Relative to room-temperature (RT) fests, most materials become stronger, but less ductile, at lower temperatures, and ‘more ductile, but Weaker, at higher temperatures. There are anomalous behaviors such as blue britleness. Carbon stels generally exhibit an increase in strength and a reduction of ductility and toughness at temperatures around 300 °C (570 °F). Because such temperatures produce ‘1 blush temper color on the suzface of the specimen, this problem has been called blue britleness. Typically, brittleness iS associated with ‘cold-temperature behavior Speed of Test. ASTM E 8 (Ref 31) ists five ways of defining the speed ofthe test: ‘© Rate of straining the specimen, deft (© Rate of stressing the specimen, dS/de Rate of the separation ofthe test machine heads during the test © Elapsed time for completing part or all ofthe test f¢ Free-nunning crosshead speed (speed of machine heads when unloaded) Strain Rate. Average strain rates for most tension tests range between 10°? and 10° +", Greater strain rates (10! and 10? s-!) are considered dynamic tess. For a spocimen of initial gage length Lo and ‘deformed length L, the specific deformation rate is: Lae =I) ai a th) If the deformation occurs homogeneously throughout the specimen, then the specific deformation rate corresponds everywhere tothe strain rate. However, ifthe deformation is nonhomogeneous, then the strain {and strain rate) varies the specimen length, and the specific deformation rate represents the spatial average strain rate. A well-known exan- ple of nonhomogeneous deformation is the propagation of deformation bands called Llders bands. Stress Rate, Figure 17 illastrates the differences in curves constructed from constant stress increments and constant srain increment. Slow Speeds. Under relatively slow straining, most materials arc assumed to transfer the heat generated by plastic deformation to their surroundings: that is, the straining is assumed to be isothermal (no change of temperature). The degree to which slow tension tests remain ‘wuly isothermal has been investigated (Ref 32). The flow stress, which is the uniaxial stress needed to continue plastic deformation of the material ata given stage of atest, is then assumed to depend only on strain and strain rte, “The strain-hardening parameter m has been defined. From Eq 26: io. ode aay In an analogous manne, the strain-rate sensitivity parameter m can be defined as: 448) Both n and m aro functions of strain and strain rate. m can be nega tive under some conditions. Hossever, average values frequently are selected for these parameters, which are then treted as constants. Values of m usually are between 0.1 and 0.5 for metals; they are ‘determined from, but not identical to, strain-hardening rates. Valoes of |14 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves ‘Sess. ‘Sean (e)Cyetcay state Fig. 24 txamples of various types of lc suse stin ‘m for metals ae usually much smaller than the corresponding 1 values (m < 0.1). m does increase with temperature, However, fine-grained ‘metals have relatively large rate-sensitvity parameters (m > 0.1) under specific deformation conditions. Under such conditions, these matri- als can be deformed to extremely large stuins and are called super- plastic metals. High Rote Testing. For extremely high rates of testing, itis com- ‘monly assumed that deformation occurs under adiabatic (no heat trans fee) conditions. Plastic work is mostly (about 90%) converted to heat. ‘The remainder is inelastically storod as changes in defect structure. In high-speed tests, this heat raises the temperature of the material Consequently, the material properties are changed. This is another ‘major complication in analyses of high-speed tests, ‘Consequences of testing over a wide spectrum of strain rates are summarized in Fig. 18 (Ref 33) Hysteresis. Ifa specimen is loaded past its yield point and then unloaded, or loaded in reverse, subsequent testing on the specimen ‘would result in a different patter of behavior. Figure 19 shows this effect. The specimen is loaded initially to point A. The solid line rep resents the behavior of the virgin sample. If instead, the sample were unloaded at point A, the path of unloading is parallel to the inital load Path (dotted fine). There is some permanent deformation (residual Strain), and the area is redetermined as A. When reloaded, the dotted line is retraced and the yield point is now higher duo to strain hardening. If this unloading and reloading were done again at point B, the dashed line indicates the behavior. Figure 19 illustrates the effec of stopping and restarting atest. It also points toa consideration whea a test sample is machined from failed (©) yete nardening (xed behavior part. If the testpicce were subjected to deformation prior tothe failure, ‘the properties obtained from the test should not be equated tothe orig: inal material properties (Ref 34), If the prior history of the est specimen includes compression, a hy teresis is present, know as the Bauschinger effec, This is lstated ia Fig 20. The initial tensile loading i to about 1% strain. The specimen ‘is unloaded and reloaded in compression to 1% strain (measured on the second scale onthe x-axis). On unloading and reloading in tension, the shape of the stress-strain curve is significantly diferent than the origi ral. Aguin the prior deformation of atest sample wil affect its behav: ior (Ref 34). Figure 21 shows the two types of hysteresis possible in titanium alloys, one with load reversal, and one with load application, rest, and reapplication, Nature of Loading, Figure 22 illustrates a stress-strain loop under controlled constantstrain cycling in a low-cycle fatigue test. During initia loading, the stress-strain curve is O-A-B, with yielding begin= fing about A. Upon unloading. yielding begins in compression at & lower stress C due to the Bausehinger effect. In reloading in tension, & hnysteress loop develops. The dimensions of this loop are described by its width Ae (the total strain range) and its height Ao (he sitess range) The total strain range Ae consists of an elastic strain component A = OVE and a plastic strain component Af. The width of the hysteresis loop depends on the level of cyclic stain, When the level of eyelic strain is small, the hysteresis loop becomes very narrows. For tests com ducted under constant Ae, the stress range Ac usually changes with an increasing number of eycies. Annealed materials undergo cyclic strain hardening so that Ac increases With the numberof eyeles and then fev ls off after about 100 strain cycles. The larger the value of Ae, the freater the increase in stress range. Materials that are initially coldRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 15 © 1 — { 7 i ae ® Fig, 25. Cio dt a tarsfered wo tochonousseeetain cure) worked undergo cyclic strain softening so that Ao decreases with increasing numberof strain cycles. Thus, through eyelic hardening and softening, some intermediate strength level is atsined that represents a ‘Steady-state condition (in which case the stress required to enforce the controlled strain does not vary significantly) Monotonic. Some metals are cyclically stble, in which ease their ‘monotonic stress-strain behavior adequately describes their cyclic response, Cyclic. For other materials the steady-state condition is usually achieved in about 20 to 40% ofthe total fatigue life in ether hardening ‘oF softening materials. The eyclic behavior of metals is best described in terms ofa stress-strain hysteresis loop a illustrated in Fig. 22. (Changes in stress response of a metal oceur relatively rapidly during the first several percent of the total reversals to failure. The meta, ‘under contolled-strain amplitude, will eventually attain a steady-sta stress response, ‘Now, to consiruct a eylic stress-strain curve, one simply connects the Tocus ofthe points that represent te tps ofthe stabilized hystere sis loops from comparison specimen tests at several controlled-srain amplitudes (see Fig. 3), Tn the panicular example shown in Fig. 23, it was presumed that thee companion specimens were tested to faifure, at three diferent controlledstrain amplitudes. Failure of a specimen is defined, (ypi- cally, as complete separation into two distinct pieces. Generally, the diameter of specimens ate approximately 6 to 10 mm (0.25 10 (0375 in). In actuality, there isa “propagation” period included in this ‘efiition of failure. Other definitions of failure appear in ASTM E60, "The steady-state stest response, measured at approximately 50% of the life to failure, is thereby abained. These stress values are then plo ted at the appropriate strain levels to obtain the cyclic stress-strain ‘curve. One would typically test approximately ten or more companion specimens, The eyelic stress-strain curve can be compared directly to the monotonic of tensile stess-srain curve to quantitatively assess cyclically induced changes in mechanical behavior. This i illustrated in Fig. 24, Note that 50% may not always be the life fraction where steady-state response is attained, Often its left to the discretion of the interpreter a8 10 where the steady-state eyclic stress-strain occurs. In any event, the criteria should be noted onthe cyclic stress-strain curve Tor the material being tested (Ref 35). The article “Fundamentals of Modem Fatigue Analysis for the Design’ in Fatigue and Fracture, Volume 19 of ASM Handbook (Ref 35), provides more details on cyclic behavior of metals and was the basis for this section, Isochronous Curves Tsockronous curves are included inthis Atlas, although they are not simply stress strain curves. The parameter of time is added to them, “Mechinical tests can be performed as short-time static tests or long- term creep deformation tests. Data from the long-term tests are recorded as sets of stain as a function of time for different loads (tresses) for a given temperatre. As the stress increases, this me to rupture is ess as seen in Fig. 25(a) Collections ofthese data can be analyzed by holding one of the thee variables (time, stress, and strain ‘constan) From Fig. 25(a) where ste is constant on each curve), val ues al constant time can be found in effect by constructing a vertical Tine, perpendicular tothe time axis, that intersects the family of curves. ‘Values a the intersection points form ses of stresses and stains at constant time that can be plotied on a linear coordinate system at these Selected times 10 make the isochronous curves (Fig. 25b) These fami lies of curves are plotted at a given temperature, since temperature is 0 Significant tothe creep behavior of an alloy Guide to the Curves in the Atlas As much of the information about the test specimens that is available in the source and that is able to be abstracted in the caption is given with th curves that follow. The prime sources ofall curves is given so further details may be gathered Parameters affecting the sttess-strain behavior are: ‘© Composition. The compositions listed are intended as a guide 10 alloy identification. Nominal compositions have been added fr this ‘purpose, so this information is not necessarily fom the source of the cure. If a more previse composition is given (listed to tenths ot Ihundeedths of percent in the source, this has been used. © Heat reaiment and conditioning ate given in the style common to ‘the allay group. Temperature conversions are approximate (© Strain Rae of Test. In somve cases, the speed of the test head is given, hich differs from the strain rate © Temperature of the test specimen is sometimes specified as being held for a sot time prior to the test. Other times i is piven in the source without qualification, At cryogenic temperatures, the srest- strain behavior of pure copper, brasses, bronzes, austenitic stainless steels and some aluminum alloys exhibits a discontinuous yielding, and the curve appears serrated. Such behavior is indicated in the ‘Alas using a shaded envelope. ‘© Orientation. The orientation of the specimen relative to rolling or extruding direction is ilostrated in Fig. 26 (Ref 36). © Specimen size and shape information is provided tothe extent found inthe source documentation, Units and Unit Conversions. The units on the left side and bottom, ‘of the curve are the units ofthe source document. The coaversion of ‘Strain units om the curves is | ksi = 7 MPa, This conversion is used 80 ‘that a common grid can be used, The more precise conversion is 1 ksi16 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves Diesen of etadng GE, str and crn ube Rolled an entrada ro, bar, adh shapes Deeton ctoaning 7, Mei Transverse Fig, 26. Gain oiertation in sandal wrought om of alloys. Soe: Ra 36 = 6 894757 MPa. The converted stress in MPa can be multiplied by the ‘correction factor of 6.894757/7.00000 = 0.98497 to obtain a more pre- Ramberg-Osgood Parameters. The Rambers-Osgood Method is 3 method of modeling stress-strain curves. An equation (deal a simple fone) for the stress-strain curve is necessary for finding a quantitative expression forthe available energy in fracture studies. The Ramberg Osgood equation is useful: Ee ‘where is (unfortunately) called the stran-hardening exponent and F is called the nonlinear modulus. This is said to be unfortunate because ‘nis already commonly called the strain-hardening exponent (Eq 25), ‘where itis, im fact the exponent ofthe strain. The Ramberg-Osgood parameter, n, isthe reciprocal of the other n. The two can usually be Aistinguished by their values. The Ramberg-Osgood parameter, n, usu ally is between 2 and 40. [Equation 49 separates the total strain into a linear and a nonlinear pat: ory 450) ese *Eate ‘There are other forms ofthe Ramberg-Osgood equation. ‘The total strain energy ina body (per unit thickness) equals the area nde the Toud-isplacement curve. The energy under the linear part of ‘the stress-strain curves is discussed in the section “Resilience” inthis article, For applications where margins against ductile fracture must be ‘quantified or where components are subjected to larg plastic stains, clastic. plastic J-integral methods can be Used to predict fracture condi. tions. Calculation of applied J values for cracked components requires Tone — eaneoes Knowledge of the strain-hardening capacity of the material in terms of the Ramberg-Osgood stran-hardening relationship ‘MIL HDBK-S, 1998 (Ref 37) presents an explanation ofthe method. and uses the following expression for fp ute = 0.002616 2407" asp Tt further explains how material behavior can be modeled for computer ‘codes using, E, n, and oy.2yp where the exponential relationship is spplicabe Terms ‘Terms common wo discussion of stress-strain curves, tensile testing, and material behavior under test included here (Ref I, 2). accuracy. (1) The agreement of correspondence beiveen an experi- mentally determined value and an accepted reference value for the ‘material undergoing testing. The reference value may be established by an accepted standard (such as those established by ASTM), or in ‘some cases the average value obtained by applying the test method toall the sampling units ina lot or batch ofthe material may be used (2) The extent to which the result of a calculation or the reading of ‘an instrument approaches the true value of the caleulated or meas- tured quantity, axial strain, Increase (or decrease) in length resulting from a tress act- ing parallel to the longitudinal axis ofthe specimen. Bauschinger effect. The phenomenon by which plastic deformation increases yield strength in the direction of plastic flow and decreases itn other directions. breaking stress, See rupture stress. Dbrtteness. A material characteristic in which there is ile or no plastic (permanent) deformation prior o fracture.Representation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 17 chord modulus. The slope ofthe chord drawn between any two specific points on a stress-strain curve, See also modulus of elastic. compressive strength. The maximum compressive stress a material is capable of developing. With a brittle material that fils in compression by fracturing, the compressive strength has a definite value. In the case of ductil, malleable, or semiviscous materials (which do not {ail in compression by a shattering fracture), the value obtained for compressive strength isan arbitrary value dependent onthe degre of distortion that is regarded as effective failure of the material compressive stress, S.A stress that causes an elastic body to deform (shorten) in te direction of the applied load. Contrast with tensile creep. Time-dependent sin occuring under stress. The ereep strain ‘occurring at diminishing rate is called primary or transient creep: that occursing ata minimum and almost constant rate, secondary oF seady-rate creep; tha occuring at an accelerating rate, tertiary reep. creep test. A method of determining the extension of metals under & given load at a given temperature. The determination usually involves the plotting of ime-clongation curves under constant load; a single test may extend over many months, The reults are often expressed as the elongation in millimeters or inches) per hour on 8 given gage length (eg. 25 mm, or 1 in). ‘elie loads. Loads that change value overtime in a regular repeating pattern discontinuous yielding. The nonuniform plastic flow of a metal ‘exhibiting a yield point in which plastic deformation is inbomoge neously distributed along the gage length. Under some circum- stances, it may occur in metals not exhibiting a distin yield point, citer atthe onset of or daring plastic flow. ‘where 1, 2, and 3 indicate the principal axes yielding. Evidence of plastic deformation in structural materials, Also ‘known as plastic flow or creep. yleld point. The frst stress in a material, usually less than the maxi ‘mum attsnable sess, at which an inereae in strain oceurs without an increase in stress. Only certain metals—those that exhibit aloe ined, heterogencous type of transition from elastic to plastic defor- ‘mation—produce a yield point. If there isa decrease in stress after yielding a distinction may be made between upper and lower yield Points. The Toad st which a sudden drop ia the flow curve occurs is talled the upper yield poin. The constant load shown on the flow curve is the lower yield point -yleld-point elongation. The amount of strain that is required to com: plete the yielding process. It is measured from the onset of yielding to the beginning of strain hardening. yield strength, ¥S or S,. The stress at which a matril exhibits a specified deviation from proportionality of stress and strain. An offset of 0.28 is used for many metals. Compare with tensile strength. ld stress. The stress level of highly ductile material, such as struc tural steels, at which large strains take place without further increase ‘Young’s modulus, &. See modulus of elastic. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Portions of this antcle are adapted from G.E. Dieter, “Mechanical Behavior under Tensile and Compressive Loads" Mechanical Testing «and Evaluation, Volume 8, ASM Handbook, 2000, p 99-108. REFERENCES 1, Glossary of Terms, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Vol 8, ASM Handbook, ASM Intemational, 2000, p 939-952 2. ASM Materials Engineering Dictionary, ASM Intemational, 1992 3. Da. Mack, Trans. AIME, Vol 166, 1946 p 68-85 4. PE. Armstrong, Measurement of Elastic Constants, Techniques of ‘Metals Research, VolV, RE Bronshaw Ed, Interscience, 1971 5. G. Carter, Principles of Physical and Chemical Metallurgy, Ampeti- can Society for Metals, 1979, p 87 6. H.Davis, G. Troxell, and G, Hauck, The Testing of Engineering Ma- terials, dh od, McGraw-Hill, 1982, p33, 17. H. Davis, G. Troxell, and G. Hauck, The Testing of Engineering Ma- terials, sed, McGraw-Hill, 1982, p 314 8. “Copper_and ‘Copper Alloys—Rod for Goneral Purposes,” EN 12163, CEN, 1998 9. “Designation Systems for Steel—Past 1:Steel Names, Principal Symbols,” EN-10027-1, CEN, 1992, p 4 10, GE. Dieter, Introduction to Ductility, Ductli, American Society for Metals, 1968 11. AC. Ugural and S.K. Fenster, Advanced Strength and Applied Elas- ric, 31d, Prentice Hal, 1995 12. ER, Low and F. Garofalo, Proc. Soc. Exp, Stress Anal, Vol 4 (No. 2), 1947, p 16-25 13. IR. Low, Properties of Metals in Materials Engineering, American Society for Metals, 1949 14, J, Datsko, Material Properties and Manufacturing Processes, Joho ‘Wiley & Sons, 1966, p 18-20 15. WB. Morrison, Trans. ASM, Vol 59, 1966, p 824 16. D.C: Ludwigson, Metal Tran. Vol 2, 1971, p 2825-2828 17. HL. Rleemola and M.A. Nieminen, Metall. Trans, Vol 5, 1974, p 1863-1866 18, C. Adams and JG, Beese, Trans: ASME, Series H, Vol 96, 1974, p 123-126 19. AConsidére, Ann. Ponts Chaussées, Vol, 1885, p 374-775, 20. G.W. Geil and NL, Carwile J. Res, Nal Bur Stand. Vol 43, 1950, pi29 21, RW. Bridgman, Tans. ASM, Vol 32, 1944, p 553 22. J. Avonofsky, J’ Appl Mech, Vol 18, 1951, p 75-84 23. TA. Trozera, Trans. ASM, Vol 56, 1963, p 280-282 24. ER Marshall and M.C. Shaw, Trans ASM, Vol 44, 1952, p 716 25. WIMeG. Tegart, Elements of Mechanical Metallurgy, Macalla, 1966, p 22 26. GEE Dieter, Mechanical Behavior under Tensile and Compressive ‘Loads, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Nol 8, ASM Handbook. 2000, p 99-108. 27, "Standard Methods of Compression Testing of Metallic Materials at ‘Room Temperature,” 9, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM 28. G. Sines, T, Okada, and 8. Mack, Fixture for Accurate Load Path in Axial Compression, Compression Testing of Homogeneous Mater- ‘als and Compasies, R. Chait and R.Papirao, Es, STP 808, ASTM, 1983, p 97-108. 29, P. Dadkas and JE. Thomas, Deformation Inbomogencities in Upset Forging, Compression Testing of Homogeneous Materials and Com- ‘posts, R Chait and R.Papimo, Ed, STP 808, ASTM, 1983, p 24-39 30. MIL. Lovato and M.G. Stout, Metall, Trans. A, Vol 23, 1992, p 935-951 31. “Tension Testing of Metalic Materials" E 8, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.01, 1996 32. AK Sachdev and LE. Hunter, J, Thermal Effects During Uniaxial Straning of Steels, Mezall Trans. A, Vol 13, 1982, p 1063-1067 33, S. Nemat-Nasser, Intoduction to High Stain Rate Testing, Mechan- ‘cal Testing and Evaluation, Vol 8, ASM Handbook, 2000, 427 34. JM Holt, Uniaxial Tension Testing. Mechanical Testing and Eval ‘ation, Vol 8, ASM Handbook, 2000, p 124-142 35. MLR. Mitchell Fundamentals of Modem Fatigue Analysis forthe Design, Fatigue and Fracture, Vol 19, ASM Handbook, 1996, p 207-249 36. GH. Koch, Tests for Stress-Corrosion Cracking. Ady. Mater Process, Aug 2001, p36 3. Metalic Materials and Elements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures MIL-HDBK-SH, Department of Defense and Federal Arline Ad” ministration, 1998 SELECTED REFERENCES Standard Terminology Relating to Methods of Mechanical Test- ing” E 6, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.01 “Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials,” E 8, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.01 (© “Elevated Temperature Tension Tests of Metallic Materials” E 21, Anal Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.01 foung’s Modulus, Tangent Modlus, and Chord Modulus:"E 111, Arnal Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.01 © “Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials,” EN 10002:1 (© "Metallic Materials—Tensle Testing at Elevated Temperature,” ISO 783 © “Metallic Materials Tensile Testing at Ambient Temperature” ISO 6592 © "Meiallic Materials—Tensile Testing. at Low Temperature;" SO 15579Ferrous MetalsCast Iron (C1)/23 Cast Iron (Cl) “20 cy C1.001 Unclassified cast irons, influence of graphite | —T morphology on stress-strain curves Shee ‘Source: D.M. Stefaanescu, Classification and Basic Metallurgy of Cast 390 —— a ‘Iron, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance ‘ita Gat rool 1980p 2” V T 7 Capit | a i Faw wf bre | i 5 & 1 » » : ” Ot 02 03 04 2s” son % 350 1.002 Unclassified cast steel and cast iron, tens stress-strain curves a : “est direction: longitudinal, Cast set: shows definite yield point steel test bar diameter = 12.83 min (0:50 in); alimate strength = 543 MPa, Cast iron 7 25:4 mm (Lin) cast bar, ton test bar diameter 12.83 mm (0.0505 in.); ultimate strength = 315 MPa. Gage length = 51 mm (2 in.) gf | Sears: GNI. Gen, Fos Rein he Sein Properix { Kal | Sat ton CAT Nt 6 Ap ST, 7 5 1s a 7 _ | ~ 2a24/Cast Iron (CI) 300 0a; 0203 04 05 08 G7 08 a8 a « rt ati K te 50 Ys 350 “ini a | i iors : "hae TASS ° oz 4 08 08 10 1 Ve C1003 tron alloy casting, tensile stress-st with effect of graphite ‘Test direction: longitudinal, In curves 1 through 5, the curvature increases as the amount of graphite inthe iron increases. Curve 6 had graphite similar in quantity to curve 2, but it is coarser. Modulus of elasticity: curve 1 145 GPa (21.1 pix 1 cue 2, 16 GPa (169 psi curve 3, 123 GPa (17.9 psi x 10°); curve 4, 103 GPa (a pi 10); curve 5.84 GPa (122 pa 10) eave 6, 115 GPa (16.7 psi x 10") Source: .N4. Gilber, Factors Relig othe SuesStain Properties Of Cas lon, BCIRA J, No 6 (No 6), Ape, 1987, p 583. 1.004 Unclassified cast irons and steels, stress-strain curves Behavior of several irons compared to steel, 0.2% yield strength: pearlitic ductile iron, 455 MPa (66 ksi); steel, 372 MPa (S4 ksi); feritic ductile iron, 276 MPa (40 ksi); ‘gray iron, 220 MPa (32 ksi). PL, proportionality limits Source: Pate communication with Lye JeskinsCast Iron (C1)/25 ‘Stress ° 20 200 210 20 40 ‘sees, MPa C1.005 Pearlitic and ferritic compacted graphite iron casting, typical tensile stress-strain curves Curve 1: as-cast pearlitic; ultimate tensile streng 410 MPa (59,5 ksi); elongation = 1.0%. Curve 2: ferritic; ultimate tensile strength = 320 MPa (46.4 ksi); elongation 3.5%. Dashed curve (3) indicates modulus of elasticity, 144 GPa (20.9 x 10° psi). Source: CF. Walton, Ed, lon Casings Handbook ron Casting Society, 1981, p 383 1.006 4.35 carbon equivalent compacted graphite iron casting, tensile and compressive stress-strain curves 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.5% yield strengths are indicated. roportionality limits (PL) are 201 MPa (29.1 ksi) in compression and 124 MPa (18 ksi) in tension Source: GF. Seargant snd E.R. Bans, The Prvution and Properties ‘of Compacted Graphite Iron, British Foundryman, May 1978. As pub Tished in CE Walton, El, ron Castings Handbook, Ion Casting Soci 1981, p 38826/Cast Iron (Cl) ‘sree, MPa ‘Suse amplitude, MP2 1600 00 2 Be eee ee ee g & 8 1.007 Austempered ductile iron casting, stress- strain curves showing effect of matrix structure Solid curve for austempered dutile iron, 300 °C, 1 b, ‘with lower bainitic matrix strictures. Dashed curve for austempered ductile iron, 375 °C, 1 h, with upper bainitic matrix structures Source: PA Blackmore and R.A. Harting, "The Efe of Metalic ‘Process Variable onthe Properties of ADI" p 117-134; Heat Treat, Nol 3 (No 4), p 320-525, As published in Siac Alloys eanarok, NOL, CINDASTParve University, 194, 25 C1008 Austempered ductile iron casting, monotonic and cyclic stress-strain curves Casting size = 25 x 45 mm, Austempered ductile iron (AD), BCIRA Interim Grade 1200/1, high strength, ‘Austempered 310 °C, 3 h. Monotonic curve (solid line): strength coefficient, K = 26,4257; strain-hardening. exponent, n= 0.45, Cyelic curve (dotted line): strength coefficient, K” = 11,3897; strain-hardening exponent, rf =0.37. Blastc line (dashed): slope (modulus of clastcity) = 173.6 GPa (25.18 x 10° psi). Composition: Fe-3,59C-2,15Si-0.29Mn-0,0125-0.010P-0.056Ms- O.80Ni-0.03Cr-0.0278n-0.09Mo Source: M.D. Fre, “Stan Fife Daa and estan Daa for Astenpered Ductile troni~-Tets ofthe High Srength Grate.” Report 1830, Bish Cast Tron Resach Assocation (BCIRAY, 191, p3a & & 8 g g ‘Sree ample, MPa 8 oyate Elsie L 380 O18 029 025 030 035 OA OAS ‘Stain amp, & g ‘Seeae amptude, MPa 8 ‘tain ample, Cast Iron (C)/27 1.009 Austempered ductile cast iron bar, monotonic and cyclic stress-strain curves, Bar diameter = 22 mm. Austempered ductile iron (ADD, BCIRA Interim Grade 1200/1, high strength. ‘Austempered 325 °C, 3 h. Monotonic curve (solid line): strength coefficient, K = 22,486; strain-hardening exponent, n = 0.42. Cyelic curve (dotted line: strength coefficient, K’ = 18,5887; strain-hardening exponent, nf = 0.40, Elastic line (dashed): slope (modulus of elasticity) = 173.2 GPa. Composition: Fe-3.65C-2.16Si- (0.47Min-0.015S-0.010P-0.056Mg-0.58Ni-0.02 0.0278n-0.07Cu Source: LS. Matar, MLD. Fre, and K. Shelby, “Stin-Life Fatigue Dats and SiresfStaln Data fr Atstepered Ductile rons” Report TSI Bist Cast Ion Rexeach Assocation (BCIRAY, 1990, p26 1.010 Austempered ductile iron casting, monotonic and cyclic stress-strain curves Casting size = 25 x 45 mm, Austempered ductile iron (ADD, BCIRA Interim Grade 950/6, high strength. ‘Austempered 375 °C, 2.5 h. Monotonic curve (solid line) strength coefficient, K = 6049.1; strain-hardening exponent, = 0.28. Cyclic curve (dotted line): strength coefficient, A’ = 5190.4; strain-hardening exponent, n 0.27. Elastic line (dashed): slope (modulus of elast 174.6 GPa. Composition: Fe-3.67C-2.08Si-0.30Mn- 0.014S-0.014P-0.057Mg-0.77Ni-0.03Cr-0.028Sn-0.08Cu ‘Source: LS. Matharw, M.D. Prey and K, Shelby, “Stsin-Life Fatigue ‘Data and SiresStain Data for Ausempored Ductile Tras” Report 1815, Bris Cast ron Research Assocation (BCIRA), 1990, p 22628/Cast Iron (C1) eee ‘sess amptude, MPa 8 — Nontonie | smn Gyae 010 0x5 020 025 090 ‘Skin apt, 035 340 8 8 8 ‘Seeee amttude, MPa 8 31 018 020 ‘Stain arte, 025 1.011 Austempered ductile cast i mn bar, monotonic and cyclic stress-strain curves Bar diameter = 22 mm, Austempered ductile iron (ADI), BCIRA Interim Grade 950/6, high strength. Austempered 375 °C, 1.25 h, Monotonic curve (solid line): strength coefficient, K = 8,769.7; strain-hardening exponent, 0.46. Cyclic curve (dotted line): strength coefficient, 12,075.7; steain-hardening exponent, n’ = 0.37. Elastic line (dashed): slope (modulus of elasticity) = 173.9 GPa ‘Composition: Fe-3.73C-2,21Si-0.47Mn-0.0208-0.011P- (0.059Mg-0.55Ni-0.03Cr-0.027Sn-0.08Cu ‘Source: LS. Matharu and M.LD. Fier, “Stan Life Fatigue Data and ‘Stres/Staia Data for Austernpered Ductile ltons-—A Preliminary Report" Report 1795, British Cast on Reseireh Asacation (BCIRA), 1980, 53 1.012 Austempered ductile cast iron bar, ‘monotonic and cyclic stress-strain curves Bar diameter = 22 mm. Austempered ductile iron (ADD), BCIRA Interim Grade 950/6, high strength. Austempered 350 °C, I h. Monotonic curve (solid line): strength coefficient, K = 11,647.1; strain-hardening exponent, n 0.36. Cyelic curve (dotted line): strength coefficient, K” ‘8887.6; strain-hardening exponent, n’ = 0.33. Blastic line (dashed): slope (modulus of elasticity) = 174.1 GPa. Composition: Fe-3.68C-2.22Si-0.40Mn-0.0208-0.012P- (0.056Mg-0.54Ni-0.02Cr-0.027Sn-0.07Cu Source: LS. Matar and MLLD. Pi, “Strsin-Life Fatigue Dta and ‘Ste/Strain Data for Austampored Ducal lons—A Preliminary Report,” Report 1795, Bish Cast Ion Reseuch Association (BCIRA), 1980, 953‘sree, kl ‘Steet, MPa a orate ses ti Bes #8 8 8 a 8B 020504 08 ‘Sain, % Cast Iron (C1)/29 1.013 3.60-3.90% carbon ductile casting, tensile stress-strain curves “Modulus of elasticity varies from the maximum 150 GPa (21.7 x 10° psi) (curve 1) to the minimum 159 GPa (230 x 10° psi) (curve 3), with an average of 157 GPa (22.7 x 10° psi) (curve 2), based on 40 tests Source: Nodala oe, Properties and Selection of Metal, Yo 1, 8h, [Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, 1961, p 386 C1.014 Pearlitic and ferritic ductile iron casting, typical tensile stress-strain curves Curve 1: as-cast pearlitic, ultimate tensile strength = 745 MPa (108 ksi). Curve 2: annealed ferric, ultimate tensile strength = 400 MPa (58 ksi). Curve 3 (dashed): 0.2% offset yield strength. PL, limits of proportionality Source: GN. Gillet, Behavior of Cast ons under Suess, Engineering Properties and Performance of Mader ron Castings, ‘Bnosh Cast on Research Association (BCIRA), 1970, p41. As pab- lished in CF. Walton, Ea, on Casings Handbook, Won Casting Soci 1981, p 33530/Cast Iron (Cl) 07— 1.015 Ductile iron alloy casting, tensile pe stress-strain curves 0 4 7 ‘Test direction: longitudinal. Iron test specime ,— 28.65 mm diam x 76.2 mm gage length (1.128 in, diam x 260 S 3 in. gage length). Stee! test specimen: 37.922. mm diam 3 76.2 mm gage length (1.493 in, diam x 3 in, gage { | length). Curve I: as-cast pearlitic nodular iron; 0.1% proof stress = 349 MPa. Curve 2: high-silicon nodular | s iron failed in elastic region at X. Curve 3: En 4 steck; + ] yield strength = 316 MPa, Curve 4: annealed ferritie | nodular iron; 0.1% proof stress = 232 MPa. Composition: Curves 1 and 4, Fe-3.66C-1.8Si-0.41Mn-0.012S-0,025P- O.76Ni-(1 = 0.064Meg, 4 = 0.063Mg); curve 2, Fe-2.62C- 6.148i.0.35Mn-0.0148-0,021-0.78Ni-0.051Mg-0.006Ce; curve 3, Fe-0.23C-0.56Mn-0,0448-0.027P 109 t Sout: GIN. Gilder The SuevSrainPropertis of Nodular Cast | Irons in Tension and Compression, BCTRA J. Wol 12 (No 2) Match oo +1 1968, 9179 | a7 0304 0505 a7 08 rain. 180 €1.016 Ductile iron casting, compressive 21-4 stress-strain curves bid ‘Test direction: longitudinal. Iron test specimen: 28,65 mm diam x 76.2 mm gage length (1.128 in, bad iam x 3 in, gage length) Steel test specimen: 37.922 ‘mm diam x 76.2 mm gage length (1.493 in, diam x 3 in. 2” - ‘gage length). Curve I: as-cast pearlitic nodular ion; 0.1% & 2 proof stress = 398 MPa. Curve 2: high-slicon nodular a iealeeeclen ‘iron, 0.1% proof stress = 676 MPa, Curve 3: En 4 steel; a —| yield strength = 283 MPa. Curve 4: annealed ferritic £58, — 7 nodular iron; 0.1% proof stress = 264 MPa. Composition: i | | Curves I and 4, Fe-3.66C-1.8Si-0.41Mn-0.0125-0.025P- ; id 3 0.76Ni-(1 = 0.064Mg, 4 = 0.063Mg); curve 2, Fe-2.62C- 1 4 6.145i-0.35Mn-0,0145-0.021P-0.78Ni-0.051Ms-0,006Ce; ae curve 3, Fe-0,23C-0,56Mn-0,0445-0.027P ss0| J ‘Sous: G24. Gilbert, The Seta Properties of Nod Cast Irons i Tension and Compression, BCTRA J, Vol 12 (No.2) March 7 2 1964, p 183 Oi 0203 0405 08 a7 08 rain %Cast Iron (Ch/31 “20 210 0 490 8 350 ‘teas hl 0 g 8 wb 70 38 1.017 Ferritic ductile iron bar, uniaxial tensile stress-strain curve Bar diameter = 12.827 mm (0.50S in.). Samples primarily ferrtic with 5-10% pearlite, Test bars machined to ASTM A 536, Fig 6. Test was stress controlled at 345 MPw/min (50 ksi/min). Typical yield strength = 324 MPa (47 ksi; ultimate strength = 496 MPa (72 ksi): clongation = 16%. Composition: Fe-3.599C-2.753Si- 0.193Mn-0.033P-0.0145 Source: KE. Metoff, H.W. Kwon, LY: Fang, and CR. Loper, I Service Modulus: A Meth for Accurate Decination of You ‘Modulus and Yield Sten in Duce lon, APS Trans, Nol 108, 1996, p 723 1.018 Pearlitic ductile iron bar, uni stress-strain curve ial tensile Bar diameter = 12.827 mm (0.505 in.). Samples primarily pearlitic with 90-95% pearlite. Test bars machined to ASTM A 536, Fig 6, Test was stress controlled at 345 MPafmin (50 ksi/min). Typical yield strength 400 MPa (58 ksi; ultimate strength = 738 MPa (107 ksi); elongation = 7.5%, Composition: Fe-3,684C-2.422Si- (0.469Mn-0.028P-0.0158-0.349Cu Source: Kl, Metalo, LW. Kwoo, LY, Fang, and CR. Lopes Service Modulus: A Method for Accurate Determination of Young’ Modulus and Yield Strength in Duele Won, AFS Trans, Vol 10 1996, p7332/Cast Iron (Cl) 7% — 400 C1019 Ferritic ductile iron bar, uniaxial tensile stress-strain curves Bar diameter = 12,827 mm (0505 in.). Samples primarily ferrtic with 5-10% pearlite. Test bars machined to | ASTM A 536, Fig 6. Test was stress controlled at 345 MPa/min (50 ksi/min). Typical yield strength (YS) 324 MPa (47 ksi); ultimate strength = 496 MPa (72 ksi elongation = 16%. Sample loaded to 70% YS, unloaded to 91 kg (200 Ib), loaded to 85% YS, unloaded to 91 kg, (200 1b, loaded to failure. Composition: Fe-3.599C- 2.753Si-0.193Mn-0.033P-0.0148 Source: KE, Melo, H.W. Kwon, LY. Fang, nd CR, Lopes, Service Modulus: A Mithod for Accurate Determination of Young’ Modus and Yield Strength in Doce Iron, AFS Trans, Vol 10, & SS | | cans » 11 eee ‘0 |} 7 Wo is 20253035 cory Sean, 0001 ni, 70 150 €1.020 Pearlitic ductile iron bar, uniaxial tensile stress-strain curves 4 jay _Bar diameter = 12.827 mm (0.505 in.). Samples primarily pearlitic with 90-95% pearite. Test bars machined to ‘ASTM A 536, Fig 6. Test was stress controlled at a jo 345 MPa/min (50 ksi/nin). Typical yield strength = 400 ‘MPa (58 ksi); ultimate suength = 738 MPa (107 ksi); clongation = 7.5. Sample loaded to 70% YS, unloaded wo} — 220g 10 91 kg (200 Ib, loaded to 85% YS, unloaded to 91 kg 2 © Goo 1), loaded to failure. Composition: Fe-3.684C i € _2.422Si-0.469Mn-0.028P-0.0158-0.349Cu x» 710% souce KE Met H.W, Kwon, LY. at. ad CR. Lopes Scce Mods: A Method for Assure Detain of Younes Moauts and Yield Seng in Ds on, Fs Tan i 108 | Mo 96,9728, 0 io 18 20 25 30 35 40 a5 a0 ‘Stein, 0004 ln,Cast Iron (C/33 ‘res, ~ 0 0 0 9 Fy a 420 ” co Tee w nwa we ‘tain, 0.005 iin sas oT ee wa ae ‘tain, 001 in. C1021 Ferritic ductile iron bar, uniaxial tensile stress-strain curves Bar diameter = 12.827 mm (0.508 in.). Samples primarily ferstic with 510% pearlite. Test bars machined to ASTM A 536, Fig 6. Test was stress controlled at 345 MPa/min (50 ksi/min). Typical yield strengt 324 MPa (47 ksi); ultimate strength = 496 MPa (72 ksi): ‘elongation = 169%. Sample loaded to 80% YS, unloaded 10 91 kg (200 Ib), loaded to 1% strain, unloaded to 91 kg. (200 Ib), loaded to failure. Composition: Fe-3.599C- 2.753Si-0.193Mn-0.033P-0.0148, Source: K.E, Metzloff, H.W, Kwon, LY. Fang, and CR. Loper, I ‘Service Modulus: A Method for Accurate Determination of Younes Modus and Vield Strength in Duce Koa, APS Trans, Val 108 196, p 726, ductile bar, uniaxial tensile stress- Bar diameter = 12.827 mm (0.505 in.). Samples primarily pearlitic with 90-95% pearlite. Test bars machined to ASTM A 536, Fig 6. Test was stress controlled at 345 MPa/min (50 ksi/min). Typical yield strengt 4400 MPa (58 ksi); ultimate strength = 738 MPa (107 ksi): clongation = 7.5%. Sample loaded to 80% YS, unloaded (0 91 kg (200 Ib), loaded to 1% strain, unloaded to 91 kg (200 Ib), loaded to failure. Composition: Fe-3,684C- 2.422Si-0.469Mn-0,028P-0.015S-0.349Cu Source: KE. Metzlof, H.W. Kwon, LY. Fang, and CR. Lope, Service Modulus: A Method for Accurate Determination of Youngs “Mosul and Yield Strength in Ductile lon, APS Tran, Vol 10, 1956,» 726,34/Cast Iron (Cl) » : 20 I oo Lot ae 7 : 24] 200 § | ft da 8 | 1 al | ff | | 110 wh 0 L 0 0s 10 TS BO 2s 3535 a0 aE Bo BS OS eh. 0001 a, 0 oot || | az0 ff [+7 +1 360 24) . 20 § i i 5, { | loo I Wf | x || _ - 0 4 0 | | ° 05 10 15 20 25°30 35 40 45 50 55 6d ‘San, 0001 infin te (C1023 Pearlitic ductile iron bar, u stress-strain curves Bar diameter = 12.827 mm (0.505 in.). Samples primarily pearlitic with 90-95% pearlite, Test bars machined to ASTM A 536, Fig 6. Test was stress controlled at 345 MPumin (50 ksi/min). Typical yield strength = 400 MPa (58 ksi); ultimate strength = 738 MPa (107 ksi); clongation = 7.5%. Sample loaded to 75% YS, unloaded {091 kg (200 Ib), loaded to 75% YS, unloaded to 91 kg (200 1b), loaded to failure. Composition: Fe-3.684C- 2.422Si-0.469Mn-0.028P-0.0158-0349Cu Source: K.F, Meta, LW. Kwon, LY ang, and CR. Lopes, I Service Mauls: A Method for Accurate Determination of Younes Modulus and Yield Strength in Dace oo, APS Trans, Vol 108 1996, p 1727 jal ten 1.024 Pearlitic ductile iron bar, u stress-strain curves Bar diameter = 12.827 mm (0.505 in.). Samples primarily pearlitic with 90-95% pearlite. Test bars machined to ASTM A 536, Fig 6. Test was stress controlled at 345 MPa/min (50 ksi/min). Typical yield strength = ‘400 MPa (58 ksi); ultimate strength = 738 MPa (107 ksi); elongation = 7.5%. Sample loaded to 100% YS, unloaded to 91 kg (200 Tb), loaded to 100% YS, unloaded to 91 kg (200 Ib), loaded to failure. Composition: Fe-3.684C- 2.422Si-0.469Mn-0.028P-0,0158-0.349Cu Source: KE, Mero, H.W. Kwon, LY. Fang nd CR Lope, Service Moduls:A Method for Accurate Determination of Young’ “Modul and Yield Strength in Duce Iron, APS Trans, Vo 0, 1996, p 727Cast tron (C1)/35 Ele 8 “Tonal sest, MPa 3 007 02 05 04 OF 08 OF OS 9 10 0502 03 04 o ‘tain, 9 (©) Stain % a aa 8 zs 8 Ccomressive sess, MPa 8 004 02 03 04 OS 08 G7 O80 01 G2 08 04 Oo ‘Sein 9 ()Sran,% o contraction (b) ‘Test specimen size = 28.651 mm diam x 76.2 mm gage length (1.128 in. diam x 3 in. gage length). Permanent strain remains when sample unloaded. Total strain is permanent plus recoverable. 0.1% proof stress (PS) 232 MPa; 0.2% proof stress = 242 MPa. Composition: Fe-3.66C-1.8Si-0.41Mn-0,012S-0,025P-0.76Ni-0.064Mg, Source: G.N4. Gilbert, The Suess/Stin Properties of Nedlar Cast Irom in Teasion and Compression, BCIRA J Vo 12 (No.2). Mach 1964, p 177 1.026 Ferritic ductile iron casting, longitudinal compressive stress-strain curves (a) with lateral expansion (b) Test specimen size = 28,651 mm diam x 76.2 mm gage length (1.128 in. diam x 3 in. gage length). Permanent strain remains when sample unloaded. Total strain is permanent plus recoverable. 0.1% proof stress (PS) 266 MPa; 0.2% proof stress = 267 MPa. Composition: Fe-3,66C- |, 8Si-0.41Mn-0.012S-0.025P-0.76Ni-0.064Mg, Source: GN Gihert, The Strss/Stan Prponies of Nodular Cast rons in Tension and Compression, BCTRA Nol 12 (No.2), March 1968, p 18236/Cast Iron (Cl) sao 1.027 Ferritic nodular ductile iron casting, tensile monotonic and cyclic stress-strain curves Curves based on the first eycle of loading and eycle tests carried out at less than 0.1% strain, The stress values are raised by strain hardening, Modulus of elasticity = 177 GPa, Composition: Fe-3.51C-2.07Si-0.32Mn-0.0228- 200 0.0178-0.046Mg & Source: GJ. Gib, “The SwesSain Popes and Fague : Proper of «Fernie and a Peritie Nodular Cast ron Tested under 2 Strain Control” Report 1586, British Cat fon Research Associaton : (pera), 1984 @ 100 / °9 —e05 a0 018020028 O30 rain % 250 €1.028 Ferritic nodular ductile iron casting, stress amplitude-strain curve for monotonic and 7 cyclic loading ‘Curves based on the first cycle of loading and a cycle at . approximately half the fatigue life using the stress § x0 amplitudes (half stress range). Composition: Fe-3.51C- i 2.07Si-0.32Mn-0.0228-0.017P-0.040Mg Fan Sou G3. Gen “he tein Per nd Fuge 3 Properties of «Fe ands Pearitie Nodal Cast ron Tested under 2 ‘Sen Corto” Report 1586, Bish Cast on Research Associaton Baa - BCTRA), 1988 Bow 7 - | "0 aa 010018 am a2 O00 rain‘res, MPa ‘Stain % Cast tron (C)/37 1.029 Ferritic nodular ductile iron casting, log stress-log plastic strain curve for monotonic and cyclic loading ‘Work-hardening behavior shown for monotonic and cyclic loading based on maximum stress (dashed curve) and stress amplitude (solid curve) at approximately half the fatigue life, Half fatigue life is used to define cyclic stress-strain curve becatise fatigue behavior does not stabilize for these irons. Composition: Fe-3.51C-2.07Si- 0.32Mn-0.0225-0.017P.0.046Mg Source: GN. Gilbert, “The StresaStain Properics and Fitgue Propet of Ferric and a Pearle Nodular Cas Ion Tested under Stain Conuol" Report 1586, Bish Cast roa Research Assocation GectRa), 1984 €1.030 Ferritic nodular ductile iron casting, tensile stress-strain curve ‘Test direction: longitudinal. Proof stress (PS): 0.1%, 246 MPa; 0.2%, 253 MPa; 0.5%, 263 MPa. Ultimate tensile strength = 400 MPa; elongation = 26.5%; Dhardness = 134 HB (10/3000). Composition: Fe-3.42C- 2.11Si-0.31Mn-0.0148-0.007-0.061Mg Sours: GNJ. Gib and MD. Fit, “The Suew/Stin Prope of 2 Pear an Nola Cs on Clay Lande Betwcea Sd Opposite Stain Limits in Tension and Compression,” Report 157, Bist Cast ron Research Assocation (3CIRAY, 198438/Cast Iron (Cl) T T Tale | 1am eosammnysectn Hohe (204.8 mn} secton sin. (eh asm) sot Tis (4448 mn) ho {asin yoy et {psi 4.45) eal (Gis ys chasm — 2 i (904m) sete| f Ee Goud) seton “12, (04.8 mn) egcton in. (904.8 me) section} Tifa fads est Ts. 4.45 my eat ta 950807 G8 0900102 05 04 0508 ‘tat o sean, 1.031 Recarburized steel ductile casting, longitudinal tensile stress-total strain curves (a) with lateral contraction (b) Comparison is made between 44.45 mm (1,75 in.) keel test blocks and 304.8 mm diam x 50.8 mm (12 in, diam x 2 in.) castings: 50.8 mim (2 in.) square test specimens cut from the latter. As-cast pearlitic nodular iron, normalized pearlitic, and annealed ‘erttie nodular iron are shown for each size, Composition: Fe-3.52C-1,76Si-0.29Mn-0.026S-0.020P-0.92Ni-0.062Mg Source: GN4JL ibe, The Effet of Seton Size onthe Stes Stain ropes of Nodular Cast Iron, BCIRA J, Vol 12 (No.6), Nov 1964, » 766,Cast Iron (C/39 “Tense stess, MPa $00 1.032 Nodular ductile iron casting, typical tensile | : stress-strain curves at 20 °C fal T a Curve 1: nodular iron; ultimate strength = 695 MPa; i — 0.1% proof stress = 378 MPa, Curve 2: nodular iron, | ultimate strength = 402 MPa; 0.1% proof stress = a are | 238 MPa. Allowable design stress is significantly less j than the proof stress. 4 — | Source: “Stern Behaviour of Noda sd Mallesble Cast : Irons Broasbet 1572, Bit Cast on Reseach Asrocition @cIRA) 1981 4 ee a aa aims 200 a 10 01 0203 0408 08 07 08 0940/Cast Iron (Cl) a1 0205 a4 508 07 08 001 02 aS « stain % 0) Stn, % C1033 Pearlitic nodular ductile iron casting, longitudinal tensile stress-strain curves (a) with lateral contraction (b) ‘Test specimen size = 28.651 mm diam x 76.2 mm gage length (1.128 in. diam x 3 in. gage length). Permanent strain remains when sample unloaded. Total strain is permanent plus recoverable. 0.1% proof stress (PS) = 347 MPa; 0.2% proof stress = 374 MPa. Composition: Fe-3,66C-1.85i-0.41Mn-0.0128-0.025P-0.76Ni-0.063Mg Source: G Nd. Gilben, The Stress/Stn Properties of Nodular Cat foas in Tension and Compression, BCIRA J, Vol 12 (No.2) March 1968, p 175Cast Iron (C)/41 “ =a i KP L a an ae 1.034 Pearlitic ductile iron casting, longitudinal compressive stress-strain curves (a) with lateral expansion (b) ‘Test specimen size = 28.651 mm diam x 76.2 mm gage length (1.128 in. diam x 3 in. gage length). Permanent strain remains when sample unloaded. Total strain is permanent plus recoverable. 0.1% proof stress (PS) = 377 MPa; 0.2% proof stress = 398 MPa. Composition: Fe-3.66C-1.8Si-0.41Mn-0.0125-0.025P-0,76Ni-0.063Mg Soures: GJ Gilbert, The StessStai Properties of Nodular Cast Irons in Tension an Compression, ACIRA J, Vol 12 (No.2), March 1964, p 18042/Cast Iron (Cl) ross, MPa 400) 0 aes OID ie 020 G28 O50 O35 OHO OAs o Sin % «0 — T seo + 250] . = | | | 150 - 1 | 100 ofA | | | | J ua 0m oa ad 0a ° sin % 1.035 Pearlitic nodular ductile iron casting, tensile stress-strain curves ‘Test direction: longitudinal. (a) Beginning of eycting in tension to 350 MPa. (b) Behavior of same sample after 128 cycles to 350 MPa, 0.2% proof stress = 358 MPs; ultimate tensile strength = 659 MPa. Composition: Fe- 3.42C-2.11Si-0.31Mn-0,0145-0,007P-0.061Mg Source: GJ. Gert and MLD, Frey, “The StessSain Properties of a Peattic and a Nodular Cast roa Cycially Loaded between Boal ‘ad Opposite Stun Lint in Tension and Coropresion,” Report 1579, Brish Cast ron Research Assocation (BCTRA), 184Cast tron (C1)/43 sa 1.036 Pearlitic nodular ductile iron casting, tensile ] Faas T ] stress-strain curves | ‘lex pal Test direction: longitudinal. Proof stress (PS): 0.1%, . i cers 355 MPa; 0.2%, 358 MPa; 0.5%, 395 MPa. Ultimate pf tensile strength = 659 MPa; clongation = 6.5%; OPS. | hardness = 219 HB (10/3000). Composition: Fe-3.42C- bd th | 2.11Si-0,31Mn-0.0148-0.007P-0.061Mg = 300 : ‘Source: G.NJ. Gilbert and M.D. Frier, “The Stess/Strain Properties of : ‘Pete anda Nodular Cas on Cyelclly Loaded betwen Equal i ‘nd Opposite Stn Limi in Tesion aa Comes” Report 157, 8 aso — Bish Cat ron Research Associaton (BCIRA), 1988 Pel fh 10 — — 00 oz 0S 0a 05 06 07 08 09 ‘Stan, 8 400 1.037 Pearlitic nodular ductile iron casting, tensile monotonic and cyclic stress-strain curves Curves based on the first cycle of loading and cycle tests carried out at less than 0.1% strain, Strain hardening only contributes a slight increase in raising tensile stress level. ‘Composition: Fe-3,64C-2.25Si-0,38Mn-0.010S-0.019P- 0.044Mg Source: GJ. Gilbert, “The StessStsin Properties and Ftigue Propet of a Ferre and a Pesiic Nodule Cast loa Tested under ‘Stain Control.” Report 1586, British Cast ron Research Association GcIRA), 1984, a a a a ) stain, 544/Cast Iron (Cl) 0005 010015 0a 025 am0 ‘Sian % ese, 10 MPs 1.038 Pearlitic nodular ductile iron casting, stress amplitude-strain curves for monotonic and cyclic loading ‘Curves based on the first eyele of loading and a cycle at approximately half the fatigue life using the stress amplitudes (half stress range). Modulus of elasticity = 183 GPa. Composition: Fe-3.64C-2.25Si-0,38Mn-.010S- 0.019P-0.044Mg, Source: NJ. Gilbert, “The StesvStrain Properics and Fie Properics ofa Ferric and a Pearle Nodular Cason Tested under Sin Con.” Report 1586. Briish Cas on Research Association (ema). 1984 1.039 Peale nadlar ductile ion casting, log stress-log plastic strain curve for monotonic a cyclic loadi Work-hardening behavior shown for monotonic and cyclic loading based on maximum stress (dashed curve) and stress amplitude (solid curve) at approximately half the fatigue life, Half fatigue life is used to define cyclic stress-strain curve because fatigue behavior does not stabilize for these irons. Composition: Fe-3,64C-2.25Si- (0.38Mn-0,0108-0.019P-0.044Mg. Source: GJ Gilben, "The Sres/Stan Properties and Fatigue Properties ofa Femitc a's Parte Nodular Cast on Tested wer Sesn Control" Report 1586, British Cast loa Rescarch Assocation (BCTRA, 1984Cast Iron (C)/45 ‘Stes, MPa LM 400 00S OA Ox5 020 028 030 03 040 048 * f Sein, % os 050088 C1040 Ductile iron casting, cyclic stress-strain curves (a) The first several cycles in tension to 350 MPa. (b) 128 cycles in tension to 350 MPa. Composition: Fe- 3.45C-2,18Si-0.33Mn-0.012S-0,004P-0.048Mg, Source: GINJ. Gilbert, “The Cyclic SuessStain Properties ofa Ferie [Nola Iron Tested under Completely Reversod Loafing snd under Tensile Loading.” Repor 1534, British Cast Iron Research Associaton GCIRA), 19846/Cast Iron (CI) 1.041 Gray iron casting, tensile stress-strain curves showing effect of graphite form ine TS, total strain; RS, recoverable strain; UTS, 75% ultimate tensile strength. (a) Compacted graphite (0) Type A graphite. (¢) Widmanstitten graphite 7 Soue: RE. Masinger, “Damping Capac of Mari” Rept is SIC-508, Balle Memoria Institute, Redtoe Seen Infomation : Cents, Redstone Arsenal Jan 1966, AD 61045. As published in a é Sirctrl Alloys Handbook No, CINDAS/Purde Universi. { 1 1984, 20 cm - 3 5 oF es 6 7 8 i 5 i | : | 0 ar 02 5 © ean. % &Cast Iron (CI /47 _ ro pny role) Teoh wc | oF 450°0) | sor » 20 ia] / 5 § bao - wi 5 : 2s °o amos Ort 125450478 Sean » ro Cy) - ~ 420 » _ - a OF ao g eee A\ Z 208 20] re | 40, 1.042 Gray iron casting, stress-strain curves to fracture at room and elevated temperatures ‘Composition: Fe-3.19C-(CC-0.85)-1.66Si- 0.91Mn- (0.07P-0.0895, Souree: CF, Walton, Gray and Ductile Jom Castings Handbook. Gray and Ductile ton Founder” Society, 1985. As published in Sraciural Alloys Handbook, Nol 1, CINDASTPurdve Univesity, 1988,» 20 .049 Pearl gray iron casting stress-strain curves showing effect of section size Casting thickness: curve 1, 12.7 mm (0.5 in); curve 2, 25.4 mm (1 in); curve 3, 152.4 mm (6 in.); curve 4, 76.2 mm (3 in.). Dashed lines indicate plastic strain. Source: CF. Walto, Gray and Dette Ion Casings Handbook. ray ‘nd Does Iron Founder Society, Aug 1971 As published Serena Alloys Handbook, Vo! I, CINDAS/Purdae Unversity. 1994, p2048/Cast Iron (Cl) «9, 9 ——Ch084 Class 20 to 50 gray icon casting, tensile =a stressstrain curves 88) = a aoe ‘Source: J... Herroa, R.A. Plina, and PK, Trojan, Research for the trie: Mea Proper of iyi fon Cn no 7 Jcmesel| Eon Bd ton Casing Sse 198,921 fe | ine 5 3 § 1. el |, § i cum | 2 H —}— Bs ° cof 0 OR am 02s 0m fen 5 245 CL.OSS Class 30 gray iron casting, cyclic tensile stress-strain curves 7 Jaro Permanent deformation ests from removal and reapplication of lod, Source: Heon RA int PK Tan, Rese forthe s}—|_+f 7 mie Mecham Pops of yom fon Casas Mando | EE wan hon Casing Sot, Bh, p29 2a wo 5 | i wd 7 7 | es | ‘Sra, %s ; sis « fox0 xs|—_|_1 208 gz i a ast - 1 | % s { ra ss 03 es 05 Ra a a oO van. 35] Prose 245, x : 210 Boat an fo ee 4 = 7) - luo f i 3 Ps) 105 8 »| A | » 5 ——|ss | L 0 a ‘vain % Cast tron (CI)/49 1.046 Class 40 gray iron casting, cyclic tensile stress-strain curves Permanent deformation results from removal and reapplication of load ‘Source: 1. Heron, R.A Fin, and PK. Trojan, Research for te fle: Mechanical Properties of Gray Iron, Iron Castings Handbook, CEE Walton, Ba, eon Casting Sociey, 1981, p 229 1.047 Pearlite gray iron casting, tensile stress-strain curves ‘Total strain is composed of plastic and elastic portions. Source: LW. Grant, Comprehensive Mechanical Test of Two Peastite (Gray tons, J Res. BCTRA, Vol 3, Api 1981, p 861-875. Adapt from CF Walon, Ea row Castings Handbook, Iron Casting Scie, 1981, 228,50/Cast Iron (Cl) ss 1.048 Class 20 and 40 gray ron casting, tensile and a compressive stress-strain curves Cecssocmpenses| |" Soe: Heron, RA. ln, and PX jan, Research forte ss Sek Mecanal Prepries of ryt on Css Hondeok “leo Che Walon ton Cong Sst, 08, p 288 seo se0 {x0 ns 0 or || a ic a i 7 ~ Graa cones any Z =" 1a step wi t a Le a sean % 60 C1049 Class 35 gray iron casting, tensile and [| +4 Compressive stressstrain curves x 20 Souc: Heme, RA. Flan, a PK. Tse, Ree forthe imprison feicks Mectanis Proper of Gray Hon, on Casings Handbook | CENaton Et Casing Sosy Si, p24 “| —| | —fe0 Fe . 0 8 é io “| é | ron » — } 20 » 0 % » 0204 0g 08 1012 ‘Senin %Suess, MPa Cast tron (C1)/51 00 C1.050 Class 20, 40, and 60 gray iron casting, typical 7 tensile stress-strait Source: Gray lon, Properties and Selection: Is, Stel, and High es Perfomance Aly, Vl 1, ASM Hand, 190,920 4s o® é nes 20 Flo 0 1 2 3 4 3 iain (0.904 ni) 200 ee 1.051 Gray iron casting, tensile and compressive a _Lenehuiat Tongitudinal and lateral stress-strain curves 180] jot Progression of test follows numbers 1~3 (solid line 1 to 15 dashed line 1 to sold line 2to dashed line 2, etc). Solid 100] 2} lines are load applications; dashed lines are relaxations. 7 an These are relatively high stresses. Composition: Fe-3.2C- 7 2,19Si-0.S6Mn-0.0318-0.046P 7 7 Source: GN. Gist, Sisto Ropers of Cast on and Poon: Raton Tension and Compression, BCIRA 1, WoL (ND 3), 3 May 1861, p 351 =n 200 25, "ys 02-01 004 02 03 04 05 08 ‘Stain, %52/Cast Iron (Cl) 280 6.052 Fake graphite, gray iron cating, tensile stress-strain curves with cyclic loading fo increasing be stress levels 7 | ‘Ulimate strength = 230 MPa, Permanent deformation increases with increasing stress levels. | Source: “Stess/Srain Behaviour of Fake Grapite Cast Irons Broaishet 157-1, Brish Cast rn Research Associaton Par) / es (pera), 1977 i ] FF 00] / iy o ; //; / 20 1.053 Flake graphite, gray iron casting, comparison 7 Of tensile and compressive stress-strain curves ea - Compressive strength ~ 600 MPa Source: “SuesdStrain Behaviour of Flake Graphite Cast rons fl Broadsheet 157-1, Bs Cast lon Research Asocation 20] coca), 1977 £ 100) + £ 3 Mo] 5 10 020304 05 08 “Tena and comeresive sal, %Cast Iron (C1)/53 ‘sree, MPa ‘Tonal stongth MPa 0 1 ' 1.054 Flake graphite, gray iron casting, cyclic stress-strain curves e Stress-strain curves for cycles 129-132 with loads | varying #175 MPa, The hysteresis loop advances to the | right asthe numberof eycles increase = T Soure: GN. Gilber and SD. Kemp, “The Cycle SuesSela Properties of «Fake Graphite Cat ro Poses Repo.” Report ol} 1388, Bate Cast ron Research Asoiation(BCIRA, ty 1980 0 60 + 100 180 | 0 O05 610 O18 020 G25 ‘erin 20 — 1.055 Gray iron casting, components of total alas La LA stress-strain curves Ls Considering iron as a composite, the total strain 5, can be thought of consisting ofthe 1, plastic matrix; 2, voids ue } with recoverable deformation: 3, elastic matrix: 4, voids j with permanent deformation. iron can be considered | having a steel like matrix with volume changes ooourring in the spaces occupied by graphite. ron tensile strength 213 MPa 100 —|— Source: G.N.J. Cert, “The Cte Steen Properties and Fatigue Properties a «Fake Graphite Cast iron Tested under Stain Conrol— ‘A Dele Sud.” Report 1621, Bish Cast on Reseach Asocaion | ‘cites 1985 fa. geoc ts slay oo gel on eoz eos ‘an,54/Cast Iron (CI) 250 1.056 Gray iron casting, cyclic stress-strain curves, 20 ~ | Curves for first three cycles to 40.20% strain, dereat Composition: Fe-3.13C-2.15Si-0.3Mn-0.0255-0,086P +%0|— i Source: GNJ.Gilber, “The CyetcStress/Suin Properties and Fatigue | nae Properics of Flake Graphite Cst ro Tested under Stein Cotol-— ‘Aes Stay" Report 162, British Cast ron Research Asacation co) (eIRA) 1985, 250 1.057 Gray iron casting, cyclic stress-strain curves = Curve for 2512th cycle to 20.20% strain, Fatigue failure dccurted at 3769 cycles.) Composition: Fe-3.13C-2.15Si = (035Ma-0.0255-0.086P Source: NJ. Gilbert, “Me Cycle Sues/Stain Properties and Fatigue 7 as1zh oy Proper of «Flake Grape Cat on Tested wae Stain Cantal ‘8 Bazlcd Stdy" Rep 12, lsh Can on Research Assocation daca) 588 a” i” sol 7 _ : J | 180 — | 200 : 4 “hao 01s 010 005 0 008 010 015 0.20 ‘rain 9Cast Iron (Ch/55 3 3 8 Modus of asic, GPa ‘oe 1) 200250 cyte Modus of lastly, Pa 00 180 Gray iron casting, modulus of stress curves ‘Modulus of elasticity (E) for compression of first and 2512th cycle. At maximum compressive stress (0.0020 strain controtied) first cycle, E= 144.95 GPa; 2512th cycle, E= 144.20 GPa Source: G1NJ. Gibert, “The Cycle SweseStrain Properties snd Fatigue Properties of Fake Graphite Cast Ion Tested under Stain Control— ‘A Detaled Study” Report 1621, Brits Ces ron Research Association GBCIRA), 1985 C1.059 Gray iron casting, modulus of clasticity-stress curves “Modulus of elasticity (E) for tension of first and 2512th cycle. At maximum tensile stress (0.0020 strain controlled) frst cycle, E = 157.62 GPa; 2512th eycle, E= 155.62 GPa, Source: G.NJ. Gilbert, “The Cycle SuesuStrain Properties aod Faigue Properties ofa Fake Graphite Cas Ion Tested unde Sain Contro— [A Deiled Stuy." Report 1621, British Cast on Rescarch Association (BCIRA). 1985,56/Cast Iron (Cl) 109 700 1.060 Pearlitic and ferritic malleable iron casting, : typical tensile stress-strain curves _— ‘Typical curves obtained from machined cast-to-shape test 7 | Jes als. Curve 1, peattitic, oil quenched; curve 2, pear | air quenched; curve 3, feritie | Source: L:WL. Sith and NJ, Gilbert, “The Tease Propenies of | ‘Blackheart and Parti Malleabie Irons Progress Repo” Rept a 2 § 1363, British Cast Fon Research Associaton (BCTRA}, an 1980, 20} }420% 49-62. As published in CF. Walton, Ed. Iron Castings Handbook, i | J eceseabewn: toe 4 a ao a7 8 — a}—f}— i | | 0 oF 0203 Od 0s 08 G7 0B 09 16 sin 250 + 1.061 Blackheart malleable iron casting, tensile and ] compressive stress-strain curves = jose Produced at 980 °C, fast cooled t0 760 °C, slow cooled to | 700 °C. Specimens were as-cast to shape. Tested a train = rate of 0.01/min. 0.2% proof stress (PS): tensile, 0 Soren 346 MPa; compressive, 284 MPa. Compressive PS at ales cee ce nie. Comme 1 | 2.46C- 1 40Si-0.46Mn-0.178S-0.034P-0.0032B-0,001AL- g m0 oosscr i) Pbstor | fr a ‘restrain Prope of Mall ee Rep 1508 aah Cat & 10) Iron Rescarch Assocation (BCIRA), 1983, p32 ai 0203 Ga 08 a6 07 08 G8 10Cast tron (C1)/57 350 eee? Compressive sees, MPa a — == ost 302! | | 9.027 +e Fan | ods | alt aa es 08 0810121418 180 sini. 200 ! josnes rr) 16 ‘unin 2 12 18 16 1820 C1.062 Blackheart malleable iron casting, compressive stress-strain curves with effect of strain rate Produced at 980 °C, fast cooled to 760 °C, slow cooled to 700 °C. Specimens were as-cast to shape. Tested at strain rates shown. 0.2% proof stresses (PS) vary from 236-261 MPa. Composition: Fe-2.46C-1 40Si-0.46Mn- 0.1785-0.034P-0.0032B-0.001 AL-0.038Cr Souce: LW. Smith, "The Efe of Suan Rat onthe Compressive Ses/Strain Properis of Malleabo Won” Report 1508, Bash Cast, Tron Research Associaton (BCIRAY), 1983, p 39 1.063 Peatlitic malleable iron casting, compressive stress-strain curves with effect of strain rate Annealed, 870 °C, air quenched, tempered, 700 °C, 6h, {600 °C, 4h. Specimens were as-cast to shape. Tested at strain rates shown, 0.2% proof stresses (PS) vary from 375-393 MPa. Composition: Fe-2.51C-1.43Si-0.50Mn- 0.2018-0.039P-0.0031B-0.015AI-0.040Cr Source: LW, Smith, “The Eft of Srin Rate onthe Compressive ‘Strse/Srain Properties of Mallsbe os” Report 1508, British Cast Won Research Association (BCIRAY, 1983, p3658/Cast Iron (Cl) 9 : = sco = Sean te: TM oem 04) nin é i Nee eo ty | ir atl / iF fos% Ps rs "l | Ge aa 08 0818 12 tS sein 700 - - ] T = bo t om tS | sacs | eetnin 8406 nin 8 [ | Seat mn | al lel 1 g lajwrs 7 1 loom | Fs Joswes | . I / aa e408 08401214 18 3820 ean, % 1.064 Pearlitic malleable iron casting, compressive stress-strain curves with effect of strain rate Annealed, 870 °C, air quenched, tempered, 700 °C, 6 b. Specimens were as-cast to shape. Tested at strain rates shown, 0.2% proof stresses (PS) vary from 398-410 MPa. Composition: Fe-2.44C-1.54Si-0.50Mn-0.180S- 0,039P-0,0036B-0,020A1-0,048Cr Source: LW. Smith, “The Efecto Strain Rte om the Compressive ‘Sires/irain ropes of Mlleable rons” Report 1508, British Cost Iron Research Associaton (BCIRA), 1983, p 36, 1.065 Pearlitic malleable iron casting, compressive stresestrain curves with effect of strat rate ‘Annealed, 870°C, air quenched, reheated to 640 °C in 1.5 h, tempered, 640 °C, 4 h. Specimens were as-cast to shape. Tested at strain rates shown. 0.2% proof stresses (PS) vary from 439-502 MPa, Composition: Fe-2.41C- 1.37Si-0,50Mn-0,1928-0.034P-0.0035B-0.041Cr Source: LW. Smith, “Te Efet of Stain Rate onthe Compressive ‘Strese/rain Propet of Malleable Irons.” Report 1508, British Cast noo Research Association (BCIRA), [983,36Cast Iron (C)/59 & Compressive sess, MPa 8 8 Compressive stress, MPs 200 10 C1.066 Pearlitic malleable iron casting, compressive stress-strain curves with effect of strain rate Annealed, 840 °C, oil quenched, tempered, 680 °C, 2 h Specimens were as-cast to shape. Tested at strain rates shown, 0.2% proof stresses (PS) vary from 468-502 MPa, Composition: Fe-2.46C-1.40Si-0.51Mn-0.206S- 0.043P-0.0032B-0.040Cr Source: LW. Smith, “The Fife of Swain Rat onthe Compressive Sres/Sirain Proper of Malleabe ron” Report 1908, Beish Cast Won Research Associaton (BCIRA), 1983, p 32 H lowes 02% Ps” llosnes 02 04 06 G8 30 12 14 18 48 20 sain, % 1.067 Pearlitic malleable iron casting, compressive | | Siresestrain curves with elec of sta rate | Annealed, 840 °C oil quenched, tempered, 650 °C, 2b Specimens were as-cast to shape. Tesed at strain rates of Sain ate: (0.0006-0.20/min; three curves shown for clarity, 0.2 021 min proof stresses (PS) vary from 530-599 MPa, 008 min oon ‘Composition; Fe-2.43C-1.358i-0.50Mn-0.2138-0.042P- (0.0035B-0.040Cr Source: LW. Smith, "The Effect of Strain Rate on the Compresive ‘Sucs/Stain Proper of Malleble ros Report 1508, British Cast oa Research Associaton (BCIRA), 1983, p 37 a2 04 08 Ga 10 12 14 18 18 20 stain, %60/Cast Iron (Cl) 00 = C1.068 Pearlitic malleable iron casting, compressi = stress-strain curves with effect of strain rate 100 Le = Air quenched and tempered malleable iron was reheated | Sian te 10 870 °C, oil quenched, tempered, 600 °C. 2.5 h. es _ ogi mn Specimens were as-cast to shape, Tested at strain rates of 000 (010006-0.20/min; three curves shown for clarity. 0.2% 2 | proof stresses (PS) vary from 625-644 MPa, = 500] Composition: Fe-2.58C-1.45Si-0.53Mn-0.218S-0.032P- i 0.0031B-0.043Cr 0 Source: Sith “Te fet of Sin Rt onthe Compressive le Stesutan operic of Mall wa” Report S08, Bah Cast oa iton Roach Avccaion IRA) DES p38 [fee Ps 200 }-—f- - t 109 — 7 | a CCT) sean 450) + C1.069 Malleable iron casting, typical tensile stress- strain curves at 20 °C Lt 400} - ~ Curve 1: pearlitic malleable iron, ultimate strength came 564 MPat 0.1% prof stress (PS) = 377 MPa. Curve 2: xo i - ‘whitcheart malleable iron, ultimate strength = 425 MPa; 0.1% proof stress = 233 MPa. Curve 3: ferritic malleable m0 iron, ultimate strength = 324 MPa, 0.1% proof stress = > 193 MPa. Allowable design stress is significantly less fal — than the proof stress Lees st Source: “Stresd/Stan Behaviour of Nodular and Malleable Cast fae ifm: Brooihoe 1572 Bash Can ton Resuch Aston é Rade (bei) eh 10 aL 004 0383 0a 05 08 07 Gm 0BCast Iron (C/6t n/a (i 0040203 _aa as Os G7 08 00; G7 03 o seain st ©) Sean, % 1.070 High-silicon nodular graphite iron casting, longitudinal compressive stress-strain curves (a) with lateral expansion (b) “Test specimen size = 28.651 mm diam x 76.2 mm gage length (1.128 in. diam x 3 in. gage length). Permanent strain remains when sample unloaded. Total strain is permanent plus recoverable. 0.1% proof stress (PS) = 676 MPa; 0.2% proof stress = 107 MPa. Composition: Fe-2.62C-6.14Si-0.35Mn-0.0145-0.021-0.78Ni-0.051Mg-0.006Ce Sous: GN. Giber, The SuesStin Propet of Nodular Cat Ios in Tension and Compression, BCIRA 1, Vol 12 (No.2), Mich 1964, p 183,62/Cast Iron (CI) ‘sess, MPa sean, 9% — 50 03 a4 0506 ‘sree, MPa €1.071 Nickel alloy iron casting, tensile stress-strain curves Various classes of nickel cast irons Source: “Engineering Properics and Applications of Nickel Cast Ions’ International Nickel Co. As published in Sructra Alloys Handbook Vor 1, CINDAS Purdue University, 1994, p 7 1.072 Pearlitic and ferritic compacted graphite iron casting, typical stress-strain curves “Modulus of elasticity = 144 GPa, Peatitic iron: tensile strength = 410 MPa (59.5 ksi): elongation = 1%. Feritie irom: tensile strength = 320 MPa (46.5 ksi); elongation = 3.5% Souce E Necetege H. Pe, 1D. von Nescods and ‘A'Nataycu, Paper presente tthe raion Foundry Congres, neratonal Commie of Foundry Tec Asscaon, Chg, 198, As published n DM. Stans, Compacted Graphite Ikan, Propet and Selection Irons, tes ond High Performance ‘Allay, Vel 1 ASM Hand, NSM intron, 190, p37Cast Iron (CI)/63 “Tr sess, MPa cs 400 oe ls 3x0] 0] ar | 20] ——— a 0 os 3205 “Tre pas sain 20 70 | sonra: 08 | ts Co E Bove Toor oO “Tru pase oan 1.073 Alpha (a) iron alloy forging, true compressive stress-strain curves ‘Tested at 500 °C (932 °F) at strain rates indicated. Specimens were forged at 900 °C (1652 °F) and annealed at 750 °C (1382 °F) for 2h. Alpha iron has a body: centered-cubic erystal structure. Composition: Fe- (0.007C-0.03Mn-0.005S-0.003P Source: GS. Avadhani, Indian Insite of Science Bangalore, Inia. As ‘published i Hor Working Guide, YWIR-K. Prasad and S.Sasidhara, Ei, ‘ASM International, 1997, p 263, 1.074 Alpha (0) iron alloy forging, true compressive stress-strain curves Tested at 800 °C (1472 °F) at strain rates indicated. Specimens were forged at 900 °C (1652 °F) and annealed at 750 °C (1382 °F) for 2h. Alpha iron has a body- centered-cubic crystal structure. Composition: Fe- 0.007C-0.03Mn-0.0058-0.003P Source: G.S. Avadan, Indian Insti of Slene, Bangalore, India. AS published in Hor Working Guide, VV.R.K. Pras and S. Siar Eh, ‘RSM International, 1987, p 263,64/Cast Iron (Cl) 00 1 1.075 Gamma () iron alloy forging, true | compressive stress-strain curves | | ‘Tested at 950 °C (1742 °F) at strain rates indicated. 20 t t Specimens were forged at 900 °C (1652 °F) and annealed rai te: at 750 °C (1382 °F) for 2h. Above 910 °C (1670 °F) | aade pure iron has a face-centered-cubie crystal structure and 20 is called gamma iron. Compesition: Fe-0.007C-0.03Mn- co (0.0038-0.003P Source: G'S Avadhan, Indian lst of Science, Bangalore, India. As published in Hor Working Gude, YWIRK. Prasad and. Sesdhar, Ea 7 ‘ASM International, 1997, p 267 “we sess, MP2 a tf [ot al a | Sa °% Ot 02 03 04 Os 08 Tope ston 189 1.076 Gamma (ion alloy forging, rue compressive stress-strain curves ‘Tested at 1150 °C (2102 °F) at strain rates indicated. aed | Specimens were forged at 900°C (1652 °F) and anne Fon 21950 °C (1382 °F) for 2, Above 910 °C (1670 “F) pure iron has afacecentered-eubie crystal structure and : p< {scalled gamma® iron. Composition: Fe-0.007C-0.03Mn- é,, 0.0055-0003 g ‘Source: G.S, Avadhani, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Indis. As i | pene in ring Gide YAK. Psa’ Ss : ( Sarina 9 367 "eo — +--+ he | — Los oor on | ae O41 02, 03, 04 0s 08 “Te saat elaCast Iron (C1)/65 ‘ail compression % «—2 BOP sp yim AN a) Din +120] bss" 340, | say “ Jon ‘ese kl 210 02 04 08 a8 10 ‘ial comprssion. ‘Sess, MPa ‘rough atrial 0 On 0406 08 19 Pe stain ind, 12 1418 48 1.077 Steel preform powder metal forged cylinder, Compressive stress-strain curves ‘Test direction: longitudinal. Five steel powder ‘compositions used: A, Fe-0.27C-2.0Ni-0.5Mo; N2, Fe- 0.17C-2.7Ni-0.8Cr; N7, Fe-0.24C-0,6Ni-0.5Cr-0.2Mo;, SI, Fe-0.01C; $3, Fe-0.33C. Preforms compacted to 785 MPa (114 ksi), sintered at 1199 °C (2190 °F), 30 min, and sphervidized (heating three times above and below eutectoid point). The sintered and annealed preforms are compared. Source: Source Book on Cold Forming, American Society for Metals, 1975, p 208, 1.078 Steel preform annealed powder metal, comparison of compressive stress-strain curves ‘Test direction: longitudinal, Three annealed powders (A, SI, and 83) are compared to wrought 0.35% C steel and plain ion. Compositions: A, Fe-0.27C-2.0Ni-0.5Mo; SI, Fe-O.01C; $3, Fe-0.33C Source: Source Boot on Cold Forming, Amesican Society for Mets, 1975, p 208,Carbon Steel (CS)/67 Carbon Steel (CS) ovary 7 Lower pay Leder band Unyilde mets lngaon —+ 8.001 Annealed low-carbon steel, load-elongation curve showing Liiders bands ‘Typical yield point behavior of low-carbon steel. The slope of the initial linear portion of the stress-strain curve (E= yh) is the modulus of elasticity. Many metals, Particularly annealed low-carbon steel, show a localized, heterogeneous type of transition from elastic to plastic deformation that produces a yield point rather than a curve with a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior. The load increases steadily with elastic strain, then drops suddenly. After the upper yield point, several discrete bands of deformed metal, called Liders bands, appear at stress concentrations, usually at about 45° to the tensile axis. Load fluctuates about some approximately constant value, and then rises with further strain. Source: GE. Dieter, Mechanical Behavior ander Tensile and Compressive Loads, Mechanica! Testing and Evauation, ol 8, ASM Handbook. ASM International, 2000, p 100, 5.002 Carbon steel, various alloys, load-extension curves showing yield strength Load-extension curves for steel sheet having the same yield strength (YS) but different characteristic behavior. (@) Annealed dead soft rimmed or sluminum-killed steel The YS is the average stress measured during yield point clongation. (b) Lightly temper rolled rimmed steel. The stress at the jog in the curve is reported as the YS. (©) and (d) Temper rolled low-carbon steel. May be rimmed, aluminum-killed, or intestitial-free steel with no detectable yield point. The YS is calculated from the load at 0.2% offset (c) or from the load at 0.5% extension (@. (©) Rimmed steel with a yield point elongation duc to aging at room temperature for several months. ‘The YS is the average stress measured during yield point elongation, Source: WG. Granow, Sheet Formabiity of Steels, Properties and Selection: Irons, Stel, and High-Performance Alloys, Vl ‘ASM Handbook, ASM Internation, 1990, 57468/Carbon Steel (C5) Stes vals esenaon tars) Shin rr a | True lest sa, €5.003 Annealed and normalized low-carbon stec!, stress-strain curves showing effects of aging YY is upper yield point, A is point of initial prestrain. Curve 1: specimen is unloaded and immediately restrained. Curve 2: specimen unloaded, aged, and restrained. AO, is the change in yield stress due to aging. 4, is the change in ultimate strength due t0 aging. ‘Ac isthe change in elongation. Similar aging effects can be achioved with various combinations of time and femperature Source: WT. Lankford, real, The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Stee, USS, Hehe, 1985, p 1386, 8,004 Rimmed carbon (0.03% C) steel, true stress-true plastic strain curves Effect of aging at 60 °C (140 °F): curve 1, no aging; curve 2, 15 min; curve 3, 30 min; curve 4, 4h; eurve 5, 500 h; 6, 126 Source: WT. Lankford Jr ea, The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Sie, USS, 1th ed, 1985, p 1286Carbon Steel (C5)/69 Erajoecing sees, MPa 400 ' €5.005 Rimmed low-carbon (0.03% C) steel, engineering stress-strain curves sso = Curve 1: Dynamic strain aging, also called blue 4 brittleness. Straining at 200 °C'(390 °F) yields serrated 0 St stress-strain curve and is more effective than straining at room temperature. Curve 1 was unloaded and restrained = : at 25 °C (77 °F), Curve 2 was strained at 25 °C (77 °F) ] and unloaded, aged for 2 h at 200 °C (390 °F), and restrained at 25 °C (77 *F. oa Source: WT. Lankford. tet al, The Making, Shaping and Treating of | Stel USS, 1th. 1985p 1386 169 «| swan 189 3.006 1007 and 1008 carbon steel, von Mises ] effective true stress-von Mises true strain curves Curve 1: 1008 alloy deformed by plane-strain 1} —} 7 compression; data source, Ford, Curve 2: 1007 alloy deformed by torsion; data source, G. Sevillano. Curve 3: 1007 alloy deformed by wire drawing plus torsion; data, +100} — : source, G, Sevillano. UNS G10080 Soure: G. Kraus, E&. Deformation, Processing and Sacre pers presented at th ASM Materials Scence Seminar, 29 Oc 1982 ars {St Losi, MO), American Soi for Metals, 984, 9. so] 025 ‘en Mes reson70/Carbon Steel (CS) CS.007 1008 carbon steel, true stress-true strain curves ] ] ‘Comparison of stress-strain curves. Curve 1: monotonic too} plane-strain compression. Curve 2: rolling prestrain followed by plane-strain compression. Stress states are very similar, and yet the rolling-plus-plane-strain ‘compression curve is different. This difference can be = explained on the basis of redundant work; the curvature ofthe rolls causes some redundant shearing (not contributing to thickness reduction) and extra hardening UNS G10080 Soure: 6. Kats, El, Deformation Processing, and Siac, papers peste at th ASM Matas Science Seminar, 23 Oc 1982 (St Louis, MO), American Society for Meas, 1584, p10 “re aren % « 5 e80 5.008 1015 carbon steel, tensile and compressive ] true stress-plastic strain curves, - Niobium-stabilized (+0.02Nb), air cooled from 1200 °C 6 > ‘Widmanstiitten ferrite-pearlite. Composition: Fe-0.17C- 500 (0.96Ma-0.014P-0,0268-0,0408i-0.044Ni-0.028Cr- 7 =| £0.008Mo-0,006AI-0.025Cu-0.020N»b. UNS G10150 Z Sous: G.C Ravch and W.C Lele, The Extent and Nae of ’ en i the Stengel Het in Sto Metall ans, VOD, : 4 Fev978 p38 « 7 cof ' : 2 | . 300 2 Ww asErjoeing sos Tun oes a = 4" bade LY oe “TT : ; ys r 7 | wd Neer mt exper Le 7 wT Le] g 7 4 | 2 x} — Ps | Carbon Steel (CS)/71 C5.009 Annealed low-carbon (0.18% ©) steel, engineering stress-strain curve Curve shows a well-defined yield point. For such ‘cases the 0.2% offset yield strength is not used to define yielding, Source: CR. Brooks, Heat Treatment, Sirtue, and Properies of Nonferrous Alleys, American Society fr Metals, 1982, p 4 S910 Fully aluminuriled dee-drawing carbon steel 20-gage sheet, logarithmic true stress-strain curve Test direction: longitudinal. This figure was a typical result from a series of reproducibility tests conducted on 50 adjacent specimens. Linearity i very good. n = 0.250, k=7167. Source: Source Book om Horming of Stes Shert, Amica Society for Mots, 1975, p21772/Carbon Steel (CS) 20 5.011 1015 carbon steel, tensile and compressive true stress-total strain curves. UNS G10150 Samples equiaxed ferrite-pearli ee ples eg te-pearlte Soure: Meal Trans, Wl 3, 1972, p 379 280 200 § i ; am i | tao a a ) €5.012 1020 carbon steel, tensile stress-elongation curves at room and elevated temperatures Strain rate = 0,000175/s. Composition: Fe-0.20C. UNS 610200 Source: WC. Les, The Physical Metallurgy of Metal, McGraw-Hill and Hemisphere Pushing, 1981, p92 “ee Le ee |"Carbon Steel (C5)/73 gion sar ses) MPa iesoene | es cast SAE 100, Sy of — |} — ~ I rough SAE 1020, yet} | | L Dynamic 60 230 g 210% ‘uo 8 g 8 €5.013 1020 wrought and 1030 normalized-and. tempered cast carbon steel, monotonic and cyclic stress strain curves ‘The cyclic stress-strain characteristics show a reduction of the strain-hardening exponent of the normalized-and- tempered cast carbon steel (SAE 1030) from n = 0.3 in ‘monotonic tension to n’ = 0.13 under eyclic-strain- controlled tests. UNS G10200 Source: PF Wieser, Ba, Ste! Castings Handbook, She, See Founders’ Society of Arneria, 1980, p 4-15 5.014 Hot-rolled 1020 carbon steel, static and dynamic engineering shear stress-strain curves Static and dynamic shear stress-shear strain curves for hot rolled 1020 steel. To obtain the shear strain in the specimen, the elastic rotation of the bar between the two differential transformers is subtracted from the total rotation. This elastic rotation is measured by cementing the loading bars together without a specimen and loading them quasi-statically. Typical test results obtained at a variety of temperatures using the Kolsky bar to test 1020 steel at a quasi-static stain rate of 5 x 10-Y/s and dynamic strain rate of 10% are given. Source: A. Gils, Torsional Kolsky Br Testing, Mechanical Testing and valuation, Wl 8, ASM Handbook, ASM lateroaonl, 2000, p 51374/Carbon Steel (CS) Engine sees, Eocene | TT" - fe a ma al Serre 7 iam, A PN ot {200 TI i | Lo rk Hi tt L, toma | pen G02 Cor 005 a08 010 0.12 at8 016 018 028 : 2 it | g « / | — aa / I i “ |__| ; | z / | I » : 4 > ee : | Seindisaies | 7 | SOT patzr eo. | wo | 7 i i % 2 « e 3 ie 3.015 Cold-worked carbon (0.2% ©) steel, engineering stress-strain curve (full range) property terms Source: CR, Brooks, Heat Treatment, Siicir, and Properties of Nonferrous Alloys, American Soviets Tor Meals, 1982, p? Definition of mechani 8.016 Cold-worked carbon (0.2% ©) steel, engineering stress-strain curve (expanded range) Definition of mechanical property terms Source: CR Brooks, Hout Tewment, Structure, an Properties of [Nonferrous Alloys, American Society for Met, 1982, p2Carbon Steel (CS)/75 160 5 | ‘rte ket eseoeme - cy oa ta 88 a8 aa oman = Moreton, om Fre aoa aoa to Stain €5.017 AAR grade A and B high-carbon steel casting wheels, stress-strain curves Constant-amplitude strain-controlled test (open circles, ‘grade A; “plus” symbols, grade B). Curve 1, monotonic tension test; curve 2, incremental step test. AAR, Association of American Railroads. Compositions: grade A, Fe-0.52C-0.78Mn-0.014S-0.009P-0.26Si; grade B, Fe-0,65C-0,83Mn-0.038S-0.015P-0.21Si Source: DH, Stone al YJ Prk, Cyeie Pst of Class A and B ‘Heat Treated Wheel Stel. As published in “The Gencral Problem of Rolliag Contact” AMD-Val 40, ASME, 1980 5.018 AAR grade C high-carbon steel casting wheels, stress-strain curves Monotonic and cyclic loading curves. AAR, Association cof American Railroads, Composition: Fe-0.68C-0.83Mn- 0.0385-0.015P-0.33Si Source: Courtesy of the Transporation Technology Cente, In subsidiary of Association of American Railroads76/Carbon Steel (CS) wo) 20 3.019 Standard grade nonresulfurized carbon ste! rails, stress amplitude-strain amplitude curves ‘Test direction: longitudinal. Static and incremental step loading, Modulus of elasticity = 199 GPa (28.85 x 10° psi). Composition: Fe-0.82C-0,87Mn-.032S- 0.035P-0.21 Source: BN. Les, Cyetie Deformation and Fatigue Resistance Charscterstics ofa Rail Ste, Rail eet, STP No. 644, ASTM, Now 1977 3 3 g ‘Qvees aml (As), MPa | g 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 ‘Stain ape (802),% tenon, 5.020 High-strength nonresulfurized carbon steel oss soo re "en tem 13 177 20g, ral, oadextension diagram ‘Test curve for one specimen 12.751 mm diam x 50.8 mm 170 +— a {ross gage length (0.502 in, diam x 2 in, gage length). Ulimate a tensile strength = 1106 MPa (160.5 ksi); 0.2% yield sitength = 644 MPa (93.4 ksi). Typical composition for 000 | 7 high-strength rail: Fe-0.74C-0,99Mn-0.005S(max)- 0.015P-0.17Si Source: Courtesy ofthe Transporation Technology Cents, In. |g Sibidary of Astosiason of American Ralreads af N ea yom re / I —| mee sxe {— ae al |_| 7Carbon Steel (CS)/77 , —" €5.021 AAR specification M101 grade C austenitic manganese steel casting, monotonic tensile stress- strain curve Normalized and tempered. Strain rate = 0,0002/. cess Ultimate strength ~ 696 MPa (101 ki); 0.2% yield | srength = 605 MPa (878 ks elongation = 33%: elastic ‘modules = 204 GPa (29.575 10" pi; sainhardening | exponent = 0.097475; strength coofcint = 1059 MPa £ (153.674 ksi) AR, Association of American Railroads = Composition: Fe-0.31C-1.50Mn-0.027S-0.007P-0.49Si- 2 ONi-020Cr-0.17Mo é 350 Source: Courtesy ofthe Transportation Tecnology Center, le ‘usidiary of ASscition of American Railroads | 7s ara ewe vn roca ‘Sean 004 1080 5.022 AAR specification M101 grade C austenitic [ manganese steel casting, monotonic tensile stress- strain curve ‘Quenched and tempered. Strain rate = 0.0002/s. Ultimate strength = 986 MPa (143 ksi); 0.2% yield strength = 909 MPa (132 ksi); elongation = 19.6%; elastic modulus = 217 GPa (31.474 x 10° psi). AAR, Association of i ‘American Railroads. Composition: Fe-0,28C-1.35Mn- (0.025S-0.012P-0.445i-0.17Ni-0.25Cr-0.17Mo Source: Courtesy of the Transportation Technology Cente, In. subsidiary of Association of American Raids ico es poet peta ‘ia 0.00178/Carbon Steel (CS) ‘eee hl 100 ‘Sein 0004 Teruencted ‘Stes, MPa 3.023 AAR specification M101 grade E austenitic manganese steel casting, monotonic tensile stress- strain curve ‘Quenched and tempered. Strain rate = 0.0002/s, Ultimate strength = 730 MPa (106 ksi); 0.2% yield strength = (655 MPa (95 ksi; elongation = 27.8%; elastic modulus 210 GPs (30.43 x 10° psi); strain-hardening exponent 0.93697; strength coefficient = 1086 MPa (157.661 ksi). ‘AAR, Association of American Railroads. Composition: e-0.29C-1.03Mn-0.026S-0.014P-0.49Si-0.60Ni-0.47Cr- 0.15Mo Source: Courtesy ofthe Transportation Technology Cente, ne. subidiay of Assocttion of American Raroads 5.024 As-quenched and quenched-and-tempered carbon (0.2% C) steel, true stress-strain curves ‘As-quenched martensite quenched in NaOH-NaCl solution and quenched-and-tempered lath martensite with packet size of 8.2 jum was tempered in lead at 400 °C (750 °F) for 1 min. Work-hardening rate for as-quenched is quite high compared to tempered sample. Composition: Fe-0.2C Source: : Swar and G. Krauss, The Etfet of Staci onthe Deformation of As-Quenched and Tempered Martnst nan Fe-02% Cally, Meal. Trans. A, YOLTA, 1976, p 1-48Sree P.Bauscnnger tan Oz ate Sian Carbon Steel (CS)/79 5.025 Carbon steel, Bauschinger effect on stress- strain curves ‘The elastic limit of a metal is lowered after reverse loading. The area E, is the energy expended in prestrain, and E, is the energy saved in reverse loading, ‘Source: C-C, Li, LD. Flack 1.A Yaker, an WC Leste, On Minimizing the BauschingerEsfecein Stels by Dynamic Scan Aging, ‘Metal Trans. Jan 1978, p 8680/Carbon Steel (CS) « = 9 pT 1] 420, olf CHL TT da 2 | f Fa re eo i aes eon I » 0 7 | | j | Ue | | Ea as a0 aa mone 1 20 25 30 35 40 a2 5.026 1020 carbon steel, true stress-strain curves (a) Bauschinger effect shown for test sequence of tension to 2% strain followed by compression of another 2%. (©) The sequence is compression-tension. Tested at 25 °C. Composition: Fe-0.21C-0.64Mn-0,030S-0.018P-0.23Si- 0.007N. UNS G10200 Source: C-C. Li ID. asc, J.A Yale, and WC. Leslie, On Minimizing the Bavschinger tect in Stcels by Dynamic Stun Aging, ‘Metal Trans A, Jan 1978, p86Carbon Steel (CS)/81 ees tt =| aad 5.027 1020 carbon steel, true stress-strain curves Curve 1: specimen is prestrained in tension at 250 °C to 26 strain and tested in compression at room temperature. Curve 2: the specimen is prestrained in tension at room temperature to 2% strain and tested in compression at room temperature, The Bauschinger effect is reduced. Composition: Fe-0.21C-0.64Mn-0,0308-0.018P-0.23: 0.007%. UNS G10200 Source: C-C, Li JD. Fasc, J.A Yer, and WC. Les, On ‘Minimizing the Bauschinger Efect in Stcels by Dynamic Stan Aging. Metal. Trans. A, Jan 1978, p 8 €S.028 1035 carbon steel, true stress-strain curves Bauschinger effect shown with test sequence of tension 10 2% strain followed by compression of another 2% ‘ested at 25 °C. Composition: Fe-0.34C-0.65Mn-0.0078 0.003P-0.17Si-0.021 AI-0.006N. UNS G10350 Source: C-C. Li, D. lasek, 1.8. Vaker and WC. Leslie, On ‘Minimizing the Bauschinger Eee in Stels by Dynamic Stain Aging, ‘Metal Trans, Jaa 197, p9682/Carbon Steel (CS) a*| feo oe 7 | 4 be (areata a i = a i * f 7 OS + 7 : =|" 5.029 1035 carbon steel, true stress-strain curves Curve 1: specimen is prestrained in tension at 250 °C 10 26e strain and tested in compression at 25 °C. Curve 2: the specimen is prestrained in tension at 25 °C 10 29% strain and tested in compression at 25 °C. Composition: Fe-0,34C-0.65Mn-0.007S-0.003P-0.17Si-0.021A- 0.006N. UNS G10350 Source: CC. Li, 1D. lsc, JA Yaker and WC. Leslie, Minimizing the BauschingerBifect in Stels by Dynamic Stain Aging, ‘Meal Trans, Jan 197, p 88 €5.030 1020, 1040, and 1095 carbon steel plate, true stress-strain curves showing effects of shock loading Preshock normalizing: 1020, 927 °C (1700 °F), 45 min; 1040, 899 °C (1650 °F), 45 min; 1095, 899 °C (1650 °I 45 min, austenitizing 802 °C (1475 °F), 45 min, oil ‘quenched, tempered 204 °C (400 °F), 1 h. Shocked at 158 and 283 kbar (peak).. UNS G10200, G10400, G10950 ‘Source: B.G. Koepke, RP Jewet, WT, Chandler, and TEE. Scot, Effess of ital Microstructure ad Shock Method onthe Shock Induced Transformation Strengthening of Carbon Stel, Metall Trans, ol. ASM, 1971, p 2045,Carbon Steel (CS)/83 0 560, CS.031 1023 carbon steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves (@) Longitudinal, (b) Transverse. Composition: 0.23C- | (039M 0.009-0:0248-0,038-002Cr0.01N-001Mo. 0}— - 4 {420 UNS G10230 Source: Sac Atos Handbook Yo, Bate Calamus Tora, Clune 01980 38 2 | \ g % * nm 2 16 = oe . stan 001m * 0 ] of —t es z | g Z 4) 0S 3 5 | | | | UL Lea ‘ran. nn84/Carbon Steel (CS) 100 €S.032 1025 carbon (0.25% C) steel, flow stress-strain curves at various strain rates ‘Temperature (7) = 1100 °C (2012 °F). Suress-strain ‘curves show that at higher strains the flow stress is approximately constant. This is increasingly true at smaller strain rates (€). Curves were obtained in hot torsion experiments, UNS G10250 Source: K, Lange, Ea, Hanabook of Metal Forming, McGraw-Hill 1985, p 16.1 | oo} | i ous 6 Net sane 1000 7 CS.033 1040 carbon steel, engineering stress-strai curves with effect of strain rate Effect of different strain rates on the tensile response. The yield stress and flow stresses at different values of strain increase with strain rate. The work-hardening rate (m), on the other hand, is not as sensitive to strain rate. This illustrates the importance of correctly specifying the strain rate when giving the yield stress of a metal, Not all | metals exhibit a high strain-rate sensitivity. Aluminum and some of its alloys have either 0 orm. In general, m ‘varies between 0.02 and 0.2 for homologous temperatures 5 T between 0 and 0.9 (90% of melting point in K). a ‘Therefore, one would have, at the most, an increase of : 15% in the yield stress by doubling the strain rate. UNS, Gi0400 Source: M.A. Meyers and K.K, Chawli, Mechanical Metallurg: | Principles and Applications, Premice-Hal, 1984, p 572 a & 10sCarbon Steel (C5)/85 sno] wa ate toa 7 0 et | yi | amet} we t ou a 5.034 1045 carbon steel, flow stress-natural strain curves Strain-rate hardening for 1045 steels with different ‘weatments, Curve 1: quenched and spheroidized, Curve 2: as rolled. Curve 3: quenched and tempered. For ‘most of the curve the relationship is linear. The greater the initial hardness, the greater the rate of strain hardening throughout the range of possible deformation, UNS G10450 Source: JV. Russell, Steels fr Cold Forming, Sourcebook on Cold Forming, Ametian Society of Metals 1975p 106 3.035 10846 carbon steel, true stress-plastic strain curves in tension and compression Curves for lower, intermediate, and upper bainite in AISI 10B46 steel. Composition: Fe-0.44C-1,00Mn-0.025P- 0.026S-0.275i-0.0SNi-0 08C¥-0.01Mo-0.01Cu-0.00138 Source: GC. Rovch and WE. Lelie, The Extent and Nate ofthe Sength-Difeeaial Effect in Stools; Metall Tran. A, Beb 1972, 37786/Carbon Steel (C5) Tans = ‘Stain 2 (50) 9290 ont ‘ess, MPa €5.036 1060 carhon steel rod, true stress-strain curves Rod diameter = 5.6 mm (0.22 in.). Flow curves for steel ‘compressed at 780 °C at various strain rates. Letters A, B, CC, and D represent the interruption strains used in the experiments, Composition: 0.68% C. UNS G10600 Source: RAP. Djic and. Jonas, Reerjtalization of High Catbon ‘Stel beeen Intervals of High Tempersture Deformation, Metal, Trans 4, Feb 1973p 02 €5.037 Carbon and high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels (SAE 950X, SAE 980X, and GM 980X), stress-strain curves ‘The GM 980X has been intercritically annealed and dual- phase microstructures produced. The two dashed ellipses indicate reported ranges of elongation for dual-phase steels, The basis for three stages in the development of ferritic low-carbon steels is shown. The lower sttess- strain curve represents the deformation behavior of mild steel with ferrite-pearlite microstructures. The yielding is discontinuous and yield strengths are typically 30 ksi (207 MPa). SAE 950X and SAE 980X are HSLA steels with yield strengths of 50 ksi (345 MPa) and 80 ksi (562 MPa), respectively. The microstructures still consist of ferrite and pearlite, but the ferrite grain size is highly refined because of controlled rolling and microalloying. with vanadium. GM 980X is similar to SAE 980X, but has been intercrtically annealed to convert the peaite to ‘martensite. The resulting microstructure is termed “dual phase” to distinguish the ferrite-martensite microstructure from the ferrte-pearlite microstructure of conventionally ‘treated mild steels of HSLA steels. Source: G. Krauss, Principles of Heat Treament of Sel, American Society for Meas, 1980, p 242Carbon Steel (CS)/87 z “Toate (0 8 “Tr son (6, MPa = areereemereeeeee 2 [x ‘inte ere eee ee | CS.038 1112 carbon steel, true stress-strain curves with effect of strain rate ‘True stress-strain curves for 1112 steel at different strain rates at 21 °C (70 °F). When metals ae tested in tension at diferent strain rates the flow stress comesponding to a given strain is found to increase with strain rate. The following equation is frequently used to relate flow stress and strain rat at a. given stain and temperature ,€, where é = deldr and 6, and m are material constants. The exponent m (srain-rate sensitivity) is found to increase with temperature, especially above the strain recrystallization temperature Inthe hot-working region, metals tend to approach the behavior of a Newtonian liquid for which m = | Source: MC. Shaw, Metal Curing Principles, Claredon Press, Ont, 198 P 69 €5.039 1112 carbon steel, relationship of engineering, true, and corrected stress-strain curves Relationship between engineering, true, and corrected tensile stress-strain curves for AISI 1112 steel. The figure above shows the relationship between the so-called engineering stress-strain curve based on the original area, the true stress-strain curve, and the corrected true stess- strain curve where the stress ploted (0,) isthe uniaxial tensile stress in the absence ofthe hydrostatic component introduced by curvature of the neck. tis evident that interpretation of tensile tet results is really quite involved despite the apparent simplicity ofthe test. Source: MC. Shay, Metal Curing Principles, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1986, p6788/Carbon Stee! (CS) 129 . 5.040 Carbon steel, true stress-strain curves 4 7 showing effect of different cooling rates L.| | Specimens annealed at 810°C, 10 min, Cooling rate: aw | curve A, 1000 °C/s; curve B, 300 °Cis; curve C, 60 °Cis; 7 | curve D, 32 °Cs; curve E, 5 “Cis. Composition: Fe- I 0,063C-1.29Mn-0.24Si : | te See é fs peseted the ASM tras Scene Sema 29 Oc 1982 tall / A lito MO} Armsican Soy fe Mea 984, p70 i __ : f f a a a 00 - 5.041 Carbon steel plate, true tensile stress (0) ] minus yield stress (0,) versus true plastic strain (€) | curves at room temperature Fetal 20. ‘Tested at room temperature. Plate thickness 35 mm on (0.25 in). Comparison of worichardening curve of | Hadfield stel (Fe-13Mn-1-2C) with that of austenites reawetbo deformed by slip (Fe-21Ni-1.0C) or twinning (Co-33Ni- 0.020), The three have the same yield srength and & ee similar deformation below strain of 0.05, ea T 7 ‘Source: F, Marutray, High Carbon Manganese Austenitic Steels, : JE sess eeea cote ews ME © cosmos 200) £ | ~Carbon Steel (CS)/89 ‘200 €5.042 A128-E2 carbon steel bar, true and. engineering tensile stress-strain curves Molybdenum-modified Hadfield steel heat treated 4 alee Te 1030-1040 °C, for I h. Engineering curve is drawn to fracture, True curve drawn to uniform strain at maximum Ale lead. Composition: Fe-12.5Mn-2.01Mo-1.15C-0.73Si 0.33Cr 100) Fy Source: LF. Chinella, Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of 200 8 ‘Thermomechanically Processed, High Manganese Stel, High Manganese High Niogen Ausente Steels, Coat. Proc. ASM. Intemational, 1992, p 143 Cr acs 200 €S.043 A128-E2 carbon steel bar, engineering tensile a stress-strain curves showing effect of” ‘thermomechanical treatment Molybdenum-modified Hadfield steel heat treated 1030-1040 °C, for 1 h. Thermomechanical treatment 200 (IMT) at 454 °C, 1.00, 0.75, 0.46 ae the effective a strains, corresponding to 61, 50, and 35% thickness : reduction. Strength increased wit increased effective suo § Sin, ut uniform stain in tension decreased ce) = Composition: Fe-12.5Mn-2.01Mo-1.15C-0.738i-0.33Cr i i Source: LF. Chinella, Mechanical Properties and Microsite of ‘Thesmomachaiclly Processed, High Manganese Stel, High Manganese High Nitrogen Austente Stele, Coat. Proc, ASM Inernationl 1992, p 148 ar a Engineering sin90/Carbon Steel (CS) Engneeng sees, MPs seo] ormatsee-c 0s om Enonearng san creo ee 3 Exgoestng san % a 8 Engages, 8 S.044 A128-E2 carbon steel bar, engineering tensile stress-strain curves showing effect of thermomechanical treatment Molybdenumn-modified Hadfield steel heat treated 1030-1040 °C, for I h. Thermomechanical treatment (TMT) at similar effective strains at the temperatures, noted, Thickness reduction at 343 °C, 49%; at 399 °C, 48%, at 454 °C, 50%. Temperature had little effect on strength, but uniform strain increased with temperature. Composition: Fe-12,5Mn-2.01Mo-1.15C-0.738i-0.33Cr Soureo: LF. Chinela, Mechnical Properties and Micrstntue of ‘Thermomochancally Processed, High Manganese Steel, High Manganese igh Nurogen Ausonie Steels, Cont. roe, ASM. International, 192, p 18 (€5.045 Fe-0.08C-1.45Mn-0.21Si carbon steel, engineering stress-strain curves showing effect of aging Cold-rolled 50% and interritcally annealed 760 °C, 2 min, water quenched, aged at 120 °C (248 °F) forthe times given. Yield strength and discontinuous yielding, increase with aging time. Source: G. Krauss, Steeler Heat Teanent and Processing Principles, ‘ASM International, 1990, p 130,Carbon Steel (CS)/91 00 €5.046 1522 carbon steel, true stress-strain curves ‘Bauschinger effect shown with test sequence of tension font fo 10 2% strain followed by compression of another 2%. “| ‘Tested at 25 °C. Composition: Fe-0.21C-1.10Mn-0.0168- ao (0.011P-0.05Si-0.007A-0.004N. UNS G15220 Tt Soure: C.-C. Li LD. lasek 1. Yer, and WC, Leste, On ES ‘Minimizing the Baoschinge fect in Steels by Dynamic Stain Aging, ¢ ‘Metal. Trans, Jan 197, p87 | Taans =f Phat 25°C 3 20° - 70 10 45 20 25 30 38 40 af me $60, CS.047 1522 carbon steel, true stress-strain curves Cure 1: specimen is prestne in tension 20°C 0 ft ow 226 sen td teste compenon a fom ompeare = Gare the specmen s presened inenion 38°C = to 28 sean and tenn compen som ; tcompertre. The Baushige eet eae, = Composition: Fe 021C 1 TOMO 0165:0.0118-005S:- + £_otanooa UNS Gis250 Sacer eee a = igo nae me ma eo ; Jara ininte | 7 8 a Tues,92/Carbon Steel (CS) “oss 0.2 tue sn gg. MPO 5.048 Various carbon steels, strain-hardening af 200 oe SSS ao zea exponent versus true stress curve at 0.2 true strain Py | ‘Variations in strain-hardening exponents (n) for various alate] |. plain carbon (10:2) and molybdenum alloy (4x2) cold- r forming stcels. 5140 is a chromium alloy and 8640 is a } Ni-Cr-Mo alloy steel 5 020 + | Source: RR. Crowd, RG. Dun, HamplesInfuenee of i | Alloying Eemens onthe Cold Defermation of Stel, Sourebook on i aes Cold Forming, Atatican Society of Meals, 1575, p 142 r Bos i 4 a | Joo «00 20 00a Tue sees at 2 tu ean| Alloy Steel (AS)/93 Alloy Steel (AS) 380 2180 AS.001 52100 chromium alloy stee! rod, tensile stress-strain curve sof} | ieee 100 Heat treatment: 835 °C (1535 °F), oil quenched and tempered 160 °C (320 °F), 20 min, Hardness = 65 HRC. Composition: Fe-IC-1.45Cr. UNS G52986 2 1750 See 6. Such Sel, ant WE. Browne, Teson Compson wed Fain Pont Sel Sco A ex plead Pe 7 Wa, 8s ll ope 7 100g Seen ee boo Cae 20 CNDASTSAF RDA : § Hanns pera, ore Unters. 985, ae 4 TL woh oz oa 0808 aa van, 5 20 10 AS.002 52100 chromium alloy stee! rod, : compressive stress-strain curve Heat treatment: 835 °C (1535 °F), ol quenched and 4 _ a tempered 160 °C (320 °F), 0.5 h, 274 °C (525 °F), Lh. | Hardness = 58 HRC, Composition: Fe-IC-LASCr. UNS | 652986 | | Source . Sich, R, Sel and WE Brown Je, Tension, Compression {080 , ani Fatigue Proper f Seve Stes for Ara Bearing 2 | § ——_Aopcsion, Prac AST, Vol 9, 1959. Ax poli n Aerospace 4 | Siracurl Metals Handa oi, Cod 120, CINDASTUSAF CRDA i J Hanbooks Operation, Pudue Unversiy, 1995, p6 100 + 10 * 0 4 t sso 1 ° oF a8 ‘ea 494/Alloy Steel (AS) cy 0 ‘AS.003 2.25Cr-1Mo annealed chromium. molybdenum alloy steel plate, tensile stress-strain | ‘curves at room and elevated temperatures Fase et) ‘Test direction: longitudinal. ASME SA-387 grade D a'r 420) 420 plate, Test specimens machined from 25.4 mm (1 in.) thick plate. Specimens 6.40 mm diam x 50.8 mm gage Tength (0.252 in. diam x2 in. gage length). Nominal strain rate = 0.01/min, Mill composition: Fe-0.12C- 2 | { — 219CF-0:93Mo-0.46n0.248i-0.014P-0.0145 g {TPP TENSES "S) | 250g ——-Source: JE, Byram, FY, Elis, and B.W. Roberts, Tensile and Creep : BF _Prveres foram Amesied Vooas Normalized and Tempered 21M See Plate, Chrome Moty Sel bt 1976, The American Society ot | Mechanical Engineers, 1976, p 5 0077 (7) Ey ao 0 00T 002 003 008 005 006 o07 008 ey 60 ‘AS.004 2.25Cr-1Mo normalized-and-tempered 575-7 (020) chromium-molybdenum alloy steel plate, tensile 780° (399°C) 7 esc) stress-strain curves at room and elevated a7 ae'c) | temperatures ‘Test direction: longitudinal. ASME SA-387 grade D plate. Test specimens machined from 25.4 mm (1 in.) thick plate. Specimens 6.40 mm diam x 50.8 mm gage 8“) Jength (0.252 in, diam x 2 in, gage length), Nominal strain rate = 0,01/min. Mill composition: Fe-0.12C- | 2.19Cr-0.93Mo-0.46Mn-0.24Si-0.014P-0.0145 | Source: JE. Byoum, FV lis, and B.W. Rober, Tensile and Creep | roperics for an Amesled Versus Normalized and Tempered 2/-1Mo ao Fee | Steel Plate, Chrome Moly Steel in 1976, The American Society of 1 | —|.20 hss ‘Mechanical Engineers, 1976, pSAlloy Steel (AS)/95 180] 1260 +180} TSE | 200 Saree 1 fe ‘of A aor prc—lim wo Monkey fru oot a0) cele eee | t oo | Srey | oo mee 027-67 —Jo0 2 te Io d 3 a oiruera| gS i | Ba 5 7 mrene—let aT eo 7 leo hove t . ‘ lo % z « 6 . 7 7 % 2 + 6 s 0 we ° sian ont ” =a = ial 7 erway) 10 20 EBC sey Teno) 1 son 16-0) 090 | 1 wo. a rier q Ie 20077 (627°C) __b 99 7 roan lug HN 000 F 38°C), 0 ° ‘San, 0801, ‘AS.005 4130 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves at room and elevated temperatures ‘Test direction: longitudinal. Sheet thickness = 1.626 mm (0.064 in.). Families of curves for different heat treatments. Left, 857 °C (1575 °F), oil quenched and tempered 538 °C (1000 °F); nominal strength = 1034 MPa (150 ksi). Center, 857 °C (1575 °F), oil ‘quenched and tempered 443 °C (830 °F); nominal strength = 1241 MPa (180 ksi). Right, 857 °C (1575 °F), oil quenched and tempered 399 °C (750 °F); nominal strength = 1379 MPa (200 ksi). Specimens were held at temperature for 0.5~100 h. ‘Composition: Fe-0,3C-0,95C-0.2Mo. UNS G41300 Source: V, Melona and J. Kats, “Determination of Tensile, Compressive, Bearing, and Shetr Propet of Feu and Non-FeroosStactarl Shest Meals st lovied Temperatures," WADC TRS6.390, ASTIA Document No. AD 131 06, Southern Research insti, Sept 1957. As published in Aerospace Sructaral ‘Metals Handboot Vl I, Code 1201, CINDAS/USAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Pardue University, 155, p2996/Alloy Steel (AS) Has ‘a so 7S ne a Tel aol (80°) — 20 160] 1920 7 Poe ee z an asirow| SS : YA eorreares| ere [ef 1] | fp baton é 1000 (38°C) [tear eae'c) 2 0 20] + 0 » #1 | ; ye en ee ete : peel hi “ato °F ae)" +160 | “Boo °F (316 *C)] 1120, 7” aa ald DS ea 77a ee 7 seo —low a Fy + 6 ® 10 os AS.006 4130 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, compressive stress-strain curves at room and elevated temperatures ‘Test direetion; longitudinal, Sheet thickness = 1.626 mm (0,064 in.). Families of curves for different heat treatments. Left, 857 °C (1575 °F), oil quenched and tempered 538 °C (1000 °F); nominal strength = 1034 MPa (150 ksi). Center, 857 °C (1575 °F), cil quenched and tempered 443 °C (830 °F); nominal strength = 1241 MPa (180 ksi). Right, 857 °C (1575 °F), oil quenched and tempered 399 °C (750 °F); nominal strength = 1379 MPa (200 ksi). Specimens were held at temperature for 0.5-100 h. ‘Composition: Fe-0.3C-0.95Cr-0.2Mo. UNS G41300 ‘Source: LN, Melons snd JR. Kas, “Determination of Teosile, Compeessive, Bearing, and Shear Properties of Feous and Noa-Femous Structural Sheet ‘Metals at Elevated Temperatures” WADC TRS6-34, ASTIA Document No. AD 131069, Southem Research Insti, Sep 1957. As published in Aerospace Siructara Metals Handbook. Vol 1, Code 1201, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue University, 995, p 33Alloy Steel (AS)/97 Stes is ‘ess i +080 1080 | 1080 1050 ‘toss, Ma 1060 1060 1050 15 1080 § a 8 1225 AS.007 4130 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, stress-strain curves (full range) at various exposure times to elevated temperatures Hot rolled and normalized, austenitized 857 °C (1575 *P), oil quenched, tempered at 538 °C (1000 °F) for 1034 MPa (150 ksi) ultimate tensile strength. Composition of heat: Fe-0.31C-0,50Mn-0.014P-0,0158- (0.92C+-0.19Mo, UNS G41300 Source: LV, Melons snd JR. Kats, “Determination of Tensile, (Compressive, Bearing, and Shear Properties of Ferous and Now Fens Strata Shet Metals Elevated Temperate” WADC ‘TRSG-340, ASTIA Document No. AD 131 06, Southern Resear Insti, Sep 1957 AS polished in Sructural Alas Handboot, Vol, CCINDASYPardve Univesity, 199, p22 AS.008 4130 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, stress-strain curves (full range) at various exposure times to elevated temperatures Hot rolled and normalized, austenitized 857 °C (1575 °F), oil quenched, tempered at 443 °C (830 °F) for 1241 MPa (180 ksi) ultimate tensile strength Composition of heat: Fe-0.31C-0,50Mn-0.014P-0.015S- (0.92Cr-0.19Mo. UNS G41300 Source: LV, Melons and JR. Katus, “Detonation of Tensile, ‘Compressive, Bearing, and Shear Propesties of Feros and Nom Ferrous Sirota Shet Metals at Elevated Temperatures” WADC “TRS6-MO, ASTIA Document No. AD ISI 099, Southem Research Insite, Sept 1957. As published in Structural Alloys Handbook. Wl I, CINDAS/Pandue Universi, 1994, p 2498/Alloy Steel (AS) Ccompreave agent menus, GPa Compresv angart macs, GPa oe a ot P ose ae ee aio as TO HS 2a ay os me ees 75°F (24 *0) 12060 220] . 1540 75°F (24°C) | 22 a 200 (93°C) sia I ° 1 sm ES TTS waren 120 0 a $2 ae i od “| 420 | = 1 tie 0 1 7 a ae i Compress tangent nous 10 pi Conpresive tanger mess, GPa Fee ee A a zo} Lyset aero) x0} 20°F 98°C) 100} —009 are.) Oy ose arc) san] ress ‘cal Ue “ | 7s ow 7 “Compre angnt mac, 108 pe 'AS.009 4130 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, compressive tangent modulus curves at room and ‘elevated temperatures ‘Test direction: longitudinal. Sheet thickness = 1.626 mm (0.064 in.). Families of curves for differen heat treatments. (a) 857 °C (1575 °F), oil quenched and tempered 538 °C (1000 °F); nominal strength = 1034 MPa (150 ksi). (b) 857 °C (1575 °F), oil ‘quenched and fempered 443 °C (830 °F); nominal strength = 1241 MPa (180 ksi). (e) 857 °C (1575 °F), oil quenched and tempered 399 °C (750 °F); nominal suength = 1379 MPa (200 ksi). Specimens were held at temperature for 0.5-100 Composition: Fe-0.3C-0.95C-0.2Mo. UNS G41300 Sours: HV. Melos an1R. Kits, “Determination f Tess, Compressive eag and Shear opr of Femous an Nop Feros Sita Sheet Ma at levstedFempenuies” WADC TRS0-0, ASTIA Docomett No AD I31 OS, Soutien Reve sta, Sep 1957 As publ in Aerospace Sct! Meta Handoot, a 1, Cae 1201, CINDASTUSAP CRDA Handtooks Operation Pare Univers. 1955, pdAlloy Steel (AS)/99 109 1 100 09°F 210-6) eo 00 i i 6 ae 7 {0 tai 00001 12 0 feeelee ee soy 100 «0 ~ sco 2 é ie}— a] « a0 al . ——|0 z+ rn ‘tin, 0001 inn, AS.010 4130 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, compressive stress-strain curves at various elevated temperatures Sheet thickness = 1.575 mm (0.062 in.). Heat treated for 862 MPa (125 ksi) nominal tensile strength, Strain rate = (0.01/imin, Composition of heat: Fe-0.30C-0.60Ma- 0.019P-0.034-1,05C1-0.20Mo. UNS G41300 Soucee: DE. Mil, “Determination of Tensile, Compresve hd [Bearing Properties of Ferous and Non-Frrous Structural Sheet ‘Materials t Elevated Temperatures,” WADC AFTR 6317, Pat [AD 142218, Amour Research Foundation, De 1957. As publish in Siructural Alloys Handbook, Vol 1, CINDASIPurdue Universi 199, pat AS.011 4130 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, compressive stress-strain curves at room and clevated temperatures ‘Test direction: transverse. Sheet thickness = 1.626 mm (0.064 in.), Heat treated to 862 MPa (125 ksi) nominal tensile strength, Strain rate = 0.01/min, Curve 1: Room temperature, modulus of elasticity = 205 GPa (29.8 x 10° psi). Curve 2: 204 °C (400 °F), modulus of elasticity 189 GPa (27-4 x 10° psi). Curve 3: 316 °C (600 °F), modulus of elasticity = 178 GPa (25.8 x 10° psi). Composition: Fe-0.30C-0.60Mn-0.019P-0.0348-1.05Cr- (0.20Mo. UNS G41300 Source: RJ. Favor, WP. Archhach, and WS. Hyle, "Material Proper Design Citi for Meus, Pat 7, The Coavetional Shor Time "levated Temperature Propertis of Selected Low ad MediunAlloy Stel" WADC TR 85-130, Pat 7, AD 142064, Oct 1957. As pais in Sacral Alloys Handbook. ol 1, CINDASIPurdue Usivesi, 1958, p34100/Alloy Steel (AS) 2100 0 Te san, “The ein, 2100 190 400 700 350 ‘AS.012 4140 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel bar, ‘monotonic and cyclic true stress-strain curves Heat treatment: austenitized 999 °C (1830 °F), Lh, oil quenched. Gage section size = 5.08 mm diam 7.62 mm Jong (0.2 in. diam x°0.3 in. long). Strain rate = 0.5/i Test condition: MT, monotonic tension; MC, monotonic compression; CT, yelic tension; CC, eyclic compression. Composition: Fe-0.4C- 1Cr-0.2Mo. UNS G41400 Source: PN. Thien, ME Fie, and R.A. Fouls, yeti Sess Sain Relations and Stain Conoled Fag o 140 Ste, Acta Metal, No124 (No 1), San 1996, 1-10. As published in Arespace Sire! etl Handbook Wl, Cade 125, CINDASUSAP CRDA andbooks Operation Pardue Unversi 1955,p 18 AS.013 4140 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel bar, ‘monotonic and cyclic true stress-strain curves Heat treatment: austenitized 999 °C (1830 °F), 1h, oil quenched, tempered 199 °C (390 °F), 1 h, water quenched, Gage section size = 5.08 mu diam x 7.62 mm_ long (0.2 in. diam x 0.3 in, long). Strain rate = 0.5/min. ‘Test condition: MT, monotonic tension; MC, monotonic compression; CT, cyclic tension; CC, cyclic compression. ‘Composition: Fe'0.4C-1Cr-0.2Me, UNS G41400 Source: PN. Thielen, ME Fine, and R.A. Fourolle, Cyclic Suess ‘Stain Relations and Stain-Contolle Fatigue of 140 Stee, Acta ‘Metal, Vol 24 (No.1). Jan 1976, p 1-10. As published in Aerospace Siruenal Metts Haniboot, Vo, Code 1203, CINDAS/USAP CRDA Handbooks Opeation, Pde Uivesty, 1998, p18Alloy Stee! (AS)/101 “Te ress kt “Tr ain, 00 300 2 3 To stan. “Te sees, MPa ‘AS.014 4140 chromium-motybdenum alloy steel bar, monotonic and cyclic true stress-strain curves Heat treatment: austenitized 999 °C (1830 °F), 1 h, oi ‘quenched, tempered 399 °C (750 °F), I h, water, ‘quenched. Gage section size = 5.08 mm diam x 7.62 mm Jong (0.2 in, diam x 0,3 in. long). Strain rate = 0.5/min. ‘Test condition: MT, monotonic tension; MC, monotonic ‘compression; CT, cyclic tension; CC, cyelic compression, ‘Composition: Fe-0.4C-1Cr-0.2Mo, UNS G4400 Source: PN. Thilen, ME Fine and R.A. Fourelle, Cyclic Stress Sin Relation and Stain-Contoled Fatigue of 4180 Stel, Act ‘Meual, Nol 24 (No. 1, Jan 1976, p 1-10. As published in Aerospace ‘Sorentral Metals Handbook, Vol, Code 1203, INDAS/USAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue University, 1995, p 18 ‘AS.015 4140 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel bar, monotonic and cyclic true stress-strain curves Heat treatment: austenitized 999 °C (1830 °F), 1 h, oil ‘quenched, tempered 649 °C (1200 °F), 1 h, water ‘quenched. Gage section size = 5.08 mm diam x 7.62 mm Jong (0.2 in. diam x 0.3 in. long). Strain rate = 0.5/min. ‘Test condition: MC, monotonic compression; CT, cyclic tension; CC, cyclic compression. Composition: Fe-0.4C- 1Cr-0.2Mo, UNS G41400 Source: PN. Thien, ME Fine, and R.A. Fourelle,Cyctie Sess ‘Sua Relations and Sain-Controlled Fatigue of 4140 Ste, Acta ‘Metall, Vol 24 (No, 1), Ja 1976, p 1-10. As published in Acrogpace ‘Siruniral Metals Handbook, Vo 1, Code 1203, CINDAS/USAF CRDA “Handbooks Operation, Pde University, 1995, 18102/Alloy Steel (AS) oe we ee wm sn fo a | “be 0 i ert | t—| Joo € I | i : —t 700 = ue i a ® | - “0 ‘azeuin Scns | ® ; 0 k | 3a as oe a 7 t= fa 100 & ‘ee, Ma 8 ‘Stan, 0.001 inn AS.016 4140 chromium-molybdenum alloy steel bar, true compressive stress-strain curve Specimens taken from hot-worked 97.15 mm (2.25 in.) «diam bar, test specimen 20 mm diam x 40 mm long, normalized and annealed. After compression of about 40%, specimens remachined to 14 mm diam x 21 mm long” The discontinuity of results was typical. True yield stress at 0.2% offset = 813 MPa (118 ksi); strain- hardening exponent n = 0.145. Composition: Fe-0.39C- 1,00C-0.82Mn-0,26Si-0.21Mo-0.025S-0.012P. UNS. Gs1400 Source: LD. Crawford, R.G. Dun, and 1H. Humphry, The Influence of Alloying Elements on the Cold Deformation of Stel, Source Book on Cold Forming, Atvsican Society fe Metals, 1975, p 142 AS.017 A286 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves (expanded range) at room and elevated temperatures Sheet thickness = 1.575 mm (0.062 in.). 0.51000 h exposure. Heat treated: 982 °C (1800 °F), I h, argon, oil quenched, 718 °C (1325 °F), 16 h, air cool. Composition: Fe-25Ni-15Cr-2Ti-1.SMn-1.3Mo-0.3V. UNS S66286 Source: JR, Kltus, LB Preston, and HLL, Lessle, “Determination of Tensile, Compressive, Bearing, and Shear Properties at Elevated Temperatures” WADC TR 58-368, Nov 1958 As polishod in Acropace Serucural Metals Handbook, Nol 2, Cod 160. CINDAS/USAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Pade Univesiy, 1995, p19Alloy Steel (AS)/103 ‘ss tl Engineering sess, MPa 1 20 fon erpanre 0} —)— woe | woraer-of \ a Timo 638°S) 7 | Tao 109 Y 4 ‘ |r AA a0 ea of = \— seo eof 1 : 0 | 7 a 30810 oe mimeo” sean tun 2500 0 2010 —_|— —__ | 00 1 : seo f =e rea es, MPa AS.018 A286 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves (full range) at room and elevated temperatures Sheet thickness = 1.575 mm (0.062 in.). Heat treated 982 °C (1800 °F), Ih, argon, oil quenched, 718 °C (1325 °F), 16 h air cool. Composition: Fe-25Ni-15Cr- 21 }-1.5Mn-1,3Mo-0.3V. UNS 866286 Source: LR. Kats, EB. Preston, an HLL, Les, "Determination of Tensile, Compressive, Bearing, sal Shear Popertics a lewated ‘Temperstres” WADC TR $8-368, Nov 1958. As published in Aerospace Sractiral Metals Handboot No 2, Code 1601, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue Universi, 1985, p19, AS.019 4330, 4340, 4350 nickel-chromium- ‘molybdenum alloy stee! hot-rolled plate, tensile engineering stress-strain curves ‘Test direction: long transverse. Specimen size = 625 mm_ diam x 38 mm long, austenitized in salt bath at 936 °C, 20 min, oil quenched. Tested as-quenched with Instron ‘machine with crosshead velocity of 8.5 mm/s, which corresponds to strain rate of 0.0033/s Source: M agli and G. Krauss, Defomation, Race, and “Mechanical Properties of Low Temperate Tempered Matesite in SAL 43xx Stes, Metall. Mater Tran, Vo 288 (No 2, Fob 1997, p 382104/Alloy Steel (AS) 2500 8.020 4330, 4340, 4350 nickel-chromium- molybdenum alloy steel hot-rolled plate, tensile engineering stress-strain curves ‘Test direction: Jong transverse. Specimen size = 6.25 ram diam x 38 mm long, austenitized in salt bath at 936 °C, 20 min, oil quenched, tempered 10h in 150 °C ol bath A Tested with Instron machine with crosshead velocity of| = 8.5 mm/s, which corresponds to strain rate of 0.0033/s 1500 i Soutce: M. Supliz en G, Krauss, Deformation, Fsctre and é Mechanic! Properties of Low-Temperature Tempered Martensie 2 im SAE-43xx Secs, Metall Mater Trans, ol 268 (No.2) i Fob 1997. p 3979 E 020 sf | ol | ° 5 70 6 7% Enghceng sain, % Fe AS.021 4330, 4340, 4350 nickel-chromium- molybdenum alloy steel hot-rolled plate, tensile engineering stress-strain curves Test direction: long transverse, Specimen size = 6.25 mm mony diam x 38 mm long, austenitized in salt bath at 936 °C, 20 min, oil quenched, tempered 10 h in 175 °C oil bath _ ‘ested with Instron machine with crosshead velocity of § soo 85 mins, which coresponds to stain rae of 0.00398 ‘ Source: M, Saez and G Krauss, Deformation, Fact and 8 Mechanical Properties of Low-Temperaare Tempered Martensite 2 in SAE 4Snx Steel, etal! Mater Tans, Val 28A (No 2), : Fe 1997, p79 E 1000 | 5 | s00 | i Eneinering sain, %Alloy Steel (AS)/105 o oS 20 Enginsting sain, 240 1660 200 4 —| 00 p= no eng ry +} 560 © @ 6 a ‘Sin, 0001 aun AS.022 4330, 4340, 4350 nickel-chromium- ‘molybdenum alloy steel hot-rolled plate, tensile engineering stress-strain curves “Test direction: long transverse. Specimen size = 6.25 mm diam x 38 mm long, austenitized in salt bath at 936 °C, 20 min, oil quenched, tempered 10 h in 200 °C oil bath, ‘Tested with Instron machine with crosshead velocity of 85 mmis, which corresponds to strain rate of 0.0033/s, Source: M. Saght and G. Krauss, Defoematio, Fracture and “Mechanical Propet of Low-Temperature Tempered Marensie in SAE 43xx Sets, Metall. Mater Trans, Vo. 2A (N02) Fob 1997, p379 AS.023 4335V nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel bar, compressive stress-strain curve Bar thickness = 31.75 mm (1.25 in.). Vanadium-modified ‘version of the standard 4335 steel. Austenitized 829 °C (1525 °F), 1h, oil quenched, room temperature, tempered 241 °C (465 °F), 2h, air cooled. Composition: Fe-0.35C- 1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.35Mo-0.2V, UNS K33517 ‘Source: B.C Jones, “Mateials--SAB 4335 (Modified) Stel 260,000 10 280.00 ps Heat Teatment~—Development of Process Conran Mechanical Proper fr" Convair Division General Dynaies, 28,021 1962. As published in Aerospace Structural Metals Handbook, Yel 1, Code 1205, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue University 1995, p 17106/Alloy Steel (AS) em tempera 1400 ‘058, kl 00 @16-0) 0 | sohres 0 LT _| Cale 20 ‘Stas, MPa 500 Stain, 0001 nn ‘ves, MPa AS.024 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves at room and elevated temperatures Heat treated: 829 °C (1525 °F), 10 min, air cooled, tempered 427 °C (800 °F), 1 h, to ultimate tensile strength = 1379 MPa (200 ksi). Composition; Fe-0.4C- 1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo, UNS G43400 Source: PJ. Hughes, LE. Inge, and S.B, Prose, “Tensile and Compressive Stress Stain Properies of Some High Strength Shee Alloys at Elevated Temperatures" NACA TN 3315, 1954 As published in Aerospace Srucural Metals Handbook. Vol |, Code 1206, CINDASTUSAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue University 1998, p28 ‘AS.025 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves Test direction: solid curves, transverse; dashed curves, longitudinal. Specimen size = 2.54 x 25.4 x 101.6 mm, (0.1.x 1 x4 in.) gage tempered at 177 °C (350 °F) Composition: Fe-0,4C-1,8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo, UNS 643400 Source: DP. Fizgibbon, “Semiannual Repo on Pressure Vesel Design Gtr” TR-59-0000-00714, Space Technology Laborstores Air Force Balistic Missile Division, June 1959, AD 617630, As published in Srucual Alloys Handbook Nol 1, CINDAS/Partve Universi 1954; p42Alloy Steel (AS)/107 Sess 2x00 780 —|100 ‘ess, MPa ‘88.026 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves ‘Test direction: solid curves, transverse; dashed curves, longitudinal. Specimen size = 2.54 x 25.4 x 101.6 mm. (0.1 1 x4 in.) gage tempered at 232 °C (450 °F). Composition: Fe-0.4C-1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo. UNS 643400 Source: DP. Fegibbon, “Semiannual Report on Pressure Vessel Design Ciera” TR-S9-0000-00714, Space Technology Laboratories, Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, June 1959, AD 607630. As published in Siena Alloys Handbook, Xe 1, CINDAS Pave Univers, 1984, p 2 AS.027 4340 1m-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves ‘Test direction: solid curves, transverse: dashed curves, longitudinal. Specimen size = 2.54 x 25.4 x 101.6 mm, (0.1 x 1 x4 in.) gage tempered at 371 °C (700 °F). ‘Composition: Fe-04C-1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo. UNS 643400 Source: DP. Fitzgibbon, “Semiannaat Repo on Pressure Vessel Design (Citerin.”TR-$9-0000-00714, Space Tecnology Laboratories, A Force Ballistic Missile Divisio, June 1989, AD 607630. As published in Siucural Alls Handbook. Vol 1, INDAS/Purdae University, 1954; p42108/Alloy Steel (AS) 150 a : 7 “seo I 321 °F (-196 "Ch 4 aaae ‘srs, Ma AS.028 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves ‘Test direction: solid curves, transverse; dashed curves, longitudinal. Specimen size = 2.54 25.4 x 101.6 mm. (0.1 x 1x4 in.) gage tempered at $10 °C (950 °F), ‘Composition: Fe-0,4C-1,8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo. UNS 643400 Source: DP. Fitzgibbon, “Semisnnual Report on Pressure Vesel Design (Cri TR-S9-0000-00714, Space Technology Laboratories, Ar Force Balisic Misile Division, Jone 1959, AD SOTO, Adaped fiom Sirucual Alloys Handbook, Vol 1, CINDAS Purdue Univers, 1984, pa ‘AS.029 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel bar, tensile stress-strain curves at room and ow temperatures Bar thickness = 25.4 mm (1 in.). Heat treated to ultimate tensile strength of 1862 MPa (270 ksi). Composition: Fe- (0.4C-1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo, UNS G43400 Source: “Design Properties as Affected by Cryenie Temperatures, Batlle Memoria Insite, DMIC Memorandum 81, an T961. As pub lshe ia Siructural Alls Handbook, ol 1, CINDAS Purdue University, 1998, p41Alloy Stee! (AS)/109 20 1400 [a eTet 40 - 1050 2 & °0 + e 8 7 2 See, 0001 mn T 82°F 481-0) 0 179 “0° 79-0) | a i Ream empete|4o9 i 09 8 & * 250 a | ‘0 a ‘tin, 0.00 nin, ‘AS.030 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel (all products), typical tensile stress-strain curves Heat treated to the levels indicated. Composition: Fe- O.AC-1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo. UNS G43400 Source: MILD, Des 1988, 2-40 AS.031 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel bar, tensile stress-strain curves at room and low ‘temperatures ‘Test direction: longitudinal. 0.5 h exposure. Ramberg- Osgood parameters: n(room temperature) = 7.0, n(-110 °F) = 8.2, n(-312 °F) = 8.9. Composition: Fe- 0.AC-1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo. UNS G43400 Source: MIL-HDBK-SH, Dec 1998, p20110/Alloy Steel (AS) ‘Compress argent modus, Pa ‘AS.032 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy zs) _—8__0_ws__o__s__214,,, steel bat, compressive stress-strain and compressive a tangent modulus curves Ramberg-Osgood parameters: n(room temperature) = 13. ‘Composition: Fe-0.4C-1.8Ni-0.8C1-0.25Mo, UNS 0] fm Gaston | Source: MIL-HDBK-SH, Dos 1998, p24 10 1050 5 £ i q 100) - | m8 | 50) 380 io Sti, 101i. ese sees pce eee ee a 6 eae ue oe Compressive tangent modus, 10° pl 20 1960 _AS.033 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel bar, compressive stress-strain curve ie lee Austeitized, oil quenched, tempered to ultimate tensile | strength of 1793 MPa (260 ksi). Tested at 24 °C (75 °F). ‘Composition: Fe-0.4C-1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo. UNS 7 | 643400 Soute: Mit: HDBK-SC, 1,18 Dec 1978 As publishes in Aernpace Srnctra MtlsHandat Yo 1, Cole 1206, CINDASTUSAF CRDA yi ‘+120 Handbooks Operation, Purdue University, 198, p21 = i i 8 2 0B #0] i ——|s00 « - 20 | oeuo, 15°F 24°C) 30°F 006) st + — aaa Faso 6) 72°F 300°C) 700 Shes, MPa uo 160 a 40} — - 080 ‘302° (00°C) 482/F (250°C) 120] 40 Ee (50°C) 100 - 700 572 (900°C) € T £ 0 3 « = 20 2 0 % 2 a © * e Alloy Steel (AS)/111 ‘AS.034 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel tube, tensile stress-strain curves at room and elevated temperatures Tube size = $7.15 mm OD x 22.275 mm ID (2.25 in OD x 0.875 in. ID). Hot rolled, air cooled, tempered at '538 °C (1000 °F), air cooled. Composition: Fe-0.4C- 1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo, UNS G43400 Source: ‘Propenies of High Srength Low-Alloy Stel at Sih Elevated Temperatures” Timken Co, Resume of Invesigaons on Stel for High-Temperature High-Pressure Aplications, 1960-1962, 'As published in Aerspace Structural Metals Handbook. Vol, Code 1206, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Prdu Univesity, 1995, p29 ‘AS.035 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel tube, tensile stress-strain curves at room and elevated temperatures ‘Tube size = 57.15 mm OD x 22.275 mm ID (2.25 in, (OD x 0.875 in. ID). Heat treatment 843 °C (1550 °F), oil quenched, tempered at 566 °C (1050 °F), ait cooled. ‘Composition: Fe-0.4C- ,8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo, UNS 643400 Source: “Properties of High Strength Low-Alloy Stel at Sihly levted Tesperatures” Taken Co, Resune of Investigaogs ot Stel for High-Temperature High-Pressure Applications, 1960-1962. ‘As published in Aerospace Structural Metals Handbook. Vo 1, Code 12, CINDAS/USAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue Univesity, 1995, p29112/Alloy Steel (AS) 080 | \— 000 1 | & i i 8 I § 0 — 420 2 || | 210 * aos 00s or ate oo oak Stain, nd, 20 +020 | Room temperature 200 ‘400 ‘00 (04) 6 27 *C)-| 40 g & aa0 (8G) ‘AS.036 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel tube, tensile stress-strain curves (full range) at elevated temperature Tube size = $7.15 mm OD x 22.275 mm ID (2.25 in, OD x 0.875 in. ID). Comparison at 350 °C (662 °F) test temperature, Curve 1: hot rolled, air cooled, tempered 538 °C (1000 °F), air cooled. Curve 2: 843 °C (1550 °F), ‘il quenched, tempered 566 °C (1050 °F), air cooled, ‘Composition: Fe-0.4C-1.8Ni-0.8Cr-0.25Mo. UNS 643400 Source: "Popenies of High-Strength Low-Alloy Stels a Shighily levated Temperate” Titken Co, Resume of lavestgations on Stel foe High-Temperature High-Pressre Applications, 1960-1962. ‘As published in Aernpace Sretural Metals Handbook, Vol 1 Code 120, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdve University 1998, p29 AS.037 4340 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, compressive stress-strain curves at room and elevated temperatures Sheet thickness = 1.626 mm (0.064 in.). Heat treated: 829 °C (1525 °F), 10 min, air cooled, tempered 427 °C (800 °F), 1 h, to ultimate tensile strength of 1379 MPa (200 ksi). Composition: Fe-04C-1.8Ni-D.8C-0.25Mo, UNS G43400 Source: PJ, Hughes, 1E. Inge, and S.B. Prosser, "Tensile and Compresie Sizes Strain Properties of Some High Sueath Sheet, Alloys at Elevated Temperatires,” NACA TN 3318, 1954s plished in Aerospace Srucraal Metals Handbon, Volt, Cade 1208, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdoe Univesity 1095, p22Alloy Steel (AS)/113 ‘tess kl 20 +00 20 |_— 500+ 200°) | — 220 F840) 000 °F (50 0 : 220 : 100 4 9 Sin 0001 nin 0 apn erpere —— 700 [a0 aoHO) 60016") ‘800 *F (427 "CY 20 | 00 +s) —| 20 SF ao F's) z 4 = ‘KS.038 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel (all products), typical tensile stress-strain curves at elevated temperatures Heat treated to ultimate tensile strength of 862 MPa (125 ksi) 0.5 h exposure. Ramberg-Osgood parameters: 1n(500 °F) = 9.0, n(850 °F) = 19, n(1000 °F) = 4.4. Composition: Fe-0.3C-0.55Ni-0.5Cr-0,25Mo, UNS 686300 Source: MIL-HDBK-SH, Dec 1958, p 2-31 ‘AS.039 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves at room and. elevated temperatures Sheet thickness = 1.626 mm (0.064 in.). Quenched and tempered to ultimate tensile strength of 862 MPa (125 ksi) (at room temperature). Composition: Fe-0.3C-0.55Ni: 0.5Cr-0.25Mo. UNS G86300 Source: D.D. Door, “Determination of Physical Properties of Ferrous and Noa Ferrous Srctral Sheet Materia at Elevated Terperatres" \WADC AP TR 6817, 2, Armour Research Foundation, Apa 1984. As bls in Acrspace Structural Metals Handbook. Voi 1, Code 1208, CINDAS/USAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue Univer 1985, p14114/Alloy Steel (AS) —- ‘120 AS.040 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, tensile stress-strain curves at room and 0 F 04) ee L 7 elevated temperatures Sheet thickness = 1.626 mm (0.064 in). Quenched and ae 1400 tempering temperatures 160 eee 120 ‘Test direction: longitudinal. Sheet thickness = 1.575 mm ao eee el (0.062 in.) Heat treatment: 857 °C (1575 °F), oil ‘00 T + 1120, quenched, tempered at indicated temperature, lowest aS eave normalized as indicated. Composition: Fe-0.3C- 10) L T 380 0.55Ni-0.5Cr-0.25Mo. UNS G86300 2 xz slew $ Source: LR acon and N.A, Cries, ‘Developnent of Mechanical ¢ | [rar are = ropes norman on Carbon a Alloy Slat VreusSeength Het oo $ Level” Bal emorl inset Report © AISA, 1 Feb 1951s baal t | a published in Aerospace Structural Metals Handbook, Vol 1, Code 1208, E I i CCINDAS/USAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue Universi, 7 fi re rin 195,99 Tamale 600 (71°0) eof — 0 40) j - t 280 |__| ata 08 08 408 21a ‘ei, %Alloy Steel (AS)/115 ‘ss fal ‘sre, 109 1120 AS.042 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel bar, tensile stress-strain curves for various soo tempering temperatures ToHa 5S} Bar diameter = 25.4 mm (1 in). Heat treatment: 857" | Tuq 1595 °F), oil quenched, tempered at indicated temperature, lowest curve normalized as indicated Composition: Fe-0.3C-0.55Ni-0 5Ci-0.25Mo, UNS Timer —t——|rmo 86300 Ge ee seo q _Froyris frm om Coton a Aly Sse st is Sngth FSR SSSChesamcm po ais 0A Rea 000° (71S) blithe in Aerapace Sacral Met Handboo. WT Code 128, i 20 CINDASAISAF CRDA Handouts Operation, Prd Univ, 9808 —| 20 alt | : 1 1 0 6 a4 08 ee 18 ta 14 a8 soa. 100 . 12 AS.043 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy [ steel bar, compressive stress-strain Curves for v ; [| | | pt temperig temperatures 0 FES sve ere) Bar diameter = 25.4 mm (1 in.). Heat treatment: 857 °C i=l — eu (1375 "F), il quenched, tempered at indicated temperate, lowest curve normalized as indicated Too ee) Composition: F-0.3C-0.55N-0.5Cr-0.25Mo. UNS soy t—- 636300 source: LR Jctson and N.A, Cites, “Development of Meshal jt sco % —_Prprislforston on Caton an Alo Sse a ans Sgt 7 T ‘Nomatzed 1600 (870°C) i “Levels” Battelle Memorial lnstitte Report to AISA, 1 Feb 1951, As hiss in eer Srl Met Hand oI Code 198, ‘ Jao CINDASRISAF-CRDA Handbooks Operation, Pur Vivant, aS p 12 » 10 oes oa gsoa te ca aon me oemiataeraaa) ‘ran. %116/Alloy Steel (AS) 160 1120 AS.044 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy | 4 steel casting, monotonic and cyclic stress-strain 0 eon curves at room temperature (a) and ~46 °C (50 °F) (b) cae jc ‘Heat treatment: Normalized 900 °C (1652 °F). | austeniized 885 °C (1625 “F), water quenched, tempered z 510 °C (50 *), 1.5 h, Solid curve, monotonic loading: dashed curves, cyclic loading. Composition: Fe-0.3C- {0'55Ni-0.5Cr-0.25Mo, UNS 113042, UNS J13050 Souce: RL Stephens, LH, Chang, A. Fate HW. Lee SG. Les, Vaca Ols, and CM. Wang, Conan an Vale Ampie Feige hair Fne Cat Sts ot Room Tempers #5 1g. Mater Tet. Vl 1088 Jn 984 p 25-57 hs po inten espace Sica! Mes Handook. lh Cx 0, GINDASMISAP CRDA Hantooks Operon, Pade 188 pt “ 10 “0 os te a ee 100 < 700 z é fe "| «| 2s *” 0 =| 0 ° ea ait © Stan «0.001Alloy Steel (AS)/117 200 10 ‘res, (1979 MP} ol TOO (7241 Ma evel 60 ai(1054 Payee Ta zNP aN 00 1080 Comprestiv tangent mots, 0p) é 700 Tommaized i L rr ene ‘St, 0.00 ni, eae ag, | esis cd om 1251 (662 MPa vet \ £ — rg [-—~ 350 — —~ A 58a ‘AS.045 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel (all products), typical stress-strain curves for various heat treatments ‘Curves for heat treatments to various strength levels. Composition: Fe-0,3C-0,5SNi-0.5Cr-0.25Mo. UNS 86300 Source: MILHDBK:SH, Dec 1998, p 230 AS.046 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel (all products), typical compressive tangent modulus curves at room temperature for various heat treatments Heat treatments indicated by ultimate strength levels. Composition: Fe-0.3C-0.55Ni-0.5Cr-0.25Mo. UNS. 86300 Source: MILHDBK-SH, Dec 1988, p 2-31118/Alloy Steel (AS) 109 0 -F 18°00 00 «ery 7 008 i s010-F 96-0) 5 oo +20 © —- ——|100 4 6 3 sin. 001 mn ry ; - 1280 Root enpentine sof 120 + 16-3 ua] oe 0 29°F ant) on 2 10 4 i § | —— 0 | ___}yao 0 4 . °° ‘AS.047 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, compressive stress-strain curves at room and elevated temperatures Sheet thickness = 1.626 mm (0.064 in.). Heat treatment: quenched and tempered to room temperature ultimate tensile strength of 827 MPa (120 ksi). Composition: Fe- 0.3C-0.55Ni-0.5Cr-0.25Mo. UNS G86300 Souece: D.D. Dore, “Determination of Physical Propet of Ferrous and Non Ferrous Strata Sheet Materials t Elevated Temperatures” WADC AF TR 6517, Pt2, Armour Research Foundation, Apel 19S. As Published in Aerospace Structural Metals Handbook, ol 1, Code 1208, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue Univers, 1995, p13 ‘AS.048 8630 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel sheet, compressive stress-strain curves at room and elevated temperatures Sheet thickness = 1.626 mm (0.064 in.). Heat treatment: quenched and tempered to room temperature ultimate tensile strength of 1102 MPa (160 ksi). Composition: Fe- 0,3C-0,55Ni-0.5Cr-0.25Mo, UNS G86300 Source: D.D. Boer, “Determination of Piel Properties of Ferrous tn Non- Ferris Stoctral Sheet Movers t Elevated Tempertres” WADC AF TR 6517, U2, Armour Research Foundation, Apel 1988. As published in Aerospace Siucural Metals Handbook, Vol 1, Code 1208, CINDAS/USAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue University, 1985,» 16,2000 3 Toe sess, MPa 3 g 200 “ue aves, MPa g 03 0s Te sin % Alloy Steel (AS)/119 AS.049 9310 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel gears, true plastic stress-strain curves ‘Uncarburized 9310 at 230 °C after quenching from 900 °C. 0.2% yield strength = 1000 MPa. Work- hardening rate, n = 0.17. Composition prior to carburizing: Fe-.11C-3.40Ni-1.26Cr-0.13Mo-0.56Mn- (0.26Si-0.04A1-0.03Cu-0.018. UNS G93106 Source: UJ, De Soura and MF. Amatea, Deforntion of Metastable Anite and Resulting Properties During the Ausfonn Finishing of {pt Caburized AISL 9310 Steel Gras, Metal Mater Tran. {VoL 308 (No 1), Jan 199, p 186 S.050 9310 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel gears, compressive true plastic stress-strain Compressive flow properties of metastable austenite at 230°C in 1% carburized steel. Strain rate = 0.005/s. Steep and continuous increase in flow stress is sign of high work-hardening rates (n). Type A, n = 0:56; type B, n= 0.55. Type A specimen 10 mm diam x 2.2.mm thick (0.4 in, diam x 0,086 in. thick), vacuum carburized to 1.06 wi% C. Type B stacked disks 10 mm diam x 15 mm high (0.4 in, diam x 046 in, high), carburized in atmosphere to 1.1 wt% prior to stacking. Composition prior to carburizing: Fe-0.11C-3.40Ni-1.26C1-0.13Mo- 0.56MIn-0.26Si-0.044\-0.03Cu-0.018. UNS G93106 Source: UJ. De Sowa and MLE Amateat, Deformation of Metastable Atstente and Resling Proenies During the Ausfom. ishing of 1pet Cubed AIST 9510 Size Gea, Metall Mater Trans. {el 30A (No.1), Jan 1999, p 186120/Alloy Steel (AS) ~ al! Js 7 = ce] True sess. MPa g a 0 oe aS Te ein 020035 O30 AS.051 9310 nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy steel gears, compressive true plastic stress-strain curves Compressive flow properties of metastable austenite in 1 carburized steel (type A). Type A specimen 10 mm, diam x 2.2 mm thick (0.4 in. diam x 0.086 in. thick), ‘vacuum carburized to 1,06 wi% C. Samples were ausformed at different temperatures with the foll 0.2% yield strengths: curve 1, 85 °C, 425 MPa; curve 2, 110 °C, 425 MPa; curve 3, 160°C, 431 MPa; curve 4, 232 °C, 327 MPa. UNS G93106 Source: UJ. De Souza and MLE Amutean, Deformation of Metastable ‘Ausente and Resuling Properties During the Austorm: Finishing of ‘pct Curbusized AISI 9910 Stel Gets, Metal Mater Tran. ‘Vo 308 (No.1), Jan 1998, p 189Alloy Steel (AS)/121 00» 209 s00n « . ‘tain, 0001 inn ® ‘Senin, 0001 inn 560 420 420 AS.052 HNM nickel alloy steel sheet, isochronous stress-strain curves at 482 °C (900 °F) (a) and 649 “ (1200 °F) (b) Solution treated 2050 °F, 15 min, oil quenched, aged 732.°C (1350 °F), 15 h. Composition: Fe-0.3C-9.5Ni- 185Cr3.5Mn Source: “Crucible HINM,” Preliminary Data Shet, Crucible Ste Co Tnsue No 2, June 1960. As published in Aerospace Structural Metals Handbook, Wl 2, Cade 1509, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Handbooks (Operation, Purdbe University.» 3122/Allloy Steel (AS) AS.053 HY-TUF nickel alloy stee! plate, tensile stress-strain curves at room and elevated ‘temperatures i ana tig Plate thickness = 6.35 mm (0.25 in.) Silicon-modified steel treated 871 °C (1600 °F), 25 min, oil quenched, 316_°C (600 °F), 0.5 to ultimate tensile strength of | $0 “F 46-6) 1517 MPa (220 ksi). Composition: Fe-0,25C-1.8N i LL 1.3Mn-0.4Mo, UNS K32550 oom tomportire SSi- Source: PJ. Hughes, JE. Inge, and S.B, Prose, “Tensile ant Compressive Stress Strain Properties of Some High-Strength Shet Alloys at Elevated Temperatures” NACA TH 3315, Nov 1984. As pub- | lished in Aerospace Srucaval Metals Handbvok. Vl 1, Code 1214, CCINDASIUSAF CRDA Handsoots Operation, Pure Lives, 195,97 Stain, 0.001 itn 240 1680 _AS.054 HY-TUF nickel alloy steel plate, compressive stress-strain curves at room and elevated ‘temperatures 1400 Plate thickness = 6.35 mm (0.25 in.) Silicon-modified 04) steel treated 871 °C (1600 °F), 25 min, oil quenched, 316 °C (600 °F), 0.5 h to ultimate tensile strength of +60} — <0 16-0} 1120 1517 MPa (220 ksi). Composition: Fe-0.25C-1.8Ni-1.5Si- 1.3Mn.0.4Mo, UNS K32550 a0 F270) Source: Pl Hughes, 1. Inge, and SB, Prose, “Tensile at a] ——| 0 (Compressive Stress Strain Properties of Some High-Srength Sheet g $B sttys a teats Termperaures” NACA TN 315, Nov 1954, As pub- & bod in Aerupace Struc! Metals Handbook, Va 1, Cade 124, CINDASUSAF CRDA Hsndhooks Operation, Pure Units. Fo) 580 1995, 98 tess. . 2a 58 0 18Alloy Steel (AS)/123 Engineering rose, ks 240 ri 200 || 00 160] t 7 1120 120} + 0 § ry —|- 200 — + 6 5 ‘Sain, 0001 nin, 00 ——— 700 | 420 r | | e i | E 20 40 Srain AS.035 HY-TUF nickel alloy steel tube, tensile stress- strain curves at room and elevated temperatures ‘Tube diameter = 53.975 mm (2.125 in.). Hollow section with a diameter-to-thickness ratio of 5 to 40. Ultimate tensile strength of 1496-1703 MPa (217-247 ksi). Data based on 30 tests. UNS K32550. ‘Source “Suet Strain Curves for High Scength Alloy Ste” Rep. [No. 732, The Cleveland Pneumatic Tool Ca 25 Feb 1958. As published fn Aerospace Siactural Metals Handbook, Vol 1, Code 1214, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Handbooks Operation, Purdue University, 1985, p4 ‘AS.056 Incoloy 803 annealed nickel alloy steel sheet 3 mm (0.118 in.) longitudinal engineering stress- strain curve (full range) 0.2% yield strength, 324 MPa (47.0 ksi; ultimate tensile strength, 614 MPa (89.1 ksi; elongation, 45.7%. Composition: 37Fe-35Ni-27Cr Source: Courtesy of Special Meals Coporation124/Alloy Steel (AS) Engineering sess, ksi 8 3g Englnoerng sve, kl 5 Engineering sass, MP 3a 025 08 ‘AS.057 Incoloy 803 annealed nickel alloy steel sheet 3 mm (0.118 in.) longitudinal engineering stress- strain curve (expanded range) 0.2% yield strengtn, 301 MPa (43.7 ksi: ultimate tensile strength, 614 MPa (89.1 ksi); elongation, 46.4% Composition: 37Fe-35Ni-27Cr Source: Contes of Special Metals Corporation ‘AS.058 Incoloy 840 annealed nickel alloy steel sheet 0.51 mm (0.020 in.) longitudinal engineering stress- strain curve (full range) (0.2% yield strength, 197 MPa (28.6 ksi ultimate tensile strength, 552 MPa (80.1 ksi); elongation 40.5%: n, 0.371 Composition: 5$8Fe-21Ni-19Cr0.8Si-0.03C Source: Courtesy of Special Meals CorporationAlloy Steel (AS)/125 Engineering eee kal Engineering ese, 248 AS,059 Incoloy 840 annealed nickel alloy steel sheet | tudinal engineering stress- strain curve (expanded range) Soa 0.0% yield strength, 201 MPa (29:2 ks ulimate tensile strength, 563 MPa (81.6 ksi; elongation, 38.8%. ae ars Composition: 58Fe-21Ni-19Cr-0.85-0.03C § Swe Cy ofS Mets Cperton : 4 ——|u0 g : 1 2 a aor bade aes’ 700 AS.060 Incoloy A286 annealed nickel alloy steel sheet 1 mm (0.039 in.) longitudinal engineering ] stress-strain curve (full range) | | Iron-base superalloy. 0.2% yield strength, 283 MPa j S60 1.1 ksi); ultimate tensile strength, 652 MPa (94.5 ksi); elongation, 37.8%. Composition: Fe-25.SNi-14.25Cr- | zg (1.25Mo | 20 = Sous Coury of pei Mess Corton | . | | i {| | | Fr | 05 aor om 025 aad Stain126/Alloy Steel (AS) 0; 9 _AS.061 incotoy A286 annealed nickel alloy steel! sheet 1 mm (0.039 in.) longitudinal engineering | stress-strain curve (expanded range) 7 zx _ on-base superalloy. 0.2% yield strength, 288 MPa GALT ksi; ultimate tensile strength, 644 MPa (93.4 ksi); elongation 36.5%. Composition: Fe-25,SNi-14.25Cr- . g 125Mo { 0 em Soure: Courtesy of Special Metals Corporation | Hi . if vol ‘0 0 ° Toi 004 0006 0008 oof 100 ~ : 700 8.062 Incoloy 864 annealed nickel alloy steel 0.41 ] ‘mm (0.016 in.) sheet longitudinal engineering stress- strain curve (full range) — (0.2% yield strength, 259 MPa (37.6 ksi); ulimate tensile rae fas strength, 658 MPa (95.5 ksi; elongation, 43.6% n, (0.4435. Composition: 39Fe-21Cr-34Ni-4.2Mo . | Source: County of Speci! Meals Corporation 4 «20 e° 7 eels g | | £ i 200 & a 008 010 0 020 oeAlloy Steel (AS)/127 Engineer sv0ss, kt ctv sirens, MPa 0 005 Baie 350 200 Ensen sess MPa sob — AS.063 Incoloy 864 annealed nickel alloy steel 0.41 ‘mm (0.016 in.) sheet longitudinal engineering stress- strain expanded range 0.2% yield strength, 262 MPa (38.0 ksi); ultimate tensile strength, 652 MPa (94.5 ksi); clongation 43.6%. ‘Composition: 39Fe-21Cr-34Ni-4.2Mo Source: Coaesy of Special Metals Corporation AS.064 3.3% silicon alloy steel, von Mises effective stress-strain curves Strain rate = 6.5/5. Tested at 700 °C (1290 °F), Stess- strain curves for solid torsion specimens of 3.3% Si steel showing effect of gage length to diameter ratio (Lid) on flow stress at high strain rates when adiabatic heating Cecurs. The flow curves are in terms of von Mises effective stressstrain (G — 8), defined by = V3t, and @ =1'/-V3 where tT is the shear-stress/shear- strain curve obtained in torsion testing. In both solid bars and tubular specimens, the gage ength-to-diameter ratio may have a marked effect on the actual specimen temperature during moderate-speed T'= 107 to 10 s* torsion tests because ofthe effects of heat conduction Because ofthis, flow curves derived from data obtained at these rates tend to show a dependence on the length-to- diameter ratio (Ld). Flow curves for large Ld specimens tend to fll below those for small id ratio, in which ‘most ofthe deformation heat is dissipated into the shoulders. Interpretation of fracture strain data from such tests should take into account not only the nominal Gnitial) test temperature, but also the temperature history during the test. Source: H.A Kaa, Shear, Torso, sl Muna Teng, Mechanical Tang and Bulut, WB ASH Handbook ASM tatoos 2000, p91High-Strength Steel (HS)/129 High-Strength Steel (HS) 0 = 0 HS.001 Various HSLA and A36 stee! high-strength co | low-alloy (HSLA) steel, stress-strain curves | 7 Comparison of stress stain curves fr alloys with iT : specified minimum values, Curve I Tl, El ype A. Tl {ype Bs minimum yield suength (MYS) = 689 MPa (100 hice TT 700 ksi). Curve 2: CON-PAC; MYS = 551 MPa (80 ksi). 4 Curve 3: EX-TEN 60; MYS = 413 MPa (60 ki) Carve 4 COR-TEN, TRI-TEN, EX-TEN 50: MYS = S45 MPs (G0 ksi) Curve 5: EX-TEN 42; MYS = 289 MPa (42 si), Curve 6: ASTM A36, MYS = 248 MPa (36 si. Modulus of elasticity = 200 GPa (29 x 10° psi) Source: Tigh Steneh Low- Ally Ses US, Sed Ot 1971, AS pooled in Smet! Aly Hands Vol Batele Clotoc Eiri 1980 3 > 0 bas 810 018 020 025 090: % 1 0 1.002 A242 high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel | [ [| +t sheet, stress-strain curve (complete range) x + 400 USS COR-TEN A sheet. Composition: Fe-0,09C- | 0.37Mn-0.088P. UNS K11510 a 2 Source: EA. Doles, “Iesigaion of Low Allo. High Suength test. tt Mii Fel Tink” Rep BLR 5-56, Ball Aira March 1983 * Unies. 199%, p6 | 70 ‘0 . . 0 ot130/High-Strength Steel (HS) —4175 5 7 1 7 }— 108 7 ,| | 1 % 1 2 2 4 e° Sn 001 ini. ‘o 700 } é 5 i Pa } 0 ao a0 aes ak 115.003 A242 high-strength low alloy (HSLAY steel sheet, stress-strain curves (expanded range) USS COR-TEN A sheet. Sheet thickness = 1.778 mm_ (0.070 in.). Composition: Fe-0,09C-0.37Mn-0.088P. UNS K1IS10 Source: EA. Dolega, "Investigation of Low Alloy, High Strength Steel asa MisleFusl Tak” Report BLR 33-56, Bll Aca, March 1953, ‘As published in Souctural Alloys Handboot, Vo 3, CINDASTPurdue University, 1998, p 6 HS.004 Fe-5Ni-Cr-Mo-V high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel plate, stress-strain curve Plate thickness 50 mm (2 in.). Heat treatment: 899 °C (1650 °F), 1 h, water quenched, 816 °C (1500 °F), I hy water quenched, 566 °C (1050 °F), 2 h, water quenched. ‘Tensile yield strength = 944 MPa (137 ksi; elastic modulus = 203 GPa (29.5 x 10® psi). Composition: Fe- 0.11C-SNi-0.55Cr-0.47Mo-0.07V Source: LE Porter ea “The Development of an HY 130(T) Steet ‘Weldiment” Report 39.048-001, NOBS #8540, US. Steel Applied Research Laboratory, I July 1986. As published i Aerospace Structural “Metals Handbook, Vol 1, Code 1216, CINDASIUSAF CRDA Hind books Operation, Purdue University 1995, p 21Strength Steel (HS)/131 [—[- = \A HS.005 Microalloyed high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel, compressive true stress-true plastic strain curves at different strain rates Hor rolled. Thermomechanical processing typically includes rough rolling, 1100-1240 °C (2012-2264 °F), and finish rolling, 810-900 °C (1490-1652 °F), fast cooling to 700 °C (1292 °F), and air cooling. (2) Tested at 900 °C. (b) At 1200 °C. Composition: Fe-0,08C-1.3Mn- (0.3Si-0.2Ni-0.08V-0,05Nb-0.015P-0.008S Source: N'S. Misha in Hor Working Gude A Compendium of Processing Maps, YAR Prasad and S Siar, a, ASM Inter rations 1997. p 337

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