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CHAPTER 7
7.1 Introduction
The process of (electronic) communication becomes quite challenging
because of the unwanted electrical signals in a communications system. These
undesirable signals, usually termed as noise, are random in nature and interfere
with the message signals. The receiver input, in general, consists of (message)
signal plus noise, possibly with comparable power levels. The purpose of the
receiver is to produce the desired signal with a signal-to-noise ratio that is above
a specified value.
7.1
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N0
. We treat
2
SSB, we take the filter passband either between fc W and fc (LSB) or fc and
fc + W (USB). (The transmission bandwidth BT is 2 W for the double sideband
modulation schemes whereas it is W for the case of SSB). Also, in the present
context, fc represents the carrier frequency measured at the mixer output; that is
fc = fIF .
7.2
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N0
over the passband of Heq ( f ) . (As Heq ( f ) is
2
7.2.2 Figure-of-merit
The performance of analog communication systems are measured in
terms of Signal-to-Noise Ratio ( SNR ) . The SNR measure is meaningful and
unambiguous provided the signal and noise are additive at the point of
measurement. We shall define two ( SNR ) quantities, namely, (i) ( SNR )0 and
(ii) ( SNR )r .
(SNR )0
(7.1)
(SNR )r
=
Average noise power in the message
(7.2)
The quantity, ( SNR )r can be viewed as the output signal-to-noise ratio which
results from baseband or direct transmission of the message without any
modulation as shown in Fig. 7.2. Here, m ( t ) is the baseband message signal
with the same power as the modulated wave. For the purpose of comparing
different modulation systems, we use the Figure-of-Merit ( FOM ) defined as,
7.3
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FOM =
(SNR )0
(SNR )r
(7.3)
xc ( t ) cos ( c t ) xs ( t ) sin ( c t )
x (t ) =
A ( t ) cos c t + ( t )
( 7.4a )
( 7.4b )
envelope A ( t ) and the phase ( t ) are given by Eq. 1.56. In this chapter, we will
analyze the performance of a coherent detector, envelope detector, phase
detector and a frequency detector when signals such as x ( t ) are given as input.
The outputs of the (idealized) detectors can be expressed mathematically in
terms of the quantities involved in Eq. 7.4. These are listed below. (Table 7.1)
7.4
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i)
Coherent detector
xc ( t )
ii)
Envelope detector
A (t )
(t )
1 d (t )
2 d t
x ( t ) could be used to represent any of the four types of linear modulated signals
or any one of the two types of angle modulated signals. In fact, x ( t ) could even
represent (signal + noise) quantity, as will be seen in the sequel.
Table 7.2 gives the quantities xc ( t ) , xs ( t ) , A ( t ) and ( t ) for the linear
and angle modulated signals of Chapter 4 and 5.
7.5
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DSB-SC
Ac m ( t ) cos ( c t )
xc (t )
x s (t )
A (t )
(t )
Ac m ( t )
zero
Ac m ( t )
Ac [1 + g m m ( t )]
zero
Ac [1 + g m m ( t )]
0, m ( t ) > 0
, m (t ) < 0
DSB-LC (AM)
Ac [1+ g m m ( t )] cos ( c t ) ,
zero
Ac [1 + g m m ( t )] 0
SSB
Ac
m ( t ) cos ( c t )
2
A l
c m
( t ) sin ( c t )
2
4
Ac m ( t )
2
(t )
Ac m
Ac
l (t )
(t ) + m
tan
(t )
m
m (t )
Phase modulation
Ac cos [ c t + ( t )] ,
Ac cos ( t )
Ac sin ( t )
Ac
Ac cos ( t )
Ac sin ( t )
Ac
kp m (t )
(t ) = kp m (t )
5
Frequency modulation
Ac cos [ c t + ( t )] ,
( t ) = 2 kf
m ( ) d
2 kf
m ( ) d
Example 7.1
From Table 7.1, we find that an ideal frequency detector output will be
proportional to
1 d (t )
. For the DSB-SC signal,
2 d t
7.6
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0 , m ( t ) > 0
(t ) =
, m ( t ) < 0
7.7
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Example 7.2
Let m ( t ) =
1
1 + t2
signal. Assuming that s ( t ) is the input to an ideal ED, let us find the expression
for its output v ( t ) .
1
1 + t2
1
l ( t ) 2 2 , we have
As the envelope of s ( t ) is m ( t ) + m
v (t ) =
1
1 + t2
7.8
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(7.5a)
Ac2
SM ( f fc ) + SM ( f + fc )
=
4
(7.5b)
PM =
SM ( f ) d f =
A2
Then, Ss ( f ) d f = 2 c
4
SM ( f ) d f
fc + W
SM ( f fc ) d f =
fc W
Ac2 PM
.
2
Ac2 PM
. With the (two
2
N0
, the average noise power in the
2
N0
= W N0 . Hence,
2
Ac2 PM
( SNR )
=
r DSB SC
2 W N0
(7.6)
7.9
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Assuming that the local oscillator output is cos ( c t ) , the output v ( t ) of the
multiplier in the detector (Fig. 7.4) is given by
v (t ) =
1
1
1
Ac m ( t ) + nc ( t ) + Ac m ( t ) + nc ( t ) cos ( 2 c t )
2
2
2
1
Ac ns ( t ) sin ( 2 c t )
2
y (t ) =
1
1
Ac m ( t ) + nc ( t )
2
2
(7.7)
Signal and noise which are additive at the input to the detector are additive
even at the output of the detector
ii)
iii)
If the noise spectral density is flat at the detector input over the passband
( fc
( W , W ) ,
at the
W .)
1
As the message component at the output is Ac m ( t ) , the average
2
A2
message power at the output is c PM . As the spectral density of the in-phase
4
W N0
1
. Therefore,
( 2 W N0 ) =
4
2
( SNR )
0 DSB SC
( A 4) P
=
2
c
(W N0 )
7.10
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Ac2 PM
2W N0
(7.8)
[FOM ]DSB SC
(SNR )0
(SNR )r
=1
(7.9)
7.3.2 SSB
Assuming that LSB has been transmitted, we can write s ( t ) as follows:
s (t ) =
Ac
A l
m ( t ) cos ( c t ) + c m
( t ) sin ( c t )
2
2
S (t ) =
Ac
A l
M ( t ) cos ( c t ) + c M
( t ) sin ( c t ) .
2
2
power, Rs ( 0 ) =
and
(SNR )r
Ac2
PM
4
Ac2 PM
=
4W N0
(7.10)
1
1
Ac m ( t ) + nc ( t )
4
2
Ac2 PM
and the output noise power as
16
1
4 W N0 . Thus, we obtain,
7.11
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(SNR )0,SSB =
Ac2 PM
4
W N0
16
Ac2 PM
=
4W N0
(7.11)
( FOM )SSB
=1
(7.12)
From Eq. 7.9 and 7.12, we find that under synchronous detection, SNR
performance of DSB-SC and SSB are identical, when both the systems operate
with the same signal-to-noise ratio at the input of their detectors.
In arriving at the RHS of Eq. 7.11, we have used the narrowband noise
description with respect to fc . We can arrive at the same result, if the noise
W
. Hence
Then the average signal power in s ( t ) =
2
(SNR )r , DSB LC
2
Ac2 1 + gm
PM
2W N0
7.12
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(7.13)
Principles of Communication
(7.14)
The various components of Eq. 7.14 are shown as phasors in Fig. 7.5. The
receiver output y ( t ) is the envelope of the input quantity x ( t ) . That is,
y ( t ) = Ac + Ac g m m ( t ) + nc ( t ) +
2
ns2
(t )
1
2
We shall analyze the noise performance of envelope detector for two different
cases, namely, (i) large SNR at the detector input and (ii) weak SNR at the
detector input.
(7.15)
On the RHS of Eq. 7.15, there are three quantities: A DC term due to the
transmitted carrier, a term proportional to the message and the in-phase noise
component. In the final output, the DC is blocked. Hence the average signal
7.13
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2
PM . The output noise power being equal
power at the output is given by Ac2 g m
to 2W N0 we have,
( SNR )
0 AM
2
Ac2 g m
PM
2W N0
(7.16)
It is to be noted that the signal and noise are additive at the detector output and
power spectral density of the output noise is flat over the message bandwidth.
From Eq. 7.13 and 7.16 we obtain,
( FOM ) AM
2
gm
PM
(7.17)
2
1 + gm
Pm
As can be seen from Eq. 7.17, the FOM with envelope detection is less than
unity. That is, the noise performance of DSB-LC with envelope detection is
inferior to that of DSB-SC with coherent detection. Assuming m ( t ) to be a tone
signal, Am cos ( m t ) and = g m Am , simple calculation shows that ( FOM ) AM is
2 + 2
( FOM ) AM
is
1
. That is, other factors being equal, DSB-LC has to transmit three
3
(7.18)
From Eq. 7.18, we find that detector output has no term strictly proportional to
m ( t ) . The last term on the RHS of Eq. 7.18 contains the message signal m ( t )
7.14
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multiplied by the noise quantity, cos ( t ) , which is random; that is, the message
Fig. 7.6: Phase diagram to analyze the envelope detector for case (ii)
envelope detector operates satisfactorily whereas if the input SNR falls below
this value, performance of the detector deteriorates quite rapidly. Actually,
threshold is not a unique point and we may have to use some reasonable
criterion in arriving it. Let R denote the random variable obtained by observing
the process R ( t ) (of which r ( t ) is a sample function) at some fixed point in time.
It is quite reasonable to assume that the detector is operating well into the
threshold region if P [R Ac ] 0.5 ; where as, if the above probability is 0.01 or
less, the detector performance is quite satisfactory. Let us define the quantity,
carrier-to-noise ratio, as
Ac2 2
Ac2
=
2W N0
4W N0
7.15
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fR ( r ) =
2
N
r2
2
2 N
2
= 2W N0
where N
P [R Ac ] =
fR ( r ) d r
Ac
= e
Ac2
4 W N0
= e
UT
UT
7.16
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Example 7.3
In a receiver meant for the demodulation of SSB signals, Heq ( f ) has the
characteristic shown in Fig. 7.7. Assuming that USB has been transmitted, let us
find the FOM of the system.
7.17
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Ac
m (t )
4
nc ( t )
2
SNc d f
5
N0 W
16
Ac2 PM
16
=
5
N W
16 0
(SNR )0
(SNR )r
1
4
Ac2 PM
5 N0 W
Ac2 PM
4W N0
Hence FOM =
(SNR )0
(SNR )r
4
= 0.8 .
5
7.18
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Exercise 7.1
Example 7.4
7.19
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(SNR )0, AM
As PM =
2
Ac2 gm
PM
2W N0
2
Am
,
2
(SNR )0, AM
Ac2 ( g m Am )
=
4W N0
(SNR )0, AM
1
4
=
3
4 5 10 2 10 8
4
1
40 10 5
104
4
= 36 dB
( FOM ) AM
2
2 + 2
( FOM )DSB SC
1
4
2+
1
4
1
9
=1
7.20
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(SNR )0
.
(SNR )r
7.21
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(7.19)
where
k p m ( t )
, for PM
t
(t ) =
2 kf m ( ) d , for FM
( 7.20a )
( 7.20b )
(7.21a)
= Ac cos c t + ( t ) + rn ( t ) cos c t + ( t )
(7.21b)
where, on the RHS of Eq. 7.21(b) we have used the envelope ( rn ( t ) ) and phase
( (t ))
ii)
and
rn ( t ) sin ( t ) ( t )
( t ) = ( t ) + tan 1
Ac + rn ( t ) cos ( t ) ( t )
7.22
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(7.22a)
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Fig. 7.12: Phasor diagram for the case of strong predetection SNR.
If we make the assumption that Ac >> rn ( t ) most of the time, we can write,
(t ) (t ) +
rn ( t )
sin ( t ) ( t )
Ac
Notice that the second term on the RHS of Eq. 7.22(b) has the factor
(7.22b)
rn ( t )
. Thus
Ac
when the FM signal is much stronger than the noise, it will suppress the small
random phase variations caused by noise; then the FM signal is said to capture
the detector. v ( t ) , the output of the discriminator is given by,
v ( t ) = kd ( t )
(phase detector)
kd d ( t )
2 d t
(frequency detector)
a) Phase Modulation
v (t ) m (t ) +
kd rn ( t )
sin ( t ) ( t )
Ac
(7.23)
7.23
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kd rn ( t )
sin ( t ) ( t )
Ac
nP ( t ) =
(7.24)
(7.25)
To calculate the output noise power, we require the power spectral density
of nP ( t ) . This is made somewhat difficult because of ( t ) in nP ( t ) . The analysis
becomes fairly easy if we assume ( t ) = 0 . Of course, it is possible to derive
the PSD of nP ( t ) without making the assumption that ( t ) = 0 . This has been
done in Appendix A7.1. In this appendix, it has been shown that the effect of
( t ) is to produce spectral components beyond W , which are anyway removed
kd rn ( t )
sin ( t )
Ac
nP ( t ) =
=
kd
ns ( t )
Ac
Hence,
But,
SNP ( f )
k
= d SNs ( f )
Ac
SNs ( f )
N0 , f T
=
2
0 , otherwise
BT is the transmission bandwidth, which for the PM case can be taken as the
Post detection LPF passes only those spectral components that are within
2
k
( W , W ) . Hence the output noise power = d 2W N0 , resulting in,
Ac
7.24
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(SNR )0, PM
As,
(SNR )r , PM
PM
k
2W N0 d
Ac
Ac2
k p2 PM
2W N0
(7.26)
(A ) 2
=
2
c
N0 W
we have,
( FOM )PM
(SNR )0
(SNR )r
= k p2 PM
(7.27a)
We can express ( FOM )PM in terms of the RMS bandwidth. From Eq. A5.4.7,
(Appendix A5.4), we have
( Brms )PM
= 2 k p RM ( 0 ) Brms
= 2 k p PM Brms
)M
)M
( Brms )PM
2
4 ( Brms )
M
2
Hence k p2 PM =
( FOM )PM
rms PM
=
2
4 Brms
M
(7.27b)
b) Frequency Modulation
v (t ) =
kd d ( t )
2 d t
= kf kd m ( t ) +
(7.28a)
kd d ns ( t )
2 Ac d t
7.25
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(7.28b)
Principles of Communication
v (t ) = m (t ) +
kd d ns ( t )
2 Ac d t
kd d ns ( t )
2 Ac d t
nF ( t ) =
Then, SNF ( f )
k
= d
2 Ac
j 2f
SNS ( f )
d ns ( t )
can be obtained by
dt
SNF ( f ) =
kd2 f 2
Ac2
SNS ( f )
BT
, we find that SNF ( f ) is parabolic as shown
2
in Fig. 7.13.
7.26
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kd2 f 2 N0
Ac2
df
kd2 N0 2 3
=
W
Ac2 3
(7.29)
Again, as in the case of PM, we find that increasing the carrier power has
a noise quietening effect. But, of course, there is one major difference between
SNP ( f ) and SNF ( f ) ; namely, the latter is parabolic whereas the former is a fiat
spectrum.
The parabolic nature of the output FM noise spectrum implies, that high
frequency end of the message spectrum is subject to stronger degradation
because of noise. Completing our analysis, we find that
(SNR )0, FM
3 Ac2 PM
(7.30a)
2 kd2 N0 W 3
3 2 Ac2 PM
kf
2
N0 W 3
Ac2
=
2N W
0
(7.30b)
3 kf2 PM
2
W
(7.30c)
( Brms )FM
RM ( 0 )
= 2 kf
= 2 kf PM
That is, kf2 PM
rms FM
=
4
7.27
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Ac2 3 Brms
=
2 N0 W 4
W
)FM
( FOM )FM
= 3
kf2 PM
W2
3 Brms
=
4
W
)FM
(7.31)
For a given peak value of the input signal, we find that the deviation ratio D is
proportional to
kf
; hence ( FOM )FM is a quadratic function of D . The price paid
W
to achieve a significant value for the FOM is the need for increased transmission
bandwidth, BT = 2 ( D + k )W . Of course, we should not forget the fact that the
result of Eq. 7.31 is based on the assumption that SNR at the detector input is
sufficiently large.
How do we justify that increasing D , (that is, the transmission bandwidth),
will result in the improvement of the output SNR ? Let us look at Eq. 7.28(b). On
the RHS, we have two quantities, namely kf kd m ( t ) and
kd d ns ( t )
. The
2 Ac d t
kd
2 Ac
being a constant,
d ns ( t )
is the quantity that causes the
dt
perturbation of the instantaneous frequency due to the noise. Let us that assume
that it is less than or equal to ( f )n , most of the time. For a given detector, kd is
fixed. Hence, as kf increases, frequency deviation increases, thereby increasing
the value of D . Let kf ,2 > kf ,1 . Then, to transmit the same m ( t ) , we require
more bandwidth if we use a modulator with the frequency sensitivity kf ,2 instead
of kf ,1 . In other words, ( f )2 = kf ,2 mp > ( f )1 = kf ,1 mp . Hence,
7.28
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( f )n
( f )2
<
( f )n
( f )1
In other words, as the frequency derivation due to the modulating signal keeps
increasing, the effect of noise becomes less and less significant , thereby
increasing the output SNR .
Example 7.5
A tone of unit amplitude and frequency 600 Hz is sent via FM. The FM
receiver has been designed for message signals with a bandwidth upto 1 kHz.
The maximum phase deviation produced by the tone is 5 rad. We will show that
the ( SNR )0 = 31.3 dB, given that
Ac2
= 105 .
2 N0
kd2 N0 2 3
W . For the problem on hand, W = 1 kHz. Hence output noise
Ac2 3
power =
kd2
1
105
3
1000 )
(
. We shall assume
kf kd = 1 so that kd =
s ( t )
= Ac cos ( c t + sin m t )
FM
This maximum phase deviation produced is .
But
f
k A
= f m.
fm
fm
As Am = 1, we have
5 =
kd =
kf
. That is, kf = 3000 . Then,
600
1
.
3000
( 3000 )2
1
105
7.29
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109
3
1
.
kf
Principles of Communication
=
Output signal power =
1
2700
1
2
Example 7.6
kp '
For the case of PM, we have, f =
mp
2
As
kp =
2 50 103
2 5 103
f = 50 103 ,
= 10
Therefore,
( FOM )PM
= k p2 PM
=
1
100 = 50
2
As mp = 1, we have kf = f = 50 103
Therefore,
( FOM )FM
= 3
kf2 PM
W2
7.30
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50 10 )
(
= 3
(5 10 )
3
1
2
3
100 = 150
2
The above result shows, that for tone modulation and for a given
frequency deviation, FM is superior to PM by a factor of 3. In fact, FM results in
< 3 m'p
Example 7.7
( FOM )PM
.
( FOM )FM
kp
We have
kp
kf
2 mp
1
=
2 103
mp'
Hence,
( FOM )PM
( FOM )FM
1
=
3
=
kp
1
1
2
25 106
W =
6
3 4 10
kf
25
2.1
12
7.31
Principles of Communication
This example indicates that PM is superior to FM. It is the PSD of the input
signal that decides the superiority or otherwise of the FM over PM. We can gain
further insight into this issue by looking at the expressions for the FOM in terms
of the RMS bandwidth.
( FOM )PM
( FOM )FM
)PM W 2
1
2
2
3
B
B
( rms )M ( rms )FM
B
rms
Assuming the same RMS bandwidth for both PM and FM, we find that PM is
superior to FM, if
W 2 > 3 Brms
If W 2 = 3 Brms
)M
)M
This case corresponds to the PSD of the message signal, SM ( f ) being uniformly
distributed in the range ( W , W ) . If SM ( f ) decreases with frequency, as it does
and PM is superior
M
to FM. This was the situation for the Example 7.7. If, on the other hand, the
spectrum
is
W 2 < 3 Brms
more
)M
heavily
weighted
at
the
higher
frequencies,
then
situation for the Example 7.6, where the entire spectrum was concentrated at the
tail end (at 5 kHz) with nothing in between.
In most of the real world information bearing signals, such as voice, music
etc. have spectral behavior that tapers off with increase in frequency. Then, why
not have PM broadcast than FM transmission? As will be seen in the context of
pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM, the so called FM transmission is really a
7.32
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C1)
W2 >
C2)
W 2 > 3 Brms
4 2 mp2
, or
)M
is satisfied.
(t ) (t ) +
Ac
sin ( t ) ( t )
rn ( t )
7.33
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(7.32)
Principles of Communication
Fig. 7.14: Phasor diagram for the case of weak predetection SNR
As can be seen from Eq. 7.32, there is no term in ( t ) that represents
only the signal quantity; the term that contains the signal quantity in ( t ) is
actually multiplied by
Ac
, which is random. This situation is somewhat
rn ( t )
Ac
,
rn ( t )
( t3 , t 4 )
in Fig. 7.15(a).
7.34
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Fig. 7.15: Occurrence of short pulses at the frequency discriminator output for
low predetection SNR.
d
, a series of
dt
short pulses appear at the output (Fig. 7.15(b)). The duration and frequency
(average number of pulses per unit time) of such pulses will depend on the
predetection SNR . If SNR is quite low, the frequency of the pulses at the
discriminator output increases. As these short pulses have enough energy at the
low frequencies, they give rise to crackling or sputtering sound at the receiver
(speaker) output. The ( SNR )0 formula derived earlier, for the large input SNR
case is no longer valid. As the input SNR keeps decreasing, it is even
7.35
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UT
UT
7.36
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FM: Display - 3
FM: Display - 4
FM: Display - 5
7.37
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As in the case of AM noise analysis, if we set the limit that for the FM
detector to operate above the threshold as, P [Rn > Ac ] 0.01 , then we find
that the minimum carrier-to-noise ratio =
Ac2
required is about 5. But,
2 BT N0
Ac2
=
for the case of
2 N0 W
7.38
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(SNR )0
(SNR )r
3 kf2 Pm
W2
2
Am
, W = fm and kf Am = f . As
2
f
, we have
fm
(SNR )0
(SNR )r
3 2
.
2
That is,
3 2
= 10log10 ( SNR )r
+ 10log10
10log10 ( SNR )0
2
FM
FM
(7.33)
3 2
10log10
dB, with respect to
2
(SNR )r .
improvement of about 7.7 dB and = 5 , the improvement is about 15.7 dB. This
is evident from the plots in Fig. 7.16.
Above threshold [i.e. ( SNR )r above the knee for each curve), WBFM gives
rise to impressive ( SNR )0 performance when compared to DSB-SC or SSB
with coherent detection. For the latter, ( SNR )0 is best equal to ( SNR )r .
(Using pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, the performance of FM can be
improved further).
(ii)
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(SNR )0 ,
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effect. For example with ( SNR )r about 18dB, = 2 and = 5 give rise to
the same kind of performance. If ( SNR )r is reduced a little, say to about
16dB, the
(SNR )0
= 2.
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HDE ( f ) SNF ( f ) d f
2
(7.34)
1
Note that HDE ( f ) =
, it follows that the improvement in the output
HPE ( f )
SNR is due to the reduced noise power after de-emphasis. We quantify the
factor I , where
I =
2 kd2 N0 W 3
3 Ac2
(7.35)
SNF ( f )
2 kd2 N0 f 2
, f W
=
Ac2
0
, otherwise
We can now compute the denominator of Eq. 7.35 and thereby the improvement
factor, which is given by
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2W 3
I =
(7.36)
f HDE ( f ) d f
2
HPE ( s ) =
1
rC
K1
R+r
s+
r RC
s+
(7.37)
HPE ( s )
1
rC
K1
1
s+
RC
s+
(7.38)
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1
,
TC1
f2 =
PT
1
is not less than the highest audio frequency for which pre-emphasis
2 TC 2
Bode plots for the PE and DE networks are given in Fig. 7.18. Eq. 7.38
can be written as
HPE ( s )
RC
rC
K1
with s = j 2 f , HPE ( f )
K =
where
R
r
1+ srC
1 + s RC
(7.39a)
f
1+ j
f1
K
f
1+ j
f2
(7.39b)
K1 .
HPE ( f ) =
Hence HDE ( f ) =
1
TP
PT
f
K 1 + j
f1
1
K
1 +
f
j
f1
The choice of f1 was made on an experimental basis. It is found that this choice of f1
maintained the same peak amplitude mp with or without PE-DE. This satisfies the constraint of a
fixed BT .
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The factor K is chosen such that the average power of the emphasized
message signal is the same as that of the original message signal m ( t ) . That is,
K is such that
W
SM ( f ) d f =
HPE ( f ) SM ( f ) d f = PM
2
(7.40)
This will ensure the same RMS bandwidth for the FM signal with or without PE.
)FM
= 2 kf PM .
Example 7.8
and
Let SM ( f )
= 1 +
HPE ( f ) =
K 1 +
1
2
, f W
f
f1
0
, outside
f
j
f1
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Let us find (i) the value K and (ii) the improvement factor I , assuming f1 = 2.1
kHz and W = 15 kHz.
f
W
1+
f1
or
K =
df =
K df
W
f1
tan1
W
f1
W
K
and
I =
Cf2df
2
C
f
1+
f
f1
(7.41a)
df
f1
f1
2
(7.41b)
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Example 7.9
Let
1
f
1+
f1
HPE ( f ) =
, f W
f
K 1 + j
f1
f
SM ( f ) d f = SM ( f ) K 1 + f1 d f
W
W
= K
1 +
2
f
f1
f
1 + d f
f1
That is,
W
K =
SM ( f ) d f =
W
f1
tan 1
W
f1
Nout =
N0
4
2
N0
HDE ( f ) d f
4
1 +
f
f1
K
df
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= W
N0
2
Note that the noise quantity at the output of the coherent demodulator is
Noise power without de-emphasis = 2W
1
nc ( t ) .
2
N0
W N0
=
4
2
W N0
2
=1
Hence, I =
W N0
2
This example indicates that PE-DE is of no use in the case of DSB-SC.
Exercise 7.2
b)
Ans: (b) 34 dB
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Ac2
= 2 105 and
2 N0
Principles of Communication
Exercise 7.3
Each one of the USSB signals occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz with respect to
its carrier. All the message signals, mi ( t ) , i = 1, 2, , 10 , have the same
power. m ( t ) frequency modulates a high frequency carrier. Let s ( t )
represent the FM signal.
a)
b)
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We will assume that the given PCM system uses polar signaling. Even if
the transmitted pulse is rectangular, the received pulse pr ( t ) will be distorted
due to a band-limited and imperfect channel; hence pr ( t ) may look like as
shown in Fig. 7.20 (a).
( k ts
7.49
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= k Tb + t p
resulting in a signal
Principles of Communication
(
)
( r '0' transmitted) is N ( A , )
2
and
fR ( r '1' transmitted ) is N Ap , N
fR
2
N
1
1
Pe,0 + Pe,1 .
2
2
Pe,0 =
Ap
f
r
'0'
d
r
Q
=
(
)
N
0
Ap
Similarly Pe,1 = Q
, which implies
N
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Ap
Pe = Q
(7.42)
For optimum results, the receiver uses a matched filter whose output is sampled
once every Tb seconds, at the appropriate time instants so as to obtain the best
possible signal-to-noise ratio at the filter output. In such a situation, it can be
Ap
shown that we can replace
by
N
received binary pulse and
2 Eb
where Eb is the energy of the
N0
N0
represents the spectral height of the, band-limited
2
Ap
white Gaussian noise process. Using the above value for
yields,
N
2 Eb
Pe = Q
N
0
(7.43)
Assuming that there are R binary pulses per sample and 2W samples/second,
we have Tb =
1
where Tb represents the duration of each pulse. Hence
( 2 RW )
Eb
Sr
= 2 RW Eb or Eb =
.
Tb
2 RW
Sr
Pe = Q
RW N
0
= Q
R
where =
(7.44)
Sr
. Eq. 7.42 to 7.44 specify the probability of any received bit
W N0
being in error. In a PCM system, with R bits per sample, error in the
reconstructed sample will depend on which of these R bits are in error. We would
like to have an expression for the variance of the reconstruction error. Assume
the following:
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i)
ii)
iii)
of R bits is negligible.
4 mp2 Pe 22 R 1
( )
(7.45)
3 22 R
Details can be found in [3]. In addition to the reconstruction error due to channel
2
noise, PCM has the inevitable quantization noise with variance Q
=
2 mp
L
2
, where
12
Let
mp2
3 L2
4 mp2 Pe L2 1
(7.46)
3 L2
M 2 ( t ) = PM
Then, ( SNR )0 =
PM
e2
P
M
2
2
1 + 4 Pe L 1 mp
3 L2
(7.47)
(SNR )0
3 L2
1 + 4 L 1 Q
P
M
mp2
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(7.48)
Principles of Communication
Figure 7.22 shows the plot of ( SNR )0 as a function of for tone modulation
P
1
M2 = . However, with suitable modifications, these curves are applicable
mp
2
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P
= 3 22 R M2
mp
( )
(SNR )0
(7.49)
S. No.
Signal Format
NRZ polar
RZ polar
Duobinary (NRZ)
1
2
BPCM
. Using this in the expression for ( SNR )0 in the saturation
k ( 2W )
region, we obtain
(SNR )0
P
= 3 M2 2
mp
BPCM
kW
(7.50)
It is clear from Eq. 7.50 that in PCM, ( SNR )0 increases exponentially with the
transmission bandwidth. Fig. 7.22 also depicts the ( SNR )0 performance of DSBSC and FM ( = 2 , 5 ) . A comparison of the performance of PCM with that of
FM is appropriate because both the schemes exchange the bandwidth for the
signal -to -noise ratio and they both suffer from threshold phenomenon. In FM,
(SNR )0
doubling the transmission bandwidth quadruples the output SNR . In the case of
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PCM, as can be seen from Eq. 7.49, increasing R by 1 quadruples the output
1
. As an
R
PT
as mentioned in the introduction, PCM has other beneficial features such as use
of regenerative repeaters, ease of mixing or multiplexing various types of signals
etc. All these factors put together have made PCM a very important scheme for
modern-day communications.
The PCM performance curves of Fig. 7.22 are based on Eq. 7.48 which is
applicable to polar signaling. By evaluating Pe for other signaling techniques
(such as bipolar, duobinary etc.) and using it in Eq. 7.47, we obtain the
corresponding expressions for the
(SNR )0 .
Example 7.10
1
TP
PT
Note that the FM curve for = 2 and PCM curve for R = 6 intersect at point A . The
( SNR )0
with = 2 are the same. This argument can be extended to other values of R and .
7.55
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a)
b)
( y 0)
If fY
( y 1)
probability of error.
x ( t ) = s ( t ) + n ( t ) , where n ( t ) is the noise output of the BPF.
= Ak cos ( c t ) + nc ( t ) cos ( c t ) ns ( t ) sin ( c t )
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R ( t ) = Ak + nc ( t ) + ns ( t )
2
1
2 2
fY
( y 0)
y
e
N0
y2
2 N0
, y 0
fY
( y 1)
2y
y
I0
N0 N0
y2 + 4
2 N
0
e
, y 0
Pe , 0 =
5y
d y = e 5
10 y e
1
1
Pe , 1 =
1
e
2 0.1
(y
2)
0.2
dy
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= Q
10
P ( error ) = Pe =
1 5
e
+ Q 10
7.58
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Appendix A7.1
PSD of Noise for Angle Modulated Signals
For the case of strong predetection SNR , we have (Eq. 7.22b),
(t ) (t ) +
(t ) =
Let
rn ( t )
sin ( t ) ( t )
Ac
rn ( t )
sin ( t ) ( t )
Ac
1
Im e
Ac
j ( t )
rn ( t ) e
j (t )
j t
j t
Note that e ( ) is the complex envelope of the FM signal and rn ( t ) e ( ) is
Let xce ( t ) = e
Then, ( t ) =
j ( t )
nce ( t ) = xc ( t ) + j xs ( t ) .
1
xs ( t )
Ac
j ( t )
Nce ( t ) = X c ( t ) + j X s ( t )
(A7.1.1)
Similarly,
(t ) =
1
Xs (t )
Ac
(A7.1.2)
R ( ) =
1
Ac2
R Xs ( )
(A1.7.3a)
S Xs ( f )
(A7.1.3b)
S ( f ) =
1
Ac2
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E X ce ( t + ) X ce ( t ) = 0
E X ce ( t + ) X ce ( t ) = E Nce ( t + ) Nce ( t ) e
j ( t + ) + ( t )
(A7.4.1a)
= E Nce ( t + ) Nce ( t ) E e
j (t + ) + ( t )
(A7.4.1b)
Eq. A7.4.1(b) is due to the condition that the signal and noise are statistically
independent.
E Nce ( t + ) Nce ( t ) = RNc ( ) RNs ( ) + j RNc Ns ( ) + RNs Nc ( )
As
This implies R Xc ( ) = R X s ( ) .
Now consider the autocorrelation of X ce ( t ) ,
E X ce ( t + ) X ce
( t ) = E e
j (t + )
j t
Nce ( t + ) e ( ) Nce
( t )
}
(A7.1.5)
E X ce (
) X ce
( )
= E Nce ( t + ) Nce
( t ) E e j ( t ) (t + )
a1 + j b1
a2 + j b2
= R X c ( ) + R X s ( ) + j R X s X c ( ) R X c X s ( )
= 2 R X s ( ) + j R X s X c ( ) R X c X s ( )
R Xs ( ) =
1
Re ( a1 + j b1 ) ( a2 + j b2 )
2
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(A7.1.6)
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1
( a1 a2 b1 b2 )
2
R Xs ( ) =
1
2 RNs ( ) E cos ( t ) ( t + )
2
g ( )
That is,
S X s ( f ) = SNs ( f ) G ( f )
where g ( ) G ( f ) .
As
S ( f ) =
S ( f ) =
1
Ac2
S Xs ( f ) , we have,
1
SN ( f ) G ( f )
Ac2 s
j (t )
. We know that e
j (t )
is
BT
, as shown in Fig. A7.1.
2
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(b) SNs ( f )
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Note that g ( 0 ) =
G (f ) d f
For
= E cos ( 0 ) = 1 .
f W , G ( f ) SNs ( f ) N0
G (f ) d f
= N0 . That is, ( t ) is
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References
1)
3)
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