Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling The World

Seeing, Hearing, and
Smelling the World
The Brain and Love

A Day in the Life of the Brain
How the Brain Grows
Inside Your Brain
Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World
Seeing, Hearing, and

Smelling the World
Carl Y. Saab
SERIES EDITOR
Eric H. Chudler, Ph.D.
This book is dedicated to the animals sacrificed for laboratory research.

The author is indebted to Rafa for her editorial contribution
and to Samuel Owolabi, M.D., for his review.

Copyright 2007 by Infobase Publishing
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
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ISBN-10: 0-7910-8945-2
ISBN-13: 978-0-7910-8945-3
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Saab, Carl Y.
Seeing, hearing, and smelling the world / Carl Y. Saab.
p. cm. (Brain works)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7910-8945-2 (hardcover)
1. Senses and sensationJuvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series
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2006024117
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Table of Contents
1 Neurons and Nerves
2 Hearing
18
3 The Ear
25
4 Vision
32
5 The Eye
43
6 Visual Abnormalities
62
7 Smell and Taste
68
8 Synesthesia
76
Glossary
88
Bibliography
92
Further Reading
93
Index
96
1
Neurons
and Nerves
Sensation is a long journey that begins when different stimuli
(light for colors and gases for odors) come in contact with their
proper receptor organs (eyes for light and nose for gases). This
journey of light or gas ends when the stimulus is transformed into
messages that are created by connections between cells in the nervous system. The messages are finally transmitted to the brain for
perception (light as color and gas as odor). This book takes you
on this journey from the outside world of lights, sounds, and odors
into your own brain and the deepest memories of your mind.
LIVING AND NONLIVING

Any discussion of the senses should begin with the basics of biology. All living creatures possess one fundamental feature: the cell.
7
Figure 1.1 A common example of a unicellular organism is the

amoeba, photographed above. An amoeba is a type of protozoa, a
single-celled organism that has a nucleus and characteristics similar
to those of animals, such as mobility. Amoebae are most commonly
found in freshwater.
The most basic forms of life are made up of only one cell and
are referred to as unicellular organisms. An example of a unicellular organism is a bacterium (plural, bacteria). Unicellular
organisms are usually so small that they can be seen only by
using a microscope (Figure 1.1). More complicated, multicellular forms of life require multiple cell types and use sophisticated systems of communication between cells to sustain the
life of the organism. Any animal big enough to be seen with
the naked eye, including a small insect such as an ant, requires
Neurons and Nerves
food for nutrients and air for oxygen to survive. Nutrients and
oxygen need to be distributed efficiently to all cells within the
animals body, generally through the blood that flows through
multiple organs and to various cellular destinations. For living organisms to obtain food, water, and air, they first need to
be able to move around and sense the environment, to forage
for nutrients, to locate prey, or even to chew the food and
breathe (exceptions to this rule include plants, which do not
move around or chew food as almost all animals do). Indeed,
to be able to use any body part, to feel, to speak, or even to
think requires coordination by one system: the nervous system. Like any other system in the body, the nervous system
is made up of different types of cells that share similar shape
and function. Cells that form blood include red blood cells
and immune cells. The functional cells that form the nervous
system are mainly neurons (Figure 1.2). The nervous system
also contains another type of cell, glia, that help support and
maintain homeostasis of neurons.
NEURONS AND GLIA

Neurons are responsible for giving multicellular organisms
(again, except plants) the essential requirements of life itself
in the form of an action, a thought, or a feeling. How often
do we identify a creature as alive by showing that it can
move or an animal as dead if it no longer responds to a shout
or a poke? Movement is caused by a class of neurons called
motor neurons, whereas sensory experiences are possible due
to another class of neurons referred to as sensory neurons.
Both motor and sensory neurons, as well as other classes of
neurons, have similar basic characteristics. Keep in mind,
however, that neurons function differently depending on
10
Figure 1.2 The shape and length of a neuron determines the role it
will serve in the nervous system. Pictured above are three different
types of neurons.
their location within the body (in the periphery, such as in

the hand or centrally, such as in the brain), their shape (small
neurons, such as those in the brain or neurons that are more
than 1 or 2 feet long, such as those in the legs), and their cellular content (neurons are made out of internal parts, known
as organelles). Another general characteristic of neurons is
that, with few exceptions, each neuron is either connected to
another neuron or to a muscle (exceptions include those that
connect to a gland or other visceral organs).
When first discoveredand until about 10 years agoglia
were thought to play a supporting role by gluing neurons
together. In fact, scientists are just starting to recognize
other important roles that glia play in maintaining neuronal
Neurons and Nerves
homeostasis. Glia protect the nervous system against invading microbes and repair the system after damage (such as
after a severe car accident or a neurological disease).
If one had to describe the most basic function of the nervous system in one word, it would be communication. Think
about it: If a person wishes to move an arm, the brain has to
command the arm. If a person places his or her hand over
a stove accidentally, pain is produced by the activation of
specific brain areas. In both cases, a message has to be transferred from the brain to the arm (for movement) or from the
hand to the brain (for pain). The message also has to be sent
quickly in order to produce an action without too much delay
(Figure 1.3). These messages are relayed from one neuron to
another, either between two neurons or among thousands! In
cases in which only two neurons are involved, the neurons
can be remarkably long compared to the dimensions of the
human body. For pain messages relayed from the arm or the
leg, the first sensory neuron to signal the pain message could
be as long as 2 or 3 feet (.6.9 meters). Certain neurons are
in fact the largest cells in the body.
Neurons communicate through synapses, the tiny gaps
where two neurons meet. Two neurons typically share one
synapse at their meeting point; however, it is not uncommon
to find two neurons with multiple synapses. As a result, the
message transmitted from one neuron to another can vary,
depending on the synapses used to transmit that message.
Even for a single synapse between two neurons, the message transmitted across the synapse can be subject to change
(more accurately referred to as modulation) with time or
depending on changes in the neuronal environment.
There is a complicated process behind how we react to
a stimulus, and how our perception of that same stimulus
11
12
Figure 1.3 Electrical signals travel along the axon of a neuron, also known as a nerve fiber. The speed of the signals
can vary, depending on the type of nerve fiber. Speeds of
different nerve fibers are compared in the graph above.
changes over time according to varying circumstances. But

nevertheless, this process is reflected in the ability of the
nervous system to change or adapt. One adaptive characteristic of the nervous system is memoryin other words,
neurons can learn. Neurons grow and synapses are formed
or broken down constantly in our brains and elsewhere in the
nervous system from birth and until death. Living organisms
are not robots. They constantly evolve due to the ability of
Neurons and Nerves
the nervous system and synapses to adapt, learn, change, and

bounce back.
NEURON = CELL BODY + DENDRITE + AXON

Unlike other cells in the body, some neurons have long extensions, which help them communicate over long distances.
The arrangement of neurons is somewhat like the network
of telephone wires that connects the homes and businesses
in a city. In a telephone network, short wires carry a signal
a short distance, while long wires can carry a signal much
further. The same type of relationship is at work in the bodys
nervous system.
Neurons are equipped with two types of extensions at the
head or the tail end (Figure 1.4). The cell body of the neuron
contains the nucleus and the rest of the cellular machinery
necessary to make proteins, generate energy, and sustain the
life of the neuron. Out of this cell body emerges dendrites
(head) and an axon (tail end). Neurons generally receive
messages through their dendritic synapses and send messages down their axons to synapses on one or many neurons.
A message is relayed from one neuron to another, and the
flow of communication is secured. These simple rules and
those highlighted in the previous paragraph are essential to
understanding more complicated neuroscience facts.
Sometimes the function of a neuron can be predicted
based on the structure of the dendrites or the axon. Neurons
with long axons transmit messages that need to travel to
faraway destinations, such as sensory neurons in the hand
relaying information to the brain about objects touching
the skin. It is important that these messages are transported
faster than other messages in the body (such as hormones
13
14
Figure 1.4 A neuron consists of a cell body, axon, and dendrites. The cell body contains the nucleus, which is the control center of the neuron. Axons carry nerve impulses away
from the cell body. They are often wrapped in myelin, which
helps increase the speed of transmission of the impulse.
Dendrites receive nerve impulses from adjacent neurons.
transported by the blood). Sensory neurons communicate

information that is vital to protect the skin and other body
parts, such as warning about very hot surfaces. Information
Neurons and Nerves
about very high temperatures needs to get to the nervous

system centers responsible for withdrawal of the hand as
quickly as possible in order to prevent or minimize injury.
Other types of neurons with long axons convey messages to
the muscles for movement. Imagine how fast the brain needs
to communicate with leg muscles to yield a smooth pattern
of movement.
Some neurons may have multiple dendrites, often referred
to as a dendritic tree. Such neurons receive multiple inputs
from many neurons (and thus from many axons) and could be
recruited to coordinate or integrate multiple messages.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Two structures, the skull and the vertebral column, separate
the nervous system into two main compartments (Figure
1.5). The brain rests inside the skull, and the spinal cord is
found inside the vertebral column. The brain and spinal cord
make up the central nervous system (CNS), and all neurons
located outside of this central compartment are contained in
the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The thick bones of the
skull and the vertebral column shield the CNS against physical injuries. Other tools also help ensure the best protection
of the CNS for a good reason: The majority of neurons in the
CNS, if damaged, cannot regenerate. Paralysis after spinal
cord injury is largely a result of the bodys inability to repair
damaged CNS neurons. One example of CNS damage caused
by a disease is multiple sclerosis, a condition in which different areas of the CNS degenerate, causing irreversible paralysis and other problems. Research into neuronal regeneration
and stem cells may result in new therapies to cure paralysis
and CNS degenerative diseases.
15
16
Figure 1.5 The brain and spinal cord make up the central
nervous system. The nerves that extend from the spinal cord
to the distant parts of the body make up the peripheral nervous system.
The PNS, in contrast, is able to bounce back from injury

a bit better. A typical example of PNS tissue is a peripheral
nerve. A nerve is a collection of axons generally longer
than those found in the brain; examples include sensory or
motor neurons. A peripheral nerve, however, may contain
only sensory or motor neurons or a collection of both. The
Neurons and Nerves
most prominent nerve in humans is the sciatic nerve, which

transmits sensory messages (such as gentle touch or painful pinprick) and conveys motor commands to muscles in
the entire leg. The sciatic nerve, like many other nerves,
branches out into different smaller nerves as it travels away
from the spinal cord.
17
2
Hearing
Sound, such as music and speech, is physical energy
perceived by an organ in the body designed especially for this
task. There is no best way to define a sound that has not been
heard before. For example, it is impossible to accurately describe
such a sound to someone who is deaf, especially if that person has
been deaf since birth. To better illustrate this example, imagine
describing a color to someone who is blind or a smell to someone
who has anosmia (inability to perceive odors). In fact, sharing
all feelings that result from sensory perceptiontouch, sound, or
smellis never exact; in the end, all of our experiences remain
deeply personal. Even close friends or family members differ in
their interpretation of the same event or phenomenon.
Music produced by a string instrument such as a violin is one
pleasant example of sound (if well performed!). The violin is a
18
Hearing
19
Figure 2.1 A man plays a violin and appeals to the auditory senses.
The violin, which is a string instrument, is used in many different
types of music.
delicately built instrument with a common basic feature:

strings attached at both ends. When a bow is brushed against
these strings, the friction that results from this mechanical
interaction causes the string to vibratethat is, to move
quickly with a speed referred to as frequency. This highspeed vibration causes a similar vibration in the air near the
part of the string where the bow strikes (Figure 2.1).
Air is formed of many molecules (mostly nitrogen and oxygen). As a result, when air molecules are pushed to vibrate
by the moving string, the resulting energy is transmitted to
neighboring air molecules (similar to how billiard or pool
balls bounce off of each other). How does all this vibration
20
and energy reach us as music? Before we answer this question, it is necessary to understand how sound is created.
SOUND IS . . .
It is difficult to imagine how the motion of air molecules,
so small as to be invisible to the naked eye, can result in
sound. In order to visualize how sound is created, think of the
smooth and calm surface of a lake and the disturbance caused
when a pebble is thrown in the water (Figure 2.2). The reaction typically takes the form of many rapidly expanding
circles, with the point where the pebble hit the surface at the
center. Although the pebble may be the size of a fingernail,
the waves that spread across the lake are infinitely larger.
Like ever-expanding circles of waves at the surface of the
water, air molecules travel by forming waves of compressed
(packed together) and decompressed (spread apart) gas
molecules. This movement mimics the vibration of a string.
Mechanical friction of the bow causes vibration of the string
in a violin and ultimately the sound that spreads throughout
an infinitely larger space.
Sound is detected when vibrating air molecules reach the
human ear. Many conditions need to be met before sound is
heard:
Intensity: Faint and loud sounds reflect the strength
(loudness) of vibration. Very weak vibrations may
reach the ear but may be too weak to be perceived.
Attention: Although many sounds reach our ears, we
do not perceive all of them. This is especially true of
weaker sounds. For example, although thousands of
people may be screaming at a concert, we can only
Hearing
Figure 2.2 This birds-eye view of a pebble tossed into a

pond depicts the way in which sound waves travel through
air. The pebble causes ripples moving outward from the
point of impact, which mimics vibrating air molecules.
perceive a conversation within the crowd if our attention is shifted to these specific sounds. Another example is sleeping through an alarm bell, even though it
is loud enough to wake another person equally distant
from the bell.
Normal hearing biology: The ear is a complex biological organ with elegant morphology (shape) and design
connected to the brain by neurons. In the end, the
brain is the organ capable of decoding and unlocking
the secrets of sensory messages that bombard us constantly in a busy environment. These sounds that we
experience would go unnoticed in this universe without
the brain.
Small defects in ear biology, connections to the brain, or the
brain itself may lead to hearing abnormalities ranging from
21
22
loss of hearing, to hearing abnormal sounds (even imaginary

sounds), to complete deafness.
CONDITIONS FOR NORMAL HEARING

Many conditions are necessary for a person to perceive sound.
First, the sound has to travel through an environment, called
a medium, that allows the transmission of vibration. Air is
the medium in which humans live. It is made of molecules
that bounce against each other and is capable of shrinking
and expanding, and thus can create a wave-like effect. In contrast, imagine talking to someone underwater. What is heard
underwater is mostly mumbled sounds that are much softer
than those produced in air. This is largely due to the fact that
water molecules are less free to vibrate than air molecules
(forces of cohesion between water molecules are stronger
than those between air molecules). Sound travels much faster
underwater than in air, however, because water molecules are
closer together than air molecules are. In fact, the speed of
sound in sea water is approximately 1,530 meters per second (3,423 miles per hour), or roughly more than four times
faster than the speed of sound in air (343 meters per second;
767 miles per hour).
Another necessary condition is related to the physical
property of the sound itself. When air molecules vibrate, they
travel in waves (Figure 2.3). Imagine surfing at the beach and
waiting for waves. The time spent trying to catch a wave is
directly related to the length or distance that separates one
wave from another. As a result, longer delays are related to
waves being farther apart (longer wavelength). Therefore,
even if sound travels through a medium such as air, we may
not be able to hear it if it falls outside of the certain wave-
Hearing
Figure 2.3 Waves can be described by their three properties: wavelength, frequency, and amplitude. The wavelength
is the distance from the top of one wave, also known as the
crest, to the next. Frequency is the number of waves per
second. The amplitude measures the height of the wave.
lengths that the human ear can detect. One example is the
sound of a special whistle used to call dogs, which the human
ear cannot detect.
WHEN VIBRATING AIR MOLECULES

REACH THE EAR
Vibrating air molecules spread in all directions, just as the
smell of dinner cooking on the stove can reach upstairs
to a bedroom, out the front door, and into the basement at
nearly the same time. This vibration (or waves of molecules
23
24
compressing and decompressing) then undergoes two major

transformations to make sound:
1. Transformation by specialized organs in the ear from
mechanical energy (vibration) to electrical and chemical energy:
mechanical energy specific receptor
electrical energy
2. Transmission of nerve signals to the brain, ultimately
transforming mechanical air vibration into sound perception such as music, speech, or even random noise:
electrical energy specific pathway within the
nervous system brain sensory perception
These two major pathways are discussed in detail in the following chapters, which will also highlight similarities and
differences among hearing, vision, smell, and other sensory
perceptions.
3
The Ear
The human ear is not just the part that sticks out from the
head (outer ear). Another major part of the ear is hidden inside
the head and connects to the brain (inner ear). Although the outer
ear (pinna) looks complex, it is a simpler biological structure than
the inner ear. The main function of the outer ear is to maximize
the amount of sound that reaches the ear, almost like a funnel for
sound. After being guided through the pinna, vibrating air molecules hit the eardrum (tympanic membrane). The eardrum can
be compared to the surface of a real drum that turns tapping or
striking into louder sounds. When the surface of a drum is struck,
it vibrates and causes air molecules inside the drum to vibrate and
escape out of the other end of the drum as loud drumbeats. In
25
26
the case of the ear, vibrating air molecules gently tap on the
eardrum, which then vibrates as well. Any matter lodged in
the outer ear (wax or water left over from a shower or swimming) may obstruct airflow to the eardrum or may mechanically prevent the eardrum from freely moving and vibrating
with air molecules. As a result, the affected ear will be less
sensitive to sounds.
THE MIDDLE EAR

The outer ear (eardrum, ear canal) is connected to the middle
ear by three small bones (the ossicles). These bonescalled
the malleus, the incus, and the stapesare connected to
each other and stretch from the eardrum to the inner ear
(Figure 3.1).
The main function of the ossicles is to relay the mechanical vibration toward the nervous system. The mechanical
properties of these bones are unique in terms of amplifying
eardrum vibrations and transmitting them to the inner ear
with extreme accuracy. The point of touch between the bones
of the middle ear and the inner ear is a thin oval sheet called
the oval window. Physical damage to the bones of the middle
ear may result in bumping them out of place or even breaking
them, which will cause severe hearing loss.
Medical intervention can successfully restore hearing loss
that results from damage to the external or middle parts of the
ear. Hearing loss caused by nerve damage within the internal
ear is more difficult to restore and often is permanent. This
is true for other sensory perceptions as well: Damage to the
optic (visual) nerve results in permanent visual deficits
including blindness.
The Ear
Figure 3.1 The external part of the ear receives sound

vibrations, which travel down the auditory canal toward the
middle ear. In the middle ear, the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) connect to form a chain of bones
that is responsible for transmitting sound vibrations from
the eardrum (tympanic membrane) to the inner ear. The
sound vibrations are converted to an electrical impulse that
travels along the auditory nerve to the brain.
THE INNER EAR

The inner ears oval window is connected to the bone in the
middle ear on one side. On the other side (closer to the brain)
it is connected to a thin, spiral-shaped covering within a bony
27
28
Figure 3.2 Inner (bottom row) and outer (three upper rows) hair
cells within the inner ear are shown in this colored scanning electron
micrograph. When sound enters the ear, waves form in the surrounding cell fluid called endolymph. The waves cause the hair cells to
move, which generates a nerve impulse that is passed to the brain.
structure called the cochlea, which resembles a snail. The

cochlea forms a closed compartment filled with fluid. Small
hair cells are immersed inside it. Although referred to as hair
cells, they are not biologically similar to typical hairs found
on the skin or on the head (Figure 3.2). Instead, these hair
cells are tiny extensions with roots attached to a membrane
(known as the basilar membrane). The extensions float freely
within the fluid space of the cochlea.
The Ear
Air molecules tap on the eardrum, which then vibrates

the bones of the middle ear. The middle ear in turn vibrates
the oval window, which causes the fluid inside the cochlea
to vibrate. The slightest fluid motion is sensed by the floating hair cells, which begin to swing similar to the way
algae or corals sway in shallow ocean waters when moved
by gentle waves.
When the fluid inside the cochlea vibrates, the roots of the
hair cells are gently pulled and stretched as they sway in the
fluid medium. The roots of the hair cells are directly attached
to neuronal terminals. Therefore, as hair cells sway, their
roots wake up the neurons. This interaction between hair
cells and neurons is directly related: the stronger the initial
vibration that is transmitted to the cochlea, the stronger the
hair cells sway, the stronger the excitation of the neurons,
and thus the louder the sound is perceived to be.
THE DIRECTION OF SOUND

When a person hears a sound, he or she turns to look for the
source of the sound. This immediate attempt to locate the
sound source is not random but rather is specific and well
executed. How do we correctly guess the direction of sound?
This question is especially intriguing when sound happens
without any visual cuesthat is, when sound or noise is not
clearly associated with a visual event. The answer to this
question lies in how our system of hearing is set up.
Consider, for example, a sound coming from the left side
of the body. This sound will reach the left ear slightly before
it reaches the right ear simply because the left ear is closer
to the sound source than the right ear is. This is called a time
29
30
Figure 3.3 The cerebral cortex consists of four different areas known
as lobes. Regions of each lobe are responsible for different functions,
such as hearing, smell, and vision.
delay, and it alerts the brain to the source of the sound and
may prompt an immediate rotation of the head in the direction of the sound. Another hint that the brain uses to correctly
guess the source of the sound is the difference in the sound
intensity that reaches the ears. In the previous example,
not only will the left ear receive the sound first, it will also
receive a sound that is just a little bit louder than what the
right ear receives. What happens if the sound comes from
neither left nor right, but from straight ahead? In this case,
The Ear
sound will reach both ears at the same time (and with the
same intensity). If the visual event that goes with the sound
is not obvious at first (for example, a mosquito too small to
be easily observed), the brain will command the eyes to look
straight ahead until the source of the sound is located.
FROM THE EAR TO THE BRAIN

Neurons in the inner ear gather to form the auditory nerve.
The auditory nerve transmits signals to many brain areas,
including deep brain structures and the cerebral cortex
(Figure 3.3). The journey of air molecules vibrating because
of drumbeats, clapping, or singing ends in the brain, where
sound is ultimately perceived. Mysterious as the human
sensory experience is, the way neuronal signals in the brain
cause a sensory phenomenon is still being studied. This
limitation in understanding brain function and its relation to
human consciousness is not limited to hearing. Scientists are
still figuring out the exact processes involved in touch, pain,
vision, smell, taste, and higher brain functions.
31
4
Vision
Sight is what we perceive when our eyes are open and there
is enough light in the environment. Humans cannot see in complete darkness, and therefore any helpful discussion of vision
must include an explanation of the physical properties of light
and the reflection of light on objects to produce colors. The sight
of lit objects, including still images (photographs, trees) or moving ones (a flying bird, a falling star), is our perception of light
that is bright enough to stimulate visual neurons when our eyes
are open (the term visual neurons here refers to neurons in our
eyes that are sensitive to light). Sight is similar to hearing in that
they are both the perception of a physical event in our environment that a specialized organ (the ear for hearing and the eyes
for sight) changes into an electrical signal that is then sent to the
32
Vision
brain for processing. The whole process of perceiving light

is called vision.
To better understand the process of vision, consider the
questions below before getting into the details. Keep the following sequence in mind:
electrical energy (light) specific pathway
within the nervous system (eye and connections
to the brain) sensory perception (vision)
1. What are the conditions necessary to see an object?
Can you see in total darkness or with your eyelids
closed?
Hint: You see light reflected off of objects.
2. When you see, do you always see clearly? Do you wear
glasses or contact lenses?
Hint: You focus for clear vision.
3. What happens if your eyes do not focus together on the
same object?
Hint: Your ability to focus is limited.
4. Why does the sound of a flying airplane usually seem
to come after the sight of it?
Hint: The speed of light is faster than the speed of
sound.
5. Why do you perceive objects directly in front of you
better than those slightly to the sides but within your
vision?
Hint: Your field of vision has limits.
These questions form the basis of how vision works. They
may be obvious to some people, but nevertheless, further
analysis is necessary for normal and abnormal vision to be
understood.
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34
Figure 4.1 The composition of an object affects how it reflects

light. In this computer illustration, the sphere at right is opaque and
reflects very little light. The sphere in the middle has a mirrored surface that reflects all light that strikes it. The sphere at left is translucent. Light that strikes a translucent surface is both reflected and
refracted (bent).
SIGHT IS . . .
With our eyes open, we see objects of different colors lit by
an illuminating sourcea lamp, a candle, a cars headlight,
or natural sunlight. For humans, the ultimate source of light
is the Sun. Without sunlight, we can see only by using artificial light sources. Why is light necessary for vision? Imagine
standing in a closed room with only one light source. Objects
in that room can be perceived only when the light is on. When
Vision
the light is off, objects disappear from our sight. Switching

a light from on to off does not cause objects to mysteriously
vanish. It is more logical to assume that the objects remain
where they are but that the light gives them appearance,
or brings them to life. Light is physical energy (similar
to sound) that travels in space. When light encounters an
object, it will hit the object and reflect off of it, just like a ball
bounces off of a wall. In this case, the object is referred to
as opaque (Figure 4.1). If the object is too thin, however,
light may penetrate the object, and the object is said to be
transparent.
LIGHT IS . . .
Light is similar to sound in a way. Just like sound, it can
be described by its wavelength. Sound is a physical event
(movement or vibration of air molecules) that obeys physical laws (travels at a specific speed, in all directions). Light
is also a physical event (movement or vibration of photons)
that obeys the same physical laws. The following concept is
hard to grasp at first: Light is not infinitely fast. When a light
bulb is switched on, it may appear as though light is generated instantaneously, but this is not the case. In fact, light
travels at a defined and measurable speed, just like sound
although light travels much faster than sound. Because of
its extreme speed, light reaches us in almost no time for
relatively close illuminated objects. For example, light from
a source one mile away reaches us in approximately five millionths of a second. The speed of light is approximately 300
million meters per second (approximately 671 million miles
per hour). Compare this speed to the typical speed of a car
on the highway (27 meters per second; 60 miles per hour),
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Measuring the Speed of Light

In the early seventeenth century, many scientists believed that
there was no such thing as the speed of light. They thought
that light could travel any distance in no time at all. Galileo
disagreed, and he came up with an experiment to measure
lights speed. He and his assistant each took a shuttered lantern,
and they stood on hilltops one mile apart. Galileo flashed his
lantern, and the assistant was supposed to open the shutter to
his own lantern as soon as he saw Galileos light. Galileo timed
how long it took before he saw the light from the other hilltop.
He did not find significant delay because it takes light less than
10 millionths of a second to travel a mile, which was too fast
to be measured at the time. The speed of light was more or less
accurately measured half a century later by two French scientists
(Armand Fizeau and Leon Foucault). Each used a slightly
different technique but Fizeau relied on a lantern, a mirror, and
a fast-rotating toothed wheel. The wheel was placed between the
lantern and the mirror so that, as the wheel rotated with a known
speed, the light flickered through the gaps in the wheel and
hit the mirror. If the wheel rotated at a certain speed, the light
would not return to its source because it hit the teeth instead
of the gaps in the wheel. Taking into consideration the speed of
the wheel, the distance between the mirror and the wheel, and
the distance between two teeth of the wheel, the speed of light
was measured with an acceptable accuracy. The speed of light
was further refined at the turn of the twentieth century by Albert
Abraham Michelson to be 186,355 miles per second. In 1983,
the value for the speed of light was defined as 299,792,458 m/s
(186,282 miles/s).
Vision
or that of a bullet fired from a gun (1,000 meters per second;

2,237 miles per hour).
When illuminated objects are far away from us, although
light eventually reaches us, it does so with considerable
delay. It is thought that some stars we observe shining at
night may not exist at the time we see them. This is because
some stars are so far away that light from these shining stars
takes months or even years to reach us. Imagine someone
running toward you from a starting point a few feet away
and another person starting a mile away. Who would reach
you first if they both run at the same speed? Similarly, light
escapes from a star and sets out on a long journey through
the vast emptiness of the universe to get to you; that star
could have exploded and disappeared before its light reached
you. The result of this is that the glittering stars we enjoy on
a summer night may not be the real picture of what is in the
universe at the time we are gazing up at the night sky. What
we see is relative to how far the object is from us.
LIGHT PARTICLES TRAVEL

IN WAVES THAT EVOKE COLORS
What is the physical object that we call light that is
capable of traveling from distant places? Light is made up
of particles called photons. Photons are so small that we cannot see them with the naked eye or any type of microscope.
Light is created whenever an event frees enough energy to
move, or animate, photons. Animated photons vibrate at a
certain speed and with certain, specific characteristics that
determine the intensity of the light (brightness) and color
(reddish for weaker light and bluish for more intense light).
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Figure 4.2 Light that passes through a prism is split into the full
spectrum of light. Each color of light has a specific wavelength.
In fact, ordinary artificial light (electric lamp) or natural light

(sunlight) is perceived as white to yellowish in color, which
is actually a combination of all colors. White light is what
you get when all colors of light combine (including blue and
green). White color can in turn be separated into individual
colors as it travels through space and encounters certain
objects. For example, when light hits water vapor in the air
during a light rainfall (or just after a heavier rain), a rainbow
may appear. That is because the sunlight is bouncing against
the tiny drops of rainwater still hanging in the air. This splits
sunlight into all the colors of the rainbowor the spectrum
of light (Figure 4.2).
Another way to demonstrate the nature of light is by looking at a natural phenomenon that happens every day: sunset.
At noon on a clear day, the Sun is very bright and white. This
is the time of day when the Sun is directly vertical to the
Vision
Figure 4.3 A picture of a sunset reflected on a lake at

Superstition Mountain Country Club in Arizona. Sunsets
occur at different times each day and are noted for the soft
shades of red, orange, and yellow light that cover the sky.
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surface of Earth. The closer the Sun is to Earth (at noon), the
more intense the light will be and the brighter the sunlight.
At sunset, however, Earths surface (at the point at which we
stand to observe the sunset) rotates away from the Sun. As
we move away from the sun, the distance between the Sun
and us increases. This makes it more difficult for light (made
of photons) to reach us because the light has to travel a larger
distance at the same speed it travels any other time. When
the light finally reaches us, it is less bright than at noon. In
addition to the less intense light, sunsets are characterized by
the smooth and rather pleasant transition from bright yellowish light to a softer orange, and finally a reddish color as
the sun sinks behind the horizon (Figure 4.3). Partly cloudy
skies at sunset may appear completely red minutes before
dark. When the Sun quietly disappears, it does not actually
dim the way a light switch in your home might dim. In other
words, the light intensity of the Sun is still the same, but it
loses more energy as it reaches us, which results in a change
in color.
AT FIRST SIGHT
With an opaque object, light is reflected off of it and travels in many directions, including toward our eyes. If asked
to identify what we see, we usually start by describing the
objects shape and color. The shape is determined by the
different reflections of the light off of the different parts of
the objects. If the object is a simple box, we describe it as
such because light that hits the different corners of the box is
reflected in such a way that the front edge of the box emits
reflected light a bit more strongly than does the back edge
(giving the impression of perspective). This results in light
Vision
that reaches our eyes at different intensities. Stated differently, light reflected off of objects can be compared to a mold
or cast that, when hit with your fist, will retain the shape of
the fist. In a similar way, light that hits an object will retain
the exact form of that object and reflect it in many directions.
Once reflected light reaches our eyes, we perceive the shape
and color of the object.
LIFE IN COLORS
Shape, color, and dimension are what we see in any object.
But though you might say, My house is brown, or My
shirt is red, objects do not have colors. They simply
reflect light. So what exactly is color, then?
First of all, objects must be opaque (not see-through) in
order for them to have color. Once you know that, though,
you might wonder why certain apples look red and not blue
or green, when all they do is reflect light. Where does the
quality of redness come from? Remember that all light is
white, but that it can be split into the colors of the rainbow.
When light hits a red delicious apple, we see the apple as red.
This is because the apple absorbs all the colors in the light
spectrum except red, which is reflected back and absorbed
by our eyes.
Transparent objects, however, do not react this way to
light. For example, glass looks clear because light passes
right through and does not break up. Why, then, even though
air is also transparent, does the sky on a clear day appear
blue? And why, if the ocean is made of water, does it look
blue, green, or gray?
Lets start with the first question: The sky looks blue
because of a layer of air in the sky that reflects the light as
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blue. Molecules of air in that layer split up the white light

from the sun, which you see as the color blue. That bright
blue sky is part of what causes ocean water to look blue, too.
Ocean life (plant and animals) and sand are opaque objects
that mix with the water to give it an opaque surface. The surface of the ocean reflects the blue sky almost like a mirror.
A clean, healthy ocean looks blue on a sunny day because
it reflects the color of the sky. On a cloudy day, that same
ocean will appear pale or whiter than usual because white
light from the clouds is reflected in the water.
5
The Eye
It may sound bizarre to compare an eye to an ear, but these
two sensory organs have many features in common. A discussion of the similarities may help clarify how the nervous system
transforms light into vision and sound into hearing. This will also
answer the following questions and explain the links between
other types of sensory perception and corresponding organs:
1. Does the eye contain specialized neurons that sense light?
2. Are the light-sensing neurons in the eye connected to a
nerve that transmits information about light to the brain?
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3. Can the human eye detect all visual stimuli detected by

other animals such as cats or bats?
In contrast to the ear, the eye is connected to a set of muscles that allows it to achieve a wide range of motion without a
person having to rotate his or her head to locate a visual cue.
This range, however, is not complete, and rotating the head is
often necessary to follow a moving visual target.
EYE MOVEMENTS
Unlike the human ear, the human eye can move, and it is
protected by an eyelid that closes regularly (blinks). The eye
is controlled by muscles that contract to move the eye in all
directions except backward. These are the extraocular muscles. A set of two muscles connected to either side of the eye
permits left or right gaze. However, the eye actually rotates
away from the side of the contracting muscle and toward
the muscle that is simultaneously relaxing. Eye movements
are mostly under conscious control and therefore obey brain
commands. Accordingly, muscles connected to the eye are
themselves connected to the brain by nerves and respond to
brain commands for eye movements.
Most often eyes move at the same time, and in the same
speed and direction. Not only are both eyes under conscious
brain control, but they also receive similar commands from
neuronal pathways. This descending brain control first
comes from both sides of the brain (the left side of the brain
controls the right eye and vice versa) and then meets on a
specific nucleus in the brain stem before separating again
into left and right muscle command pathways. This meeting
in the brain stem ensures that the eyes move together.
The Eye
Figure 5.1 The eye converts light into electrical signals that are
passed on to the brain by the optic nerve.
ANATOMY OF THE EYE

But what is the eye made up of? The answer to this question
lies in the anatomy of the visual pathway, which starts from
the cornea and the optic nerve in the eye and goes to the back
of the brain (Figure 5.1).
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The Cornea
The front part of the eye is covered by a transparent sheet, or
membrane, that can easily be seen in the mirror. This membrane is the cornea, a clear surface that covers the iris and
pupil (discussed in the next sections). The eye is a fragile and
important organ that is exposed to the outside environment.
The cornea provides protection against physical damage and
foreign objects (such as insects and germs) because it is as
strong and durable as plastic. It is also as transparent and clear
as glass to allow as much light as possible to enter the eye. In
addition, the cornea resembles a special glass that functions
like the eyes outermost lens. This focuses the light onto the
retina. Another role for the cornea is protection against damaging ultraviolet (UV) radiation from natural sunlight, which
can be harmful to neurons in the retina. Unlike most tissues
in the body, the cornea does not receive a blood supply (perhaps to remain as transparent as possibleblood vessels may
interfere with light) and therefore relies on tears for nourishment. The cornea is also filled with many neurons that are
sensitive to painful events such as rubbing or scratching the
surface of the eye.
The Iris
The iris is the colored part of the eye. It is in fact a muscle
that cannot be consciously controlled. In contrast to the
transparent pupil that it surrounds, the iris is opaque. Pigment
in the iris gives the external color, such as blue, green, or,
more commonly, brown (or a combination of these colors)
to the human eye. Pigmentation may change slightly during
the first year or two after birth, but eye color almost always
remains permanent afterward. Surrounding the iris is another
The Eye
opaque surface of white color called the sclera. Although

normally white, the sclera has many small-diameter blood
vessels that cross just underneath to supply oxygen and
nutrients to neurons inside the eye. These blood vessels may
dilate, becoming more visible, when a person hasnt slept or
is exposed to prolonged high winds (driving with the windows down) or chlorinated water (swimming in a pool). Such
conditions give the sclera a reddish color (red eye).
The Pupil
In the outermost part of the eye, light first penetrates the
cornea and then enters through a transparent hole or window called the pupil, which is surrounded by the iris.
The pupil of the human eye is dark. Dark objects absorb
all natural light, while white objects reflect all of the wavelengths of light. Think of it this way: On a hot summer day, if
you stand outdoors exposed to the sunlight, you feel warmer
wearing dark clothes than you do in paler colors. Dark fabrics absorb more light, trapping more energy in the form
of heat. (That is a helpful tip for your next trip to the beach:
remember not to wear a black T-shirt!) Likewise, having a
dark pupil allows the human eye to absorb as much light as
possible.
Whereas the diameter of the iris does not change, the diameter of the pupil does change. In fact, the pupil is a hole that
varies in size depending on the intensity of the light. Small
muscles in the iris adjust the diameter of the pupil. When
these muscles contract, the pupils diameter enlarges, thus
widening the pupils size to allow more light into the eye;
this process is referred to as pupillary dilation (Figure 5.2). In
contrast, pupillary contraction occurs when the iris muscles
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Figure 5.2 This photograph, taken in dim light, shows the

human eye with a dilated pupil. Pupillary dilation occurs
when an iris needs more light, if a person is aroused, or it
can be induced by drugs. Extreme dilation is also known as
mydriasis.
relax, thus decreasing pupillary diameter. Therefore, in bright

light, iris muscles contract and decrease pupil diameter. The
size of the pupil changes rapidly in response to light; this is
easily observed when bright light is directed into someones
eye. In fact, pupils in both eyes will diminish in size even if
only one eye is subjected to direct light.
Humans cannot consciously adjust the size of their pupils;
therefore, it is referred to as a reflex. Similar to quickly and
unconsciously withdrawing an arm in response to a hot stove,
The Eye
Figure 5.3 A reflex is an action that is performed without

conscious effort. The knee-jerk reflex is controlled by neurons within the spinal cord. When the kneecap is tapped
with a mallet, sensory neurons transmit a signal to the
spinal cord. The signal is then relayed to the quadriceps
muscle, which contracts and causes the leg to kick up. The
papillary reflex (increasing or decreasing the size of the
pupils) works in a similar way. Unlike the knee-jerk reflex,
however, the papillary reflex is controlled by neurons in the
brain stem.
the amount of light allowed to enter the pupil is an automatic

action that occurs unconsciously. As is the case of an arm
jerking away from a hot stove, specialized parts of the spinal
cord control the reflex (Figure 5.3). Pupillary reflex, however,
is controlled by neuronal structures in the base of the brain
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(the brain stem). The pupils in both eyes contract or relax

to the same extent. When body movements are well coordinated, almost in an automatic or robotic way, such as in eye
movements, walking or jumping, it is generally a result of the
synchronized control of neurons in the spinal cord (for walking and jumping) or the brain (for eye movements). Neurons
in the brain may also contribute to the control of walking and
jumping in a different way: The brain sends a general order
to a neuronal command center in the spinal cord, which then
takes care of the second-by-second control of the relevant
group of muscles in the legs to work together. The brain also
sends another command to speed up or stop.
So, if bright light is directed at only one eye, the pupillary
reflex will be evoked in both eyes (even if the other eye is
in the dark). Medical doctors and emergency health professionals use this valuable information to test for brain damage
after events such as a car accident or a fall. They do this by
directing a light into the eye of a traumatized, unconscious
person. An absence of the pupillary reflex indicates severe
brain damage that involves the brain stem.
The Lens
After passing through the pupil, light reaches the lens of
the eye. Without a lens, light would spread throughout the
internal surface of the eye. Light rays travel straight if uninterrupted, but they may either reflect back on their original
source if they encounter an opaque object (for example, a
mirror) or continue to travel through a transparent object but
change from a straight path (Figure 5.4). As a result, transparent objects bend (refract) light differently, so that each
transparent object has a different refractive index.
The Eye
Figure 5.4 Light is refracted when it passes through glass

or the lens of the eye. The angle at which the light strikes
the surface is known as the angle of incidence (1). The
angle of the light that is refracted is known as the angle of
refraction (2). The amount of refraction is equal to the difference between the angle of incidence (1) and the angle
of refraction (2). The greater the difference, the more the
light has been refracted.
For example, a diamond has a very high refractive index

compared to glass or water; therefore, light is highly
refracted by diamond, resulting in a diamonds shiny glitter.
As photons (tiny particles that make up light) cross from one
medium to another (such as from air to glass or water), their
speed is slowed by the atoms within the medium. This loss
of speed is evident by the transfer of energy from photons to
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the atoms that make up the transparent object, mainly in the

form of heat (objects penetrated by light heat up).
The lens not only refracts light that enters the human eye,
but also focuses it on a particularly sensitive area in the back
of the eye for the detection of photons. Light rays enter the
eye at different degrees, however, depending on the location
of the light source. The lens then adapts to different light
angles to refract different light rays properly and bends
them to strike the sensitive area in the back of the eye. The
refractive index or power of the lens to adapt is a process
called accommodation.
The eyes lens is connected to muscles located behind the
iris within a structure called the ciliary body. In people who
have normal vision, the ciliary body flattens the lens in order
to bring objects into focus at a distance of 20 feet (6 meters)
or more. To see closer objects, this muscle contracts to
thicken the lens (Figure 5.5). Young children can see objects
at very close range, whereas many older people have to hold
objects farther and farther away to see them clearly. This is
because the lens becomes less elastic as people age. Just like
a camera lens, the eyes lens focuses light to form sharp,
clear images. It is important to note that distant objects tend
to emit light in a nearly parallel trajectory, thus requiring
minimal refraction by the eye for proper accommodation.
Light emitted by closer objects reaches the eye along a more
diverging path, thus requiring stronger accommodation
to converge them back into the photosensitive area in the
back of the internal eye. In this case, the ciliary body contracts and thickens the lens, which refracts light more.
Because we are constantly bombarded by light sources at
close range, such as computers and televisions, it is recommended that we relax our ciliary bodies by taking a break
The Eye
Figure 5.5 Ciliary muscles relax and the lens flattens to

focus on distant objects (top). To focus on close objects,
the ciliary muscles contract and the lens becomes more
round (bottom).
and looking at faraway objects, such as a landscape in natural

sunlight, for at least a few minutes daily.
The Retina
Light that enters the eye eventually hits the photosensitive
area in the back of the inner eye called the retina. The retina
contains a layer of cells sensitive to light known as photoreceptors. All of the structures in the eye serve three main
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purposes: (1) to protect the eye from foreign objects such as

insects and microbes, (2) to capture light most efficiently, and
(3) to focus light on photoreceptors in the retina. The photoreceptors are connected to neurons that transfer light-related
information to the brain so we can see objects. Without the
retina, normal vision is impossible.
When a stimulus in the environment comes in contact with
our skin, we perceive the touch sensation as a gentle stroke,
tingle, pressure, or pinch depending on the properties of the
stimulus. In addition, every object has a temperature that is
detected by specialized receptors on our skin. Neurons then
transform these physical phenomena (touch and temperature)
into sensory experiences that are often memorable if either
pleasant (such as a kiss) or unpleasant (such as a burn). This
principle of transforming physical energy from the external
environment into codes that the brain can decode as sensation also applies to vision. Light focused on the retina excites
photoreceptors that create electrical activity that in turn
excites neurons connected to these receptors.
There are two types of photoreceptors in the human eye,
which are named according to their shape (Figure 5.6). These
photoreceptors resemble a cone or a rod, and thus they are
referred to as cones or rods. They differ not only in size and
shape, but also in how they work. Rods are more numerous
(roughly 120 million per eye) and are more sensitive to brightness or light intensity than cones. Cones are more sensitive to
color, however, so the 6 to 7 million cones provide the eye
with color sensitivity. Cones are also tuned to certain colors
of the light spectrum and are better adapted for vision during
the day and in bright light. In contrast, rods are better adapted
for dark vision or vision in dim light. Cones also detect details
in a visual stimulus such as small-type on a page or the fine
The Eye
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Figure 5.6 Above, a cross-section of the human retina, a thin membrane that lines the back of the eyeball, containing photoreceptor
cells known as rods and cones. The rod cells (white) are responsible
for distinguishing between light and dark, while the cone cells (yellow)
are responsible for color vision and acuity.
texture of an object. In contrast, rods tend to be less sensitive

to details and rely mostly on the general features of an object
such as its outline or rough dimensions such as height.
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The Macula, the Fovea, and the Foveola

Photoreceptors and neurons within the retina are not spread
out on the retinal surface equally. These cells are densely
packed within one area of the retina called the macula. In
addition, at the center of the macula, there is a smaller area
where only cones, and no rods, are found. This area in the
macula is called the fovea centralis (or simply, the fovea).
Within the fovea, an even smaller area called the foveola is
more densely packed with cones.
Cones allow humans to have sharp vision. Loss of cones
or damage to the retina at the macula causes legal blindness,
which is blindness as defined by law. A legally blind person
can detect some light, rough shadows, and shapes, but not
letters or signs. The eye moves constantly to keep the source
of light reflected from the object of interest falling on the
fovea, where cones are found in the highest density.
Cones also provide the eyes color sensitivity. Each group
of cones responds in different ways to different colors. In
fact, each group of cones may be sensitive to different wavelengths of light. It is estimated that millions of conesmore
than half of the cone populationcan be classified as red
cones. Green and blue cones make up the rest of the
population. The green and red cones are concentrated in
the fovea centralis. The blue cones have the highest sensitivity and are mostly found outside the fovea, leading to some
distinctions in the eyes perception of the color blue.
Natural light is the combination of all colors. Daylight,
therefore, would be expected to stimulate all types of cones
in the fovea, whereas light reflected from a red apple will
stimulate red cones much more than the green or blue
cones. The fovea is the point of sharpest vision because of the
high density of cones.
The Eye
The World Upside Down

Light waves from an object, such as a tree, enter the eye first
through the cornea, which is the clear dome at the front of the
eye. The light then progresses through the pupil, the circular
opening in the center of the colored iris. Next, the light passes
through the crystalline lens, which is located immediately behind
the iris and the pupil.
Initially, the light waves are bent by the cornea and then
further by the crystalline lens, to a nodal point (N) located
immediately behind the back surface of the lens. At that point,
the image becomes reversed (turned backward) and inverted
(turned upside down).
Images formed on the retina are reversed and upside down. When
the image is processed by the brain, it is restored to its correct
orientation.
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Because the fovea is located roughly in the center of the

macula (itself located in the center of the retina in the back
of the eye), the ability to see details and colors is dependent
on light hitting the fovea. In other words, a person must look
straight at the object in question by coordinating eye movements and head rotation to bring that object into his or her
central field of vision.
Rod Photoreceptors
In spite of the contribution of cones to color vision and sharpness of vision, cones are in fact less sensitive to light than
rods are. Rods are incredibly efficient photoreceptors, about a
thousand times more sensitive to light and much more numerous than cones. Being less sensitive to light, cones respond
better to strong light, whereas rods, being more sensitive,
respond to both weak and strong light. It turns out that rods
require more time (a few seconds to as much as 10 to 20
minutes) than cones to adapt when suddenly exposed to light.
Daylight vision (cone vision) adapts much more rapidly to
changing bright light levels. Cones can adjust to rapid color
and intensity changes in less than a few seconds.
Differences in daylight vision and night vision can be
demonstrated easily. For example, a person needs a few
minutes to adjust fully when stepping from bright daylight
into a dark room, or when driving in the open on a clear day
and suddenly entering a tunnel. This type of vision is mediated by cones. Night vision is not affected by colored lights
because rods are not sensitive to color. This is partly why
cars are equipped with red taillights, which do not disturb
night vision as much as white light, such as that produced
by a cars headlights.
The Eye
HOW DO CONES AND RODS WORK?

From its source, light (natural sunlight or artificial electrical light) bounces off objects and toward the eye, where
it enters through the cornea and the pupil. The light travels all the way to the retina, where photoreceptors (cones
and rods) await the light after its long journey in space
and within the eye. The cones and rods contain proteins
that are deformed by light photons and initiate a chemical reaction that results in an electrical current. In fact,
cones and rods are neurons. Like all other neurons, they
generate electrical signals in response to proper stimuli or
relay the message from other neurons.
Cones and rods contain different light-sensitive proteins.
In rods, the protein is called rhodopsin. Rhodopsin breaks
down into two different molecules called opsin and retinal
when it is exposed to even one photon. Interestingly, retinal
is a derivative of vitamin A. Because carrots provide a natural
nutrient source for vitamin A, it is commonly believed that
eating carrots aids vision. Although there is some truth to this
belief, it is misleading to think that carrots can treat serious
visual problems such as astigmatism or cataracts.
Light causes electrical activity in rods and cones that are
connected to other neurons that are, in turn, connected to
other neurons. In this visual pathway, the message is carried
from one neuron (starting in the rods and cones in the retina
of the eye) to the next in the pathway until it reaches specific
brain areas. Like all neurons, cones produce an electrical
impulse that travels along the nerve fiber and then must reset
to fire again. The light adaptation is thought to occur through
adjustment of this reset time, which simply takes longer in
cones. Brain areas that contain neurons that finally receive
and process this neuronal electrical signal are located mainly
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Figure 5.7 Visual signals crossover to the opposite side of

the brain for processing. The left side of the brain is responsible for processing the right visual field (red area in front
of eyes), while the right side of the brain processes the left
visual field (blue area in front of the eyes).
in the back of the brain. All the light information that has
been converted in the retina to an electrical signal is sent
outside of the retina through the optic nerve in each eye.
Tracing the visual pathway from neurons in each eye to the
visual centers in the back of the brain is complicated, because
The Eye
some neurons send their axons along a twisted path to many

brain centers, including in the brain stem. There are two portions of the optic nerve in each eye that meet in the middle of
the brain, forming the optic chiasm (Figure 5.7).
Beyond the optic chiasm, the nerves carrying visual information toward the back of the brain are referred to as optic
tracts (instead of optic nerves). This complex migration of
nerves from the eye ensures that the left side of the brain is
responsible for vision of objects viewed on the right side of
the body (or in the right visual field) and vice versa. This
is not surprising if one compares the visual system to other
sensory pathways, such as that for touch, whereby the right
side of the body is felt by the left side of the brain and vice
versa. This setup is not limited to sensory systems, but is also
a property of the motor system: Willful orders to move the
right side of the body are initiated on the left side of the brain
and vice versa.
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6
Visual
Abnormalities
The cones and rods are nourished by many blood vessels that
lie just beneath the surface of the retina, forming a layer known as
the choroid. Cones and rods in the retina are highly active (almost
all the time your eyelids are open), requiring maintenance and
nutrients from the choroid layer. The photoreceptors also generate
waste chemicals as by-products of their high activity level. The
outermost surface of the retina creates a critical passageway for
nutrients from the choroid to the retina and helps remove waste
products from the retina to the choroids. This layer is called the
retinal pigment epithelium (RPE).
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Visual Abnormalities
COMMON VISUAL DEFECTS

The RPE normally deteriorates with age and can lose its pigment and become thin. As a result, the waste-removing and
nutritional functions between the retina and the choroid can
gradually deteriorate. Lacking nutrients, the light-sensitive
cells of the macula become damaged. The damaged cells can
no longer send normal signals through the optic nerve to the
brain, and vision may become blurry. This is often the first
symptom of the condition known as macular degeneration.
Other visual abnormalities include astigmatism, nearsightedness, farsightedness, strabismus, cataracts, and color blindness. The first three of these conditions relate to one common
mechanism in the eye called accommodation. Recall how
light enters the eye through the cornea first and then through
the pupil and the lens and travels all the way to the back of
the eye, where the retina contains photoreceptors. The main
function of the lens is to focus the entering beam of light onto
the retina.
If the muscles that control the accommodation power of
the lens are weak, light from far-away objects will be focused
behind the retina and therefore the image of the object will be
out of focus. Similarly, nearby objects could be out of focus
with the image focused in front of the retina. Both of these
conditions can be corrected by wearing eyeglasses or contact
lenses. These lenses help bring images within the retina in
focus.
Astigmatism is a visual defect that causes blurred
vision as a result of an abnormal curve of the cornea.
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Figure 6.1 Nearsightedness and farsightedness are corrected by using a lens to move the focal point to the correct
location on the retina. The path of light without correction
is marked by black lines in the illustration above.
Wearing eyeglasses or contact lenses can generally

improve vision.
Nearsightedness (myopia or shortsightedness) occurs
when the lens of the eye focuses light in front of the
retina instead of directly on it (Figure 6.1). This causes
the image of an object to form slightly in front of the
retina, making it blurry. People with myopia do not see
well far away but can see close objects clearly. This
condition tends to become gradually worse with age.
Laser eye surgery is a treatment option that changes the
shape of the cornea.
Farsightedness (hyperopia) is a condition in which the
incoming image is focused behind the retina, resulting in a blurred image of close objects (distant objects
Figure 6.2 The grey, opaque mass obscuring the pupil of

the eye is a mature cataract. Aging, steroid use, and diseases such as diabetes can all lead to the onset of cataracts. Although cataracts never cause complete blindness,
a persons sight becomes limited and vision progressively
worsens if not corrected by surgery.
are still seen clearly). Corrective lenses can help this

defect, but the condition may get worse with age.
Cataracts are a cloudiness of the eyes lens that prevents light from reaching the retina (Figure 6.2).
Having cataracts has been described as looking through
a dirty window. Corrective lenses are not a good option
for people with cataracts. Rather, surgery to remove the
cataracts is common. It is advisable to treat cataracts at
a young age to prevent permanent visual defects.
Color blindness is the inability to detect or perceive
one color, some colors, or all colors. It is generally
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caused by the absence of certain cones in the retina

that are responsible for detecting colors. People with
color blindness usually do not have other visual
defects. The most frequent type of color blindness is
the inability to distinguish red and green pigments.
This condition is mostly genetic. Unfortunately, it cannot be corrected.
Complete blindness is complete insensitivity to light.
This severe condition may be temporary or permanent.
Damage to any of the structures of the eye, by disease
(such as diabetes), accident, or old age may lead to
blindness. Permanent blindness, for example, can be
caused by an object penetrating the eye and severely
damaging the retina (where photosensitive neurons
transform light into electrical signals). It could also be
caused by a tumor growing outside the eye and pressing
against the optic nerve, interrupting the flow of information from the eye to the brain.
Conjunctivitis is inflammation of the external eye. It
is associated with redness around the pupil and sometimes pain. One type of conjunctivitis is called pinkeye.
Some forms of conjunctivitis result from allergies or
a scratch on the surface of the eye and can be easily
treated with medicine in the form of eyedrops.
Strabismus is a condition in which the eyes look
crossed. Strabismus results from a muscle coordination
defect that may later lead to a visual defect because
images formed on the retina may not match in both
eyes. Corrective lenses cannot solve the problem of
strabismus. Instead, surgery, especially early in childhood, can be used to prevent permanent visual defects.
Untreated visual defects may also cause severe headaches.

Proper eye care may prevent damage that causes visual
defects. Such care includes periodic eye exams by an eye
specialist.
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7
Smell and Taste
Smell and taste are chemical senses that provide us with
valuable information to explore our environment. Thanks to smell,
we are constantly testing the quality of the air as we breathe.
Aside from being used to smell perfumes and food, the sense of
smell can save lives. For example, people often detect the smell of
smoke from a hazardous fire before they hear an alarm.
Even newborn babies make faces that indicate their dislike of
fishy or rotten odors; however, the sense of smell declines with
age. Older people gradually lose their sense of smell to the point
of being anosmic (unable to smell a certain odor or several odors,
probably because of the loss of neurons). With the loss of the
sense of smell comes the loss of the sense of taste. As is most
obvious in conditions of nose blocks caused by a common cold or
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Smell and Taste
a runny nose, the sense of smell contributes to the sense of

taste (this is why food tastes different when you are sick and
stuffed up). Smell and taste are both essential for animals
to explore their environment. Some scientists estimate that
humans can distinguish among as many as 10,000 different
smells.
Gases mixing with objects or evaporating from them carry
certain molecules characteristic of these objects. These molecules may reach the nose and dissolve in the mucus, helping
to generate particular odors. These molecules are referred
to as odorants. To be able to reach us, odorants need to be
volatile (dispersed in air).
Our sensitivity to smell depends on more than just the
strength of our senses. For instance, we are less sensitive
to odorants in the cold for two reasons. One reason for this
is that gases evaporate less in cold weather than in warm
weather; therefore, spring and summer are the best times to
smell. Another reason is that warm weather makes odorants
more soluble and so they mix better with our mucus. This
enhances our sense of smell.
Odors are distinctiveso distinctive that certain animals,
including common pets, use them to identify other animals or
humans. Odorants can have a powerful influence over mating behavior, whereby secreted molecules may prepare an
animal for pairing. In addition, strong odorants secreted in a
dogs urine are used to mark territory. In these cases, odorants are more accurately called pheromones (Figure 7.1).
Although the sense of smell is highly developed in humans,
pheromones are thought to influence human behavior less
than animal behavior.
The sensitivity of a dogs sense of smell allows it to determine the direction or trail of a human by odor. Apparently,
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Figure 7.1 Pheromones are chemicals produced to send messages to

other members of the same species. In the above photograph, a honeybee fans pheromones from its Nasanoff gland, a common form of
communication with other bees.
each one of us has a unique smell or body odor. In fact, even

certain types of twins have distinct body odors. Identical
twins, however, who share similar genes, also share similar
odors; therefore, dogs cannot distinguish between identical
twins based on odor.
THE NOSE
Odorants, when inhaled, enter the nose through the nostrils.
In the roof of each nostril is a region called the nasal mucosa.
Smell and Taste
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Figure 7.2 Smell receptors are located in the nasal cavity. Once a
receptor is stimulated, an electrical signal is created and passed on to
the olfactory bulb, which then relays the information to the brain.
This region contains the mucus-covered olfactory epithelium that in turn contains the sensory receptors or neurons.
Humans have approximately 10 million olfactory receptors;
other animals such as rats and cats have more. The sensory
sheath at the roof of the nostril also contains glands that produce mucus that bathes the surface of the receptors. This is
where odorant gas molecules dissolve.
Inside the nose, air travels toward odorant-sensitive cells
(neurons) that lie close to the bony structure at the top of the
nasal cavity (Figure 7.2). These cells have extensively branched
dendrites with receptors for different gaseous odorants.
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When activated by an odorant, these neurons generate an

electrical current that is relayed to another neuron above the
nasal cavity. These two types of neurons are separated by a
bony structure with small holes that allow communication
of electrical signals. Above the nasal cavity, a collection of
axons forms a swelling called a bulb (one per nostril). The
axons then carry odorant information to the brain through
distinct pathways. The brain processes this information as
a perception of smell. Some odorants are strongly linked to
powerful memories and therefore are processed by multiple
brain areas.
ANOSMIA
Severe head injury may damage communication among neurons in the smell pathway. This may cause a medical condition known as anosmia. Anosmia can be either the complete
absence of smell or loss of the ability to smell particular
odorants. Anosmia may also be temporary, caused by less
serious conditions such as a common cold with a running
or stuffy nose. In this case, the nasal cavity and membrane
may be inflamed and neurons do not process odorants as
well if the nasal cavity is very wet. This common type of
anosmia is obviously reversible, whereas anosmia caused
by brain injury is usually permanent. Other conditions may
trigger anosmia, including allergy to certain odorants or
thick smoke.
The sense of smell also undergoes adaptation. Notice how
we become accustomed to an odorant after we are exposed
to it for a long time: We lose our awareness of the smell. A
typical example of adaptation to smell is reduced sensitivity
Smell and Taste
to ones own perfume or natural smell after a short period

of time.
TASTE
The last sensory experience to be discussed in this book is
taste. This is not because taste is the least important of the
senses, but it is the least understood. Perhaps if most humans
were asked to choose between losing sight or hearing versus
losing taste, many would prefer to keep their visual and auditory capacity rather than the ability to taste food.
However, savoring food is not the only function of taste.
Before meats and vegetables were available in stores, people
had to hunt for meat or grow plants for food. Many chemical
substances available in nature, such as certain mushrooms,
are in fact toxic to humans. While gathering foods in nature,
humans had to rely on taste to distinguish toxic substances
from healthy ones. It is interesting to note that, generally,
toxic materials tend to have a sour or bitter taste, and therefore, it is natural to develop food aversion to bitter-tasting
food. (Many sour foods are healthy thoughfor example,
citrus fruits.)
THE TONGUE AND TASTE BUDS

INSIDE THE MOUTH CAVITY
A multitude of colors and a variety of sounds can be distinguished using the senses of vision and hearing. With taste
however, only four tastes, or a combination of these four, can
be distinguished: sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. Chemicals
within the mouth trigger each of these tastes. Just like stimuli
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Figure 7.3 The above image is a colored scanning electron micrograph of the surface of the human tongue. The tongue is covered with
protrusions called papillae. Taste buds line the surface of fungiform
papillae (round, red). Filiform papillae (pink) are the most numerous
and give the tongue its rough surface.
for vision and hearing, stimuli for taste are transformed into
electrical signals in neurons that relay taste-related information from the mouth to specific brain centers for conscious
experience. Inside the mouth, the tongue is the major organ
that contains taste-sensitive neurons. Although it is common
to think about taste being intimately associated with the
tongue, the sense of smell also plays a major role in human
taste experience. A simple way to demonstrate the association between taste and smell is by considering how food
tastes when your nose is stuffy.
Smell and Taste
In the tongue, taste-sensitive receptors are found in

grooves referred to as taste buds (Figure 7.3). The number of
taste buds is estimated to be approximately 10,000. Each bud
contains taste receptors that can detect different chemicals in
food (or other objects placed on the tongue). These receptors
are in turn connected to neurons that generate messages that
are ultimately sent to the brain.
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8
Synesthesia
We have learned about sound, sight, smell, and taste, and
how people experience these audio, visual, odorant, and taste
phenomena. This chapter looks at abnormalities, mostly abnormal visual experiences. It then asks, How can someone see
an object that is not really there? How can someone hear a
color or see a musical tune? Is this possible? Is there any
plausible scientific explanation? These are sensory abnormalities together known as synesthesia, a unique and rare sensory
experience (Figure 8.1). People who have synesthesia are called
synesthetes. A synesthete is not psychologically disturbed. He
or she simply judges sensory stimuli differently than others. Lets
imagine, for example, that our five senses get mixed together, so
we hear colors, smell taste, or see noise. This mix-up is thought
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77
Figure 8.1 Synesthesia can be described as the mixing of

the senses. For example, a person with synesthesia might
hear the color red or see music.
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to be caused by cross-wiring that occurs in brain areas that

mediate these sensations. Lets see further how this might
happen . . .
WHAT IS SYNESTHESIA?
The word synesthesia comes from the Greek syn, meaning
together and aesthesis, or perception. Certain synesthetes
can hear colors, whereas others can see sounds or feel tastes.
Let us consider John, Mary, and Eddie to be synesthetic.
When John listens to music, he sees the color red. When
Mary is playing with her blocks, she feels a sweet taste like
chocolate in her mouth. When Eddie sees a red light, he hears
a soft melody instead. Synesthesia is a strange biological
condition, yet people who experience it are ordinary human
beings in other aspects of their lives; the only difference is
that some of their five senses are mixed up instead of being
separate. We will try to better explain synesthesia by answering the following questions:
When was it discovered?

How did scientists discover it?
Is it real or fake?
What do people with synesthesia really experience?
What does it teach us about the mysteries of the brain?
WHEN WAS SYNESTHESIA DISCOVERED?

Scientists have been aware of synesthesia for many years,
but it was not understood very well. Because synesthesia
Synesthesia
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Figure 8.2 For many years, scientists have doubted the reality of synesthesia, however, several experiments have affirmed that it is indeed
a real condition.
is not a disease, little attention was paid to the condition

and only a few studies were conducted. Scientists have only
recently investigated the mechanisms that underlie synesthetic feelings and explored them within the nervous system,
particularly in the brain. Several experiments conducted on
volunteer subjects have reaffirmed to many skeptical scientists that those who can see smells or hear colors are not
guessing or pretending. What they are sensing is in fact real
(Figure 8.2).
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A QUICK LOOK AT
SYNESTHETIC EXPERIMENTS
Here are the details of a modified experiment:
Consider a square. Inside this square, the numbers 2 (in
red) and 5 (in black) are grouped together as follows:
2552225
5252552
5522225
2255225
In this example, it is easy for a normal volunteer observer
to tell the difference between the number 2 and the number 5
with a quick glimpse because 5 is in black and 2 stands out
in red.
Now consider the same square containing the numbers 2
and 5 in which these numbers are both in black color:
2552225
5252552
5522225
2255225
In contrast to the previous example, it is more difficult to
distinguish between the two numbers because they seem to
be fused together. The only way to tell the difference would
be to take the time to read each number.
Now consider a volunteer synesthetic person, someone
who happens to associate the number 2 with the color red and
5 with the color blue, for example. For this person, making a
clearer distinction between the black 2s and the black 5s does
Synesthesia
not require much extra effort. For this particular synesthetic

person, the square shown in the second example (both numbers in black) will appear as:
2552225
5252552
5522225
2255225
Scientists also conducted this pop-out test on volunteers
to determine whether an individual who is synesthetic lives
a real sensory experience evoked by a physical stimulus (in
this example, the visual stimulus of the square and colored
numbers) or if synesthesia was merely a product of the imagination of nonexistent stimuli or physical objects. The same
numbers were now put in a square, but this time the 2s were
grouped together to form the shape of a triangle, as follows:
5525555
5222555
2222255
2222225
5525555
5222555
2222255
2222225
Figure A
Figure B
Results of this experiment were as follows:

A. For a normal volunteer, nothing unusual was reported.
As expected, with a quick glance at the numbers, the
subject saw black 2s and black 5s but no distinct pyramid (Figure A).
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B. For a synesthetic volunteer, however, the red pyramid

was easily identified. In this case, the synesthete associated the number 2 with the color red and the pyramid
popped out.
Many other experiments have been performed, and scientists now have significant evidence that synesthesia is real and
that it deserves to be explored more thoroughly. In the course
of their investigation, scientists have discovered fascinating
facts related to sensory experience in the human brain.
WHAT CAN SYNESTHESIA TELL US

ABOUT THE MYSTERIES OF THE BRAIN?
We need to understand how a normal human brain functions
in order to get a better grasp of how a synesthetes brain
works. This book has discussed the mechanisms that underlie normal vision, smell, sound, and taste, and how specific
neuronal pathways transform various stimuli into electrical
signals that are carried to specific brain areas.
Take the case of a normal subject seeing a number,
for example, the number 8. When light refracting from the
number 8 reaches the retina of the eye, photoreceptors in the
retina (rods and cones) generate electrical signals that are
relayed through the optic nerve, optic chiasm, and optic tract
to the back of the brain. Let us call that visual brain area X.
In a similar way, an odorant elicits a smell after it has been
transformed into electrical activity that the brain smell area
will decode as a sensory smell experience; let us call that
area Y. In a simplistic way, a synesthetic person might have
a pathway for vision that leads to Y (that of smell) and a
pathway that leads to X (vision). Or, that person might have
Synesthesia
a vision pathway that leads to Y (smell), and a smell pathway

that leads to X (vision). Other synesthetics may have direct
connections between X and Y centers with powerful communication pathways, so that any activation of X may also lead
Synesthesia Experiment
Here is a simple synesthesia experiment that you can try at home
with a group of friends.
1
3
4
5
6
Read a list of random numbers between 0 and 9 at a rate of

about one every 3 seconds. For example: 7, 9, 4, 0, 3, 8, 2,
5, 1, 6.
After each number is read, ask people to write down the
number and what COLOR that they associate with each
number.
Collect the answers. These will be called Answers #1.
Two to three weeks later, repeat the experiment, but change
the order of the numbers. For example: 3, 6, 5, 9, 4, 1, 7, 0,
5, 2, 8.
Collect the answers. These will be called Answers #2.
Compare Answers #1 with Answers #2. A person with
synesthesia will have all or most of the same number-color
pairs for both Answers #1 and Answers #2.
This experiment can also be done using letters instead of

numbers.
Source: Chudler, Eric H. Neuroscience for Kids. http://faculty.washington.edu/
chudler/syne.html.
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to activation of Y. Therefore, any visual experience would

also cause a smell associated with an image.
FOLLOW YOUR HEART

From the above examples, one can conclude that the brain
can trick us. It may elicit thoughts and feelings that others
may not judge to be valid. If so, how can we ever trust our
brains? To take this point even further, imagine you visit a
Seeing and Perception

To the right is an illustration called Duck-Rabbit. This is a copy
of an original sketch that was drawn in June 1945 by Ludwig
Wittgenstein, one of the most influential philosophical minds of
the twentieth century. He drew it to emphasize that seeing is
not enough and that careful investigation and attention are often
necessary to look and perceive a shape correctly.
In this sketch, two heads can be perceived depending on the
concentration or state of mind we are in. If we focus on the ears,
we might think that it is a rabbit, but if we focus on the mouth, we
are more inclined to say that it is a duck instead. The result is that
we can change our perception of the drawing (flip back and forth
between duck and rabbit) while the drawing itself does not change.
This is just a fantastic capability of the mind: to interpret what we
see differently depending on our concentration, mood, and previous
experiences. It is also an extremely valid point to make: The mind
is made out of a bunch of connections between cells in the nervous
system, but our brains are not like machines and humans are not
Synesthesia
foreign country where the majority of people are synesthetic;

they can all see perfumes. Wouldnt it be strange to be the
only person who could not see odors? After all, the color red
is red because the majority of us see it as redbut who
is to say what is really red and what is really green?
As you reflect on this dilemma, remember that all of our
sensory experiences cannot be analyzed or judged as unmistakable facts, realities, or universal truths; they are just the
product of our brains and what our brains decide to interpret
like robots. What to one person is red may be orange or purple to

someone else, and what to you smells like an exquisite perfume may
be intolerable to your friend.
Figure 8.2 Illustration of a Duck-Rabbit.
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depending on mood, experience, and memories. How many

times have we seen something that others claim was not
there? How many of us hold strong beliefs without scientific
evidence? Sometimes we just go with our hearts and feelings
instead of our rational minds, and often this is the best course
of action.
DO WE TRUST THE SENSES?

BE CAREFUL WITH WORDS
Can you describe a taste without saying a word? How would
you describe sweet to a person who cannot hear you? How
would a deaf person react to the cry of a baby? These questions are intended to emphasize the importance of language
in communicating our sensations and feelings to others. In
fact, language is central to human communication, and our
sensory experience would go largely unnoticed if we did not
talk about it with others.
With this in mind, what is the best way to pick the words
that perfectly match our sensations? When we say, This
apple tastes sweet, how do we know the other person really
appreciates sweetness? Does sweetness give pleasure to
everyone? Does everyone enjoy chocolate? Have you ever
met someone who likes sour or salty or spicy food more than
an apple pie?
NOT EVERYONE SHARES THE SAME TASTE

Not everyone likes classical music. Not everyone even agrees
what classical music really is or what it should sound like.
Isnt that confusing? By the same logic, not everyone totally
agrees that what you might be wearing is a burgundy, a
Synesthesia
reddish-purple, or a dark red shirt. Taken further, a person

who is colorblind might disagree with the rest of us completely. An anosmic person might walk next to a skunk and
smile. In the midst of this confusion about how to bring all
people into agreement with regards to words we use so frequently, there must be a rule, some source that we can refer to
for the final word in describing sensory perceptions. Right?
Well, not exactly . . .
Take your time to reflect on this rather confusing problem,
which has occupied the minds of many famous philosophers.
Talk to others about it, keep your eyes open for disagreements regarding colors and odors. Travel overseas, if possible, and get to know how people from other cultures are
moved by different melodies, different images, and the wide
variety of tastes. When you do, you will realize that the way
that we describe sensations is not written in stone. Language
is agreed upon by a society. The majority (but not necessarily everyone) accepts what is good music, bad food, or a
wonderful experience.
Next time you use similar words, do not be offended if others do not share your views, or look surprised if someone else
does not see at all what you see in front of your own eyes.
After all, what is green to you may be blue to others. In
the end, trust your senses, not the words.
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Glossary
Accommodation Ability of the lens to change shape in order to bring
an object into focus.

Adapt To accommodate; to respond favorably to changes in the
environment.
Anatomy The physical structure of a body or its parts.
Anosmia Complete or partial inability to perceive or smell odors.
Auditory nerve The collection of neurons that carry information
transmitted from the ear to the brain for sound perception.
Axon An extension of a neuron that transmits information to another
neuron; may be as long as 3 feet (0.9 m).
Bacterium A unicellular organism.
Brain stem The region at the base of the brain that controls many
unconscious functions, including respiration and heart rate.
Central nervous system (CNS) The part of the nervous system contained within the skull (brain) and the vertebral column (spinal cord).
Cerebral cortex The outermost layer of the brain, which contains cell
bodies of neurons. The human cerebral cortex is the largest part of
the brain in mammals.
Decode To translate a code into a meaningful signal.
Degenerate To degrade or shrink.
Dendrite An extension of the cell body of the neuron that receives
information.
Dendritic tree An extension of a neuron that receives information
from another neuron; may be one dendrite or many, forming a tree
shape.
Descending brain control Commands from the brain that travel down
through specific pathways.
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Glossary
89
Eardrum A thin membrane (also called the tympanic membrane) that
separates the outer ear from the middle ear. Its function is to transmit sound from the air inside the middle ear.
Field of vision The part of space within sight.
Food aversion Repulsion from food because of a bad experience,
odor, or taste.
Forces of cohesion Forces that bring molecules or objects together;
molecules are subject to forces that are either repulsive or cohesive.
Frequency The scientific description of the number of events that
happen for a given time; the universal unit is the Hertz, abbreviated
as Hz or one event per second, for example, a musical beat of three
Hz is a beat that occurs three times per second.
Gland Body tissue formed by many cells that release small molecules
into the bloodstream. These molecules usually target organs of the
body that could be far away from the gland.
Glia Supportive cells of the nervous system that provide nutrients and
maintain homeostasis of neurons.
Homeostasis Maintaining balance to achieve a beneficial stable
environment.
Incus Small bone (ossicle) shaped like an anvil that together with the
malleus and stapes relays vibration from the eardrum to the auditory nerve for perception.
Inner ear The part of the ear inside the eardrum and the skull,
directly connected to the brain.
Iris The contractile membrane of the eye perforated by the pupil and
located between the cornea and the lens.
Malleus Small bone (ossicle) shaped like a hammer that together
with the incus and stapes relays vibration from the eardrum to the
auditory nerve for perception.
Molecule The smallest unit into which a substance can be divided
without changing its chemical properties. A molecule is made out
of two or more atoms.
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Glossary
Morphology The shape of a biological organ, tissue, or cell.

Multiple sclerosis A disease of the central nervous system associated
with degeneration of the myelin around the axons in the brain or the
spinal cord, leading to muscular weakness or psychological deficits.
Nervous system A collection of neurons that forms a network and
includes the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous
system.
Neurons Cells that are building blocks of the nervous system and
contain a nucleus inside a cell body, axon(s), and dendrite(s).
Neuroscience A field of science related to the nervous system.
Nucleus A collection of neuronal cell bodies clustered together (or
the part of a cell that contains genetic material).
Odorant A substance or object that causes odor.
Olfactory epithelium Cells lining the nose that contain smell
receptors.
Opaque Opposite of transparent; an adjective that describes objects
that deflect light (or reflect it completely) and therefore prevent
light behind them from reaching our eyes (hide objects behind
them).
Optic chiasm The intersection of the left and right optic nerves.
Outer ear The part of the ear outside of the skull and the eardrum.
Perception Conscious interpretation of a sensory stimulus.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) The part of the nervous system
contained outside the skull (brain) or the vertebral column (spinal
cord); any neuron other than one in the brain or the spinal cord.
Pheromones Chemicals produced by living organisms that transmit
messages to other members of the same species.
Photon A particle of light.
Photosensitive Sensitive to light.
Receptor An organ that receives or senses a stimulus.
Reflex A reaction that is fast and does not require brain commands
(unconscious).
Glossary
91
Refractive index The ability of objects to deflect light to certain
degrees, for example, water has a higher refractive index than air
and therefore bends or deflects light more than air.
Regenerate To regrow.
Retina Structure at the back of the eye that receives light from the
lens and converts it into a nerve impulse.
Spectrum of light The rainbow of colors, or light of all possible
wavelengths.
Stapes Small bone (ossicle) shaped like a stirrup that together with
the malleus and incus relays vibration from the eardrum to the auditory nerve for perception.
Stem cells Cells that have the capacity to differentiate into different
organs, for example, a stem cell can become a heart fiber, a liver
cell, or a neuron.
Synapse The site of contact between neurons for the relay of
messages.
Synesthesia Abnormal sensory experience.
Transparent Opposite of opaque; an adjective that describes objects
that do not deflect light and therefore appear clear, allowing light
behind them to reach our eyes (show objects behind them).
Unicellular Formed by only one cell, for example, organisms such as
bacteria (singular, bacterium).
Visceral Pertaining to internal organs such as the stomach (in contrast
to somatic or external organs such as skin).
Visual cues Sensory information received by the eyes.
Wavelength If sound can be represented by waves, wavelength is the
scientific description of the distance between repeating peaks of the
wave pattern. Longer wavelength is a slower wave.
Bibliography
Chudler, Eric H. Neuroscience for Kids. http://faculty.washington.edu/
chudler/neurok.html.
Cleveland Clinic. The Cleveland Clinic Health Information Center.
http://www.clevelandclinic.org/health/.
Farabee, M.J. The Nervous System. http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/
faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookNERV.html.
Fowler, Michael. The Speed of Light.
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/lectures/spedlite.html
Hegeds, Katalin. Neuroanatomy Structures and Their English and
Latin Names. http://www.neuropat.dote.hu/anastru/anastru.htm.
Kandel, Eric R., James Schwartz, and Thomas Jessell. Principles of
Neural Science. New York: McGraw Hill, 2000.
Khowaja, Fahad, Chen Jun Lee, Sarabjit Singh, et al. Speed of
Light. Thinkquest.
http://library.thinkquest.org/C006027/html-ver/nat-vel.html.
Leiner, Henrietta C., and Alan L. Leiner. The Treasure at the Bottom
of the Brain. New Horizons for Learning.
http://www.newhorizons.org/neuro/leiner.htm.
Lundbeck Institute. Brain Atlas.
http://www.brainexplorer.org/brain_atlas/Brainatlas_index.shtml.
Nolte, John, and Jay B. Angevine. The Human Brain. St. Louis:
Mosby, 1995.
92
Further Reading
Cassan, Adolfo. The Senses. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2005.
Cleveland, Donald. How Do We Know How the Brain Works. New
York: Rosen, 2005.
Cobb, Vicki. Feeling Your Way: Discover Your Sense of Touch.
Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press, 2001.
_____. Open Your Eyes: Discover Your Sense of Sight. Brookfield,
Conn.: Millbrook Press, 2002.
Evans-Martin, Fay. The Nervous System. Philadelphia: Chelsea
House, 2005.
Hayhurst, Chris. The Brain and Spinal Cord: Learning How We Move.
New York: Rosen, 2002.
Light, Douglas. The Senses. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2004.
Morgan, Jennifer R., and Ona Bloom. Cells of the Nervous System.
Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2006.
Newquist, H.P. The Great Brain Book: An Inside Look at the Inside of
Your Head. New York: Scholastic, 2004.
Oleksy, Walter. The Nervous System. New York: Rosen, 2001.
Ripoll, Jaime. How Our Senses Work. Philadelphia: Chelsea House,
1994.
Roca, Nuria, and Marta Serrano. The Nervous System and the Brain.
Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1996.
Silverstein, Alvin, Virginia Silverstein, and Laura Silverstein Nunn.
Smelling and Tasting. Brookfield, Conn.: Twenty-First Century
Books, 2002.
_____. Touching and Feeling. Brookfield, Conn.: Twenty-First
Century Books, 2002.
Vera-Portocarrero, Louis. Brain Facts. New York: Chelsea House,
2007.
93
94
Further Reading
WEB SITES
Body Basics: The Brain and Nervous System
http://www.kidshealth.org/teen/your_body/body_basics/brain_nervous_
system.html
Brain Backgrounders
http://apu.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=brainBackgrounders_main
Brain Museum
http://brainmuseum.org/
Brain Web
http://www.dana.org/brainweb/
How the Brain Controls the Heart
http://www.childrenheartinstitute.org/educate/syncope/brainhrt.htm
Medical College of Wisconsin Health Link
http://healthlink.mcw.edu/article/924451309.html
Nemours Foundation Kids Health
http://kidshealth.org/kid/talk/qa/taste_buds.html
Nervous System Fact File
http://www.imcpl.org/kids/guides/health/nervoussystem.html
Neuroscience for Kids
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html
Sheep Brain Dissection: The Anatomy of Memory
http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/braindissection/index.html
The Brain Is the Boss
http://www.kidshealth.org/kid/body/brain_noSW.html
Picture Credits
page:
49:
51:
53:
55:
8: Wim van Egmond / Visuals

Unlimited
10: Infobase Publishing
19: Shutterstock / Dennis Sabo
28: Steve Gschmeissner / Photo
Researchers, Inc.
34: Laguna Design / Photo Researchers, Inc.
39: Frank Zullo / Photo Researchers,
Inc.
48: Dr. Frank T. Awbrey / Visuals
Unlimited
60:
64:
65:
70:
71:
74:
77:
79:
Infobase Publishing
Infobase Publishing
Infobase Publishing
Eye of Science / Photo Researchers, Inc.
Infobase Publishing
Infobase Publishing
Sue Ford / Photo Researchers, Inc.
Scott Camazine / Photo Researchers, Inc.
Infobase Publishing
Omikron / Photo Researchers, Inc.
Dominique Duval / Photo
Researchers, Inc.
Voisin / Photo Researchers, Inc.
Cover: AbleStock.com; Magdalena Bujak / Shutterstock.com;

Andrea Leone / Shutterstock.
com
95
Index
A
accommodation, 52, 63
anosmia, 18
causes, 6869, 7273, 87
astigmatism, 59, 63
treatment, 64
auditory nerve, 31
axons
functions of, 13, 1516, 61, 72
cochlea
fluid space of, 2829
color
descriptions, 18, 34, 4142, 56,
58, 66
sensitivity, 56, 58, 73
and shapes, 4041
and synesthesia, 76, 78, 87
color blindness, 63, 87
defined, 6566
communication
systems of, 8, 11, 1315, 72
cones
and color, 54, 58
conjunctivitis, 66
function, 54, 56, 5962, 82
loss of, 56, 66
cornea, 45
damage to, 6364
function of, 4647, 57, 59
B
bacterium, 8
blindness
causes, 18, 26, 56, 66
brain
activities, 7, 12
functions, 11, 13, 15, 21, 24, 27,
3031, 33, 4345, 4950, 63, 66,
72, 75, 82, 84
protection, 11, 15
structures, 10, 16, 31, 5961
and synesthesia, 7879, 8285
brain stem
functions, 44, 4950, 61
D
dendrites
functions, 13, 15
diabetes, 66
diseases and defects
protection against, 11, 15
repair of, 11
C
cataracts, 59, 63
treatment, 65
cell body
functions, 13
central nervous system (CNS)
protection of, 15
structures of, 15
cerebral cortex
functions, 31
CNS. See central nervous system
E
ear, 2531
compared to the eye, 4344
defects of, 2122
function, 2324, 30, 32
morphology of, 21
organs in, 2429
96
Index
emotions and moods
control of, 84, 86
eye, 4163
activities, 32
anatomy of, 43, 4561, 66, 82
care and exams, 67
compared to the ear, 4344
defects of, 6267
and light, 7, 34, 41
movements, 31, 44, 50, 56, 58
protection of, 44, 46, 54
F
farsightedness. See hyperopia
Fizeau, Armand, 36
food aversions, 73
Foucault, Leon, 36
fovea, 56, 58
foveola, 56, 58
G
Galileo, 36
gases
and odors, 7, 69, 7172
glia cells
functions, 911
H
hearing
abnormalities, 2122, 26, 73
control of, 1824, 29, 3132, 43
homeostasis
of neurons, 911
hyperopia (Farsightedness), 63
treatment, 6465
I
injuries, brain
effects on smell, 7273
protection from, 11, 15
signs of, 50
97
inner ear
functions, 31
structures of, 2526, 2729
iris
function, 4647, 57
muscles, 4748
L
language, 86
lens
damage to, 6465
functions of, 5053, 57, 63
light
absorption, 4750, 5354, 5760, 63
and colors, 7, 34
defined, 35, 37
intensity, 37, 40, 54, 58
perception of, 3233, 3738, 43,
46, 56
photons, 37, 40, 5152, 59
properties of, 32, 35
reflections, 4042, 5052, 56, 82
research, 36
sources of, 3435, 59
spectrum of, 38, 41, 54
speed of, 33, 3537, 40, 51
travel, 35, 3738, 40, 50, 59
waves, 5657
M
macula, 56, 58
damage to, 63
macular degeneration, 63
memory, 86
control of, 12
and smell, 72
storage, 7
Michelson, Albert Abraham, 36
middle ear
bones of, 2627, 29
damage to, 26
incus, 26
98
Index
malleus, 26
stapes, 26
motor neurons
function, 9, 1617
movement and reflexes
control of, 9, 11, 15
multicellular organisms
neurons of, 89
multiple sclerosis, 15
myopia (nearsightedness), 63
treatment, 64
N
nearsightedness. See myopia
nerves
damage to, 26
signals, 24
types, 1617, 45
nervous system
adaptive characteristics, 12
functions of, 11, 13, 15, 24, 26, 33, 79
protection of, 11
structures of, 7, 9, 11, 15, 84
neurons
characteristics, 9
classes of, 9, 11, 1417, 71
damage of, 15
functions of, 914, 21, 29, 31, 4344,
46, 50, 54, 56, 59, 61, 66, 68,
7475, 82
homeostasis of, 911
structures of, 10, 1115, 49, 61, 72
night vision, 58
nose
blockage, 6869, 72, 75
and gases, 7, 6972
mucus in, 6972
O
odorants
allergy to, 72
perception of, 18, 6972, 76, 82, 85, 87
olfactory epithelium, 71
optic chiasm, 61, 82
optic nerve
damage to, 26, 63, 66
function, 45, 6061, 82
outer ear
function of, 2526
obstruction of, 26
P
pain
control of, 31
receptors, 11
paralysis
causes of, 15
and research, 15
perception
and the brain, 7, 78
and stimulus, 11, 18, 24, 3233,
43, 87
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
functions, 15
injury to, 16
pheromones, 6970
photoreceptors, 53
types of, 5456, 5859, 6263, 82
photosensitive, 53, 66
PNS. See peripheral nervous system
pupil, 46
contraction, 4750
damage, 66
function of, 4750, 57, 59, 63
pupillary reflex
absence of, 50
function of, 4750
R
refractive index, 5052
research
on neuronal regeneration, 15
on sensations, 31
on the speed of light, 36
Index
stem cell, 15
retina
damage to, 56, 6364, 66
functions of, 46, 5356, 58, 60
neurons in, 46, 54, 56
photoreceptors of, 5355, 6263,
66, 82
Retinal Pigment Epithelium (RPE), 6263
rods
function, 5455, 5962
photoreceptors, 58, 82
protein, 59
RPE. See Retinal Pigment Epithelium
S
sciatic nerve, 17
sensation
research, 31, 82
and stimuli, 7, 61
senses
hearing, 1833, 35, 4344, 73, 76,
7879, 8284
sight, 7, 24, 26, 2967, 73, 76, 7879,
8285
smell, 7, 18, 2324, 31, 6876, 79,
82, 85
taste, 31, 6876, 78, 82, 8687
touch, 18, 31
sensory neurons
function, 9, 11, 1417, 71
skull
function, 15
smell
activities, 7
animal, 6970
control, 18, 2324, 31
function of, 6871
loss of, 6869, 7273
sensitivity, 69, 7273
and taste, 69, 75
soma. See cell body

sound
attention to, 2021
creation, 20
defined, 18, 2022
detection, 2021, 2425, 43, 73
direction of, 2931
frequency, 19
intensity of, 20, 30
travel of, 22, 24, 33, 35
and vibration, 1920, 2226, 29,
31, 35
and visual cues, 2931, 44
wavelengths, 2223, 35
spinal cord
functions, 50
nerves, 1617
protections, 15
stem cell
research, 15
strabismus, 63
treatment, 66
synapses
formation, 12
function of, 11, 13
synesthesia
and brain function, 7879, 8285
defined, 76, 7879
discovery, 7879
experiments, 8083
research on, 7980, 82
T
taste, 8687
control, 31
function, 68, 73
loss of, 68
receptors, 7375
and smell, 69, 75
types, 7475
99
100
Index
tongue
and taste buds, 7375
touch
control, 18
and pain, 31
tympanic membrane
function of, 2526, 29
U
unicellular organisms, 8
V
vertebral column
function, 15
vision
abnormalities, 26, 33, 59, 6267,
73, 76
activities, 7
control of, 24, 3233, 43, 61
correction, 6365
and light, 3538, 40
perceptions, 73, 8485
photoreceptors, 5455
shape and color, 4041
sight defined, 3435, 4142
and sound, 2931, 44
W
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 84
About the Author

Carl Y. Saab is an active neuroscience researcher and assistant profes-
sor at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. Dr. Saab studies

pain sensation and underlying mechanisms of abnormal pain. He is the
author of several scientific manuscripts and neuroscience books for college students. He is also an avid cyclist and an occasional disc jockey.
ABOUT THE EDITOR

Eric H. Chudler, Ph.D., is a research neuroscientist who has investi-
gated the brain mechanisms of pain and nociception since 1978. Dr.
Chudler received his Ph.D. from the Department of Psychology at the
University of Washington in Seattle. He has worked at the National
Institutes of Health and directed a laboratory in the neurosurgery department at Massachusetts General Hospital. Between 1991 and 2006, Dr.
Chudler was a faculty member in the Department of Anesthesiology at
the University of Washington. He is currently a research associate professor in the University of Washington Department of Bioengineering
and director of education and outreach at University of Washington
Engineered Biomaterials. Dr. Chudlers research interests focus on how
areas of the central nervous system (cerebral cortex and basal ganglia)
process information related to pain. He has also worked with other
neuroscientists and teachers to develop educational materials to help
students learn about the brain. Find out more about Dr. Chudler and the
fascinating world of neuroscience by visiting his Web site, Neuroscience
for Kids, at http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html.
101

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Seeing, Hearing, and

Smelling the World

The Brain and Love

Seeing, Hearing, and

This book is dedicated to the animals sacrificed for laboratory research.

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

7 Smell and Taste

LIVING AND NONLIVING

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

Figure 1.1 A common example of a unicellular organism is the

Neurons and Nerves

NEURONS AND GLIA

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

their location within the body (in the periphery, such as in

Neurons and Nerves

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

changes over time according to varying circumstances. But

Neurons and Nerves

the nervous system and synapses to adapt, learn, change, and

NEURON = CELL BODY + DENDRITE + AXON

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

transported by the blood). Sensory neurons communicate

Neurons and Nerves

about very high temperatures needs to get to the nervous

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

The PNS, in contrast, is able to bounce back from injury

Neurons and Nerves

most prominent nerve in humans is the sciatic nerve, which

delicately built instrument with a common basic feature:

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

Figure 2.2 This birds-eye view of a pebble tossed into a

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

loss of hearing, to hearing abnormal sounds (even imaginary

CONDITIONS FOR NORMAL HEARING

WHEN VIBRATING AIR MOLECULES

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

compressing and decompressing) then undergoes two major

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

THE MIDDLE EAR

Figure 3.1 The external part of the ear receives sound

THE INNER EAR

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

structure called the cochlea, which resembles a snail. The

Air molecules tap on the eardrum, which then vibrates

THE DIRECTION OF SOUND

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

FROM THE EAR TO THE BRAIN

brain for processing. The whole process of perceiving light

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

Figure 4.1 The composition of an object affects how it reflects

the light is off, objects disappear from our sight. Switching

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

Measuring the Speed of Light

or that of a bullet fired from a gun (1,000 meters per second;

LIGHT PARTICLES TRAVEL

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

In fact, ordinary artificial light (electric lamp) or natural light

Figure 4.3 A picture of a sunset reflected on a lake at

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World

blue. Molecules of air in that layer split up the white light

Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling the World