004 كواشف الإشعاعات النووية

Nuclear radiation detectors
- @ / +% + 6 <
*$+ - @ / +%
@ ( 66"
$A ( - @
@ $A (
@
C$ *$+ B *$+ " 0
*+$ *$+ D$ 66# !
9G
G
! 5E F
14

)

!

" *$+ ! ,-./ ( '( & " #$%
,-./ 34' *# . .
" #$% 0 1/
34' 56
.(Radiation detectors) " #$% (*$ + ) *$+
66 . + 8 " #$% 1 66 7 " 7*$+
. .
: . ' 9 " ,6" :" 56
*$ + 1 *
) ." *$+ " #$%
1

#$ +% = $

.( " #$>
. " #$% 34'
101
<
<
. .6 =+ " #$% ,6$

.# *$ + C B
D4 + #
<H
<6
:" *$+ =+ " #$% " *$+ 6 5

6" ,6 G- 4 " #$% , => I ,' J 56

66" 6 > + ,6 " #$% 6# . .
9!0 ) I + / +% H-/
H- + -E
J 6 .( =
1 :" 6 # > . " #$% 1 :" 6 # A W 6
.
+> 35 34' 7,6
+> @ 1 C 6" CK 74 . # *J
:36 H-/ 66" . 4' L CK . 4'
1 MeV = 106 eV 35 = 2.86 x 104
electron ion pairs
+% $ + . 4' 6 9 :" M4

4' " $ K 75+ 19 10 x 1.6 ' /
19<
x 4.58 =
10 x 1.6 x 4 10 x 2.86 :' .
..
$ 34' 9= 8 + .5+ 15<10

" #$>
#$O

. 6" ,6 & A . + $ 6 #
+ .,$ ( .& .+ ,$
$ 5
PE :> 9" 0 4' D6& ,6 9" 0
,6 , L D = 5
*# ( 0 5
)
+ - , 5
4' 9 . (recoil nucleus)
+% H-/ + ,6 I 5

./
+% 5
#$/ " #$>
H > + =I GB.+ =I " =
. . / +% H-/ + ,6 I # H-/
102
0
+ = $
7M4
D $A J$ / 6
'( - +% + $
,6
.& " #$% 5
*# :> " #$>
#$/
6 :" . " 6 # *$+ 1 M '
+ @ 34' 8 . .6 G + @ Q#
*$+ 1/ 34' 9= - . " #$% + " *$+
" #$% A A> 56
A .K 7M4 .0#B

# #$ " 8 *$+ 9= =+ ,66$
5 *$+ 1 M ' .4(/ 1 #$%
. . 6# ,6 " #$% $ 8 8
:"
- . R ,6 6" C *#
.#$ G J :> 4 34' Q# 9 7,6 4 D
=+ # + =
G J 34. " #$% $ 8
.

24
Motion of electrons and ions in gasses
+> H- + - @ & " #$% 6"

.+ , / +% 9+ + .
4 / +% 9+ 56 ! + 34.

.C M D4 - @ G-
G- 66"
+"
# - @ / +S

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) 5 ,6 - @

T .(56 ! 6 5
.+

5
4 10 5 10 , @B # *J
PG- 5 760 ' @B # *J ) - @ 5J#

+% + 3 + 7 " .( 5 20 ' ,
.G .+ 9 =I B A 7 G$" + /
103
The drift motion
! "# 124
=I - @ + / +% 6 6"

+ / +% 34' M E C6$ G .+ 9
O
9 3 80 79 4' =I

6! . +S
C' A 8+ # 3
6 (/ +%
) $ 5

A +
56! "
C+ G .+ 9 =I 1
C+
- .
+ C 9+ 60 - ,6 - @ 4
"
66 + .4+' 66 1
6 5= 7 .
: E#
A +

v = ( E / P)
(4-1)
7G .+ 9 ,6$ E 7

A + "
v
,6 D) mobility + 9 # 9 # *# . - @ @B
,6$ 9+ :" 6 # + - @ 1 :" * ' 7(+ :"
6" @! 6 + . P @B E =& G .+ 9
E/P 6 V! 6" = V! A> 7@! E/P 6 +
:> - @ +S
A "
9! . +
7
6
x .5
/ 10 66 E/P + 6" =/5
10 10
. PG- 5
P
The attachment
% # 22$4
/ +% + = 6 ,' J M '

(,4 ) 96 # X- +% 56 ! 6# .- @
D- +% 4' P! + (4 ) - @ G-
34' *# .
D- + 796 # ( ,4 )
.P !A 5
,' J
6 9 " , " CI h P !A 9 # *#
4' 6 # .96 # D- 6 +> 56 ! 6" P !A
104

+O
C 9! 7- @ 1 :" 9 #
D6& .,+ ' 3<10 / . - @
+% " , +% 6 :> P !A
34' + - 60 A : C CK 7M4 .I "
. - @ 56
56"
4. . +%
.- @ *$+ 1 Q#
+/
The recombination
& # '

( 324
Q# .B#

+> 6 6"
.A6 # G- ,4 M4 + 7 . 6# + .K

. (recombination) 5 A ,6 "> 5
,' J 34' *#
5 ,6 5 A ,6 "> 66" D ) 5 A ,6 "> 96#
n - +% 9+ -+ 6
( - ,6
: E# 366 + n+ /
dn+ /dt = dn - /dt = - n+ n
(4-2)
F 75 A ,6 "> 9 # 5

*# = 9 #

$ + 6" M4 7 10<10 7 7<10 . 36
+ 4> .C@$ D4 -
"- "-
H-/ + 6" 6 + ) ,-+ $
9 # 66- $ 5
(
)= 9 :" / +%
.B ,6 - 5 A ,6 ">
=+ + +% + :> , $% 6
6 :> D6& A 7 +% + K 7M4+ . / +
.G .+ 9 ,6$ - @ @B 8 @
34

The electron and ion currents in gasses
105
$ A - @ / +% 9 9=

+ I C6$ .+ = ' 36 4' .G .+
: E# 366
I = I+ + I
(4-3)
+% / ,6$ " , " ' 7 I
7 I+ :
. :"
: - @ G .+ + 7 "

7 (diffusion) $A ,' J
M4 7G .+ 9 6 56"
:> -+ =+/
/ +% 9+ $
C6$ G .+ $A 4. + .-+ 9 /

:' O
ID+ = - e D+ (dn+ /dx)
(4-4)
:' +S C6$

ID_ = - e D_ (dn -/dx)
(4-5)
+S O $A 9 # D_ 7 D+ :

7
@ / -+ @ 96# . (dn+ /dx) .
.
34' @ +% -+ @ 96# . (dn - /dx)
.
@
:> CK E C6$ G .+ 9 6

+ +% / 9+ M $A +
" L . $A + M :> B% 9 4' =I
D )
,6 C6$ G .+
A + 34'
:' O ( C =+
IE+ = e n+ v+
(4-6)
:' +S
IE_ = - e n _ _
(4-7)
106
/ 9+ P
A "
' v- 7 v+
. +%
$A 9+ " L + ,6$ 6 > + 7M4
C + M4 7 / +% 9+ G .+ 9
: D 7(7<4 : 4<4 ) 0 #/
I = e ( n+ v+ + n -v- - D+ (dn+ /dx ) + D- (dn - /dx)
The gas detectors

(4-8)
44
G .+ $ :" - @ *$+ 9 " 6 5

6" - @ G- 4 I " (/ +%)
G .+ $ 8 .C & " #$%
5
.- @ " #$% " *$+ + ." L
:'
G 1 =E= :> - @ *$+
I (

66#
. @ ( 66"
The ionization chamber
<
<
<
)* + 144
.& " #$S (gas detector) D- ( *$ + " , " '

34' " / +% H-/ :" . " 5
B 6. 4' 8 .+ 9+$ " #$%
! - " I ( + .C"
5J# + 70 A +$ 4 6 .9 " 6.
96 B .
F 9+$ :" + /
.# @B : - @ O D . Y0 >
1 :" "
6. 6 #/ - @ @B *
Q# 56
. . :" ." *$+

(1<4) 9+$ .D6 # D . I *(
107
5-E # 6. ! 7

4 I @
8 - . 9! *# . . 4@
4' :" 6. * .(The anode) 6/ 6#!
6. =I ,6 " Z .C *E
56
= . # 6. *# ( 6.) 9 "
66# 56
.@ % .+ - " 6
+ .(guard rings)
# I *(
- 9!0
P
.,+ ! 0
+ A 7C
0 "
6.
6. +
9 9+$ '
' Q@ .
+ 7 * .+
6" # 6. .+ 9
:> M4 D6& .
-

6 66 .+ $ . @ 5 66
4
1
V
8 - . :>
R

D4 I @ 5
:(1<4) 9+$
108
(6/) <2
# 6. <1
9- " <4

<3
( # 1<4 9+$ ) 5 4' *#
.@ 8
5 9 #0 5
" #$% 34' D6& @ " #$% 6"
96 I " G .+ $ 5 - @ I :>
+ +% / ) :" 9 #0 5
:> ,$
:" 5 4' H
" L + 5 A ,6 "> $A 9 '> 6" .(Q/
:' :" 9 #0 5 $
IS = e N0 ( ) dt
(4-9)
= 5 ,6 H-/ 66" ' N0()
! E# 34' .C+ 9 #0 5
9 + 4& .,6
96
66" D) -
= N0() + 4>
+ $ E# 34' # .( -
= @
*# :" 9 + .# 5 9 #0 5 I
.(saturation current) IS $ 5
34'
+ 6" 5 A ,6 "> $A 9+ 9 '> +
V! 4G6" . ,+ ( . 6. P D ) / 9 ,6$
- @ + @! 6. P + 4> .! (9<4) 6 #
,6 "> K
+/ . - @ 56

7M4 . . - @
!! . 6 # 5 A
5 A ,6 "% 60 B CK

/ 4 I *@
. "A P !E
E# 5 A ,6 ">
(I s)r 60
+ CK
:
109
(I s)r = - IS ( N0 ( ) d2 ) / v+ v-
(4-10)
' v- 7 v+

' d 7$ ' IS
. +% / 9+ P
A "

6 :> D6& + $E

66 + .3 D 6 + $A / M4
: E# $A
(IS)dif 60 -
(IS)dif = - I s ( K T / e V )
(4-11)
6. P V 7 , 6 T 7

= K :
O

" , " 7
E# (2<4) 9+$ VB .C6 9 6
,- 5
E# 34' *# . V 6. P I
6 #/ :" ,- 34' 9+$ 6 # .I @ 0
" #$% 1 C@B 56
- @ 1 :" @
6.
9 # 34' =I VB .( . =+ D) .6$ @ ,
,- VB D4 9+$
I @ R (2<4) 9+$
. " #$% 0 6$ 6" - @ " 0
5 A ,6 "> # = $

A 7 @ +
34. " I / =+ 6
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)* + ,- . 244

$ P 6. 5 6" I *( 56

CK .@$ .
.
J .(plateau)# *# '
8 . 6
0 5 9 +$I *( 5 ! +
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66" " L
8 I *( 56
+
5
" L (6. ) B 8

7B 5 J I ( 9@$ / 5 J 4' *# .6
110
8 6" 0#B " #$% ,6$ 8 56

( '
0 - ( 56
+ 7 " . " #$%

I
Ampere
4
10-10
3
10-11
1
10-12
50
100
150 Volts
I @ 0 ,- :(2<4) 9+$

,@! =+ ' <2
,@! " #$> =+ 5' <1
,+ =+ ' <4
,+ " #$> =+ 5' <3
- @ 56

9B0 B *@
+ .@ 96
+ +% B M4 7# @B
9
" 5 : M4 7+ - ! "
B
.C
[ 5
9
A ,-' @ V! ! - 9E
" C 0 Q(O I ( 5 ! 6"
" .B# " / 9-# 6
A- # " :> !
. 9-" = 56
9- # ! @ 5

111
:> M4
.6 " 4 9- # ,6 +
+ 4K . @ @! + 5
" L

+ CK + ( 9- #
:' C (leakage current)
5
*#
Il = V / Rc
+ 4K .(3<4 9+$) 9- # RC 7 6. V :

100 6. P 5 13 10 66 9- #
:36 9- # I1

Il = 100 / 1013 = 10
pico-Ampere
. I s D 5
" L
6 + 4'
9 A 7 " 4 56
9- # + 7M4
.5 17 10 16 10 "
Il
Is
(3<4) 9+$
I ( I1

D4 9- " 56
:
66- +
V
R !
9- # V
9E M4 "
9- # V
:" J 7 4 . G$ D/
.,@! + . \6 0J
112
'6 :> B% [ 6

# 7M4+
34. .(9 #0 5 66 9+$ ')
G
9 #0 5 :" + / +%
9 9+$ :" $ 34' =& A : 9- # :"
.
,6 - :> D6& A : 9 #0 5
)* /"# 0 344
. :" +% I ( D :> J +
+ .( 9- # ) RC " , "
+) C C C#
0=+ ' " + CK -
E+$
I ( - 74+' .( 4<4 9+$ :"
8 56
- . K 7M4+ .CC 4 #
RC 6
.(4<4)9+$ Ce #
Re 6 :" C6 D
+ 4 .(4<4 9+$) D- :" .B# ! ! # 34'
:' 8 - . @ C + #
"
C = CC + Ce
:' . +

R = RC Re / (RC + Re)

RC

CC
RC
CC
Re
Ce V
Re
113
Ce
(4<4) 9+$
I ( L 8 6
,6
:" v 6. P @ " L 7M4

:Z + *$+ 366 + - . 96
RI = V + RC (dv /dt)
(4-12)
0+ 6 > + B 0 6 # 34' 9

6 - 6+ - . 96 :" 6. @
:" , " V 6.
V = RI ( 1- e t/RC)
(4-13)
= 4' + + .,6 - = RC + *#

.(5<49+$ 1: ) "
$ :> 6. 9! @! RC
- 6# $ :> 6. 9! RC ,6 - 6"
.( 9+$ 80 :" 2: )+
V
1
2
(5<4) 9+$
I @ + 6
A :
1.
)
1 )* + &." 444
0 1/ " *$+ I *( 5 ! +
- @ @B . 0! @ 5 * .& " #$%
114
34' :" ." *$+ " #$% 1 :" .6
" #$% 1 I *( 5
+ CK 74 . " #$%
:Z :>
13 "/ 2 "/ )* + 2

$
0
A ,6
6 9 + R
34' K 7,@! / =
6 ,4 9 " CK 7M4 . .6 :> A @
" ,4 ! . .E
34' 96 V
@
9+$ + 700 B# 6 5 + 00 ,6
$@ R A : (25
/5( 1 9 ) 6 P $(
P $@ 4' 9 :" 7
+ -
@ 96 - @ @B *E " L C" @B
. . D @B
! 7 0
" *$+ *@ 1 4' 56

,6! 6 6# ,-./ V
"
" *$+ .+ .

*@ 34' - . 0
. 6 6 5
:" " #$% C $ 6- A D4 *#B
: 3
500 70! F @!/ .6 - ( I (

% 20 R .4 " 4K . 6/5

6
7 +> @ 5
34' + 4> 0
.L6 *! $& + 6" ." L
:
' 0
66" + L6 *! $& + 6"
. 6
250 = 2 500
115
:' 5
9+ ,4 ,60 6
E = 5 x 20 / 100 = 1 MeV
:' 5
9+ - @ I ,60 6 :.
E1 = 5 1 = 4 MeV
,6 $ " , " ' L I ,6$ 6 :.

: D 7 = 60 = 6 1) '6 - :"

I = dQ /dt
= 250 x 4x106 x 1.6x10-19 / 35 x 60
= 7.6 x 10-14 Ampere = 7.6 x 10-2 picoAmpere
"/ )* + 5

,+ PA :"
,6 *#
6" ( 5 ) 7 ,6" :> D . '6 9!
+> @ 1 : 0! 6 D6 .0 @
: + + @ 96 - @ @B K 7M4 .
56
CK C
0
.@ 96 9 +
34' *
. . @ 96 @B P 9 + M
4 4
/
)* + 6
6 5- A CK " #$% G 0 A ,6 J
@! J . " #$% 34' " *$+ ! I *@ ,4
H > + =I GB.+ =I 9+ 6 9
@ 6 V
K - @ 96 H-/
D 6 9 6- M4 7( D4 366" + ) R !
- @ 96 :> +% PE R ! =E= # 34'
A> @! + 34' M
A> .I 5
+4 6 .C =E= # =# +% !
34' PE :> D6& D4 ' " #$> E -
116
= D M 6 @ Z - . +%

9 # " #$> *$+ 1 - 7M4 . . 9
A
.*$ + 4 , 0+ 5
*# 5.
The detector intrinsic efficiency
1 8 '7
:> *$ +

" #$% 66"
" , " '
I ( , 0+
.C"
" #$S + 66#
34'
+"
" #$> " *$+ !
1 :" @ 5 :" *$ + , 0+ * 7M4+ . " #$%
.@ ,6 1 :" 7C@B . 56
- @
,6" " #$% I *@ 4 , 0+ F
.G - ,6" :> * G -
1 )* +

4 .I D ." L A CK ,6 6"
9#0 $
6
6 > DB CK
.I " :> $
34' D6& 7
6 ,6 *$ + 96 B Q@ 4.
E" 0 6 0
. P +
66# 56
7M4 .
C 0
6 = - ( " *$+ ! I *(
.B# 9" 0 - @ 4' :"
6# . BF3
: 9" 0 0
PE M4 " L
1
n+ 105 B
7
3
Li +
4
2
+4 6 .- @ G- 4 I 0 5

5
,=+ 9 " :" * ,@! + *$ + , 0+
4 56
A .@ 5 - @ =+ .
117
6 P :" G 0 ,6

*$+
.@
pulse-type ionization chamber
9 )* +544
D 7,6 :" 5
9+
6 B I *( 56

P 0 Z 6
" #$%
# 6"
+ 7M4 .P
5
9
.A V
5
" (pulse-duration) .+ B
- 6 # .#
- M4 76 @!
:" 78 - . @ RC - = :" B

'6. B
- VB .

:" D 7
I 6 + :" + 6 " 6 #
=/ + 4K .@ 5
= 3 B
6 56" 4' :> "
+% 9! # 4.
:" " 6. B .J :> D6& 79 A = . D
K " 6# .
0 [ 5
4> .H
:> 9! E P@
3= 9 " +%
7- @ G- 6 !
. - B
. 6. B G .+ * #B> :> D6&
:" 0 '
- B 6. K 7M4 :> B%
6. :> / :> +% 9+ 9! ."
T ) #
+% + + . #
T ) G / + 7( =/56 10 @
+% + L 6. K ( =/53 10 ."
.( = 6<10 66 ) ! - 9E C :! :> 9!

- 9E C :! :> 9! / + " L 6.
+
/ 4 @
.( = 3<10 ) +
118
+ t - 6+ / +% + 6. =>

: E# 366
V(t) = n e v t / C d
"
v 7+ / +% 66" n

d 7@ 6 #
C / +S
A
+ 9+ 6. @ 0+ (6<4) 9+$ .
. - 6+ I @ +% + /
"
*E B 6. *E E# 34' 8+#
4' I ( # 7M4 . / +S
A
+$ 56
M4 7#
1 9 " + .G 1
:> + 7 # 6. = -
( 6.) 0! # +$ 34' 6. + .(7<4 9+$)
C #
Q0 :> +$ 34' 9 6> D6& V # 6.
+ 6. E# V! 7 . 5

(6<4) 9+$ (3) : + - +%
7+$ :" B I *( D 4+'
7M4 .
C + A D4 1 - @ *@ O
7M4+ .*@ 1 4' - @ 56
9B0
V(t)
3
2
119
10-6
10-3
(6<4) 9+$
t - 6+ (2) / (1) +% + 9+ 6. @
-0 +$ B 6# - 6+ (3) +% + 6. @
(7<4) 9+$
I ( -0 +$
(6<4 9+$ # . 6") + 6. P +
:" 6 # A = +S
A "
+ + M4
.*@ 34' 5J# / - ( 56
. 6. P
+ 6
+ = - ( ,@!
,6 " C> * B
.6 - 56" =
A "
B M4 7(%5)
. 6. P ,6 -
" 56
A B I *( :> , $% 6
34. S " I @!
M4
" *$+
120
5
+% 9 66" H > :> D6& 7

.C
3+ #! 0#B L + 76
Energy resolving power
! :1 11 ' 644
5
# ! B I *( RG ! 5'
66"
6# .(energy resolving power) ,6
#
34' K @ ,4 :" ,6 4 0

6
M4 7 . *0 *E @ 96 :> ,4
: CK M4 " EB .0
=#
.
0 @ :> ( " #$> 9= ) " #$% 34' 96
36 + - +> - +> P 9+ K
I " / M4 7/ +% H-/ 0 66"
:> +% 9 6" CK 7M4+ . G !> "
/ - @ 4 6 !
.B# B +
L + ,6 4
K 7
9 . 00 E ( '6. ) ' * .+ B

+ 66" 9
6" CK 7M4 . 1- 6 C
(spectrum) .0 .J . 1- 6 E0 ,6 4
5
E *# .(8<4) 9+$ + ,! :"
full width at half-maximum 1 0A *! 6" 9 + Q#

E 1- # .(FWHM)
:Z + 7G
+ 7*$ + r ,6 66 E0

r = E / E0 x 100%
(4-15)

:" 7 " E =# 6 #
,4 M
9= ,=+ 9 " :" E 6 # + .6 - 66-
6 0 7M4 .3( @ 5 - @ @B
I *@ ,6 F .0 *@
6. P ,4 9+$ 5 # M4 % 7 7 % 0.3
.6 5. *$ + ,6 # . 3( 6 #

34' 9! + CK 0 4
6 6#
121
+ P0 + 4> # *$ + 56

.B# "
34' 9! + A CK E 9 P0 + 4> .E
. . 96 .B# "
The proportional counters
" 54
6 " 5 :> I ( 6. P ,6 - 6"
:> M4
6# . IS $ 5 P #
,6 -
E0
(8<4) 9+$
,6 4
1-
6. P =I # I " +%
6" .3- D4 6. P 6
+
+
) V! +% 34' .
+ 6- 6. P ,6 + 7- @ ,66 4 I :" ,6 ( +%
" :> 5B 7/ +% H-/ = "
+ +>
.D 5
9#0 /
D6& ,66
+ 6. =I + "
122
+% K 74+' .D = I ,66 :>
D6& D = I 9 ,6" .# D 5
9#0 / I
D = I # 9 34' . +% 66" 0" B :>
D = I 5.0 " E * + 6. " L
,6$ J 6 6 D4 # 4
" L
B% . +% 66# 9G ' = + I " L .9
6 6" - @ G- # +% 56 ! 6# M4 :>
P / +% G . 66"/ 5 ,6 ">
+ .56 ! 6" G- 34' , =% (
#$)
V
+% [ 66" :> 0 34' D6&
@! .I 6. + - @ G- # 6.
0 M$ + 7M4 .(- @ 6 )
+ 5 I " $ .D = I "
.(gas discharge) - @ G .+ T0 C$ 6 7- @
+%
GB.+ +> + 9 + 4K
+> 56 ! " = +% 66" + ' 6
GB.+ +% 66" " , " n + 7 n 4 6
6 ! 9#0 66# 4' *" B 5= .D = +> n "
+ :> 36 D6& / 66# 4' . = +> n2 +

6. 34' ! " .GB.+ +> n2 2
M *" B 9 # 6 > + G6A +% 66" :" C

:'
66#
M = n/(1n)
(4-16)
+% *" B 66" M *" B 9 #

1 >> n 6 + 4K .(C4 D 5
" D) G6A
*" B 4' + . M = n
66# *" B 9 # V!
J 6 0 # A 7 D = I "
:
.0!
6 " . '> + 7I
/ J (proportional counter)
66# 34' 66#
123
G6A +% 66"

= +S + 66#
.D 5
"
" 6# 6. P ,6 - 6" CK 74+'
9 # 66# 6 I @ ( 9<4 9+$ :" a ) $
'6" P 6. (9<4) 9+$ .
66#+
34' .2 '
66# 9@$
log I
E1
E2
a
(9<4) 9+$
66# 6. E#
I (
<1

66#
<2
@ ( 66"
<3
6. 6
( , 1000 :> 1 ) ,+ ,6 - 66-
66"

CK ,6 - 5( :" . V P

7D 5
" / +% H-/
0 D4
96 6# .5
4'
6. 7 0 ." L (9<4 9+$) E2 < E1 +
124
7
66# I (
7 0
V!
66# . . ' 9! +
.
0 - #!

66# + 6 +
5 (10<49+$)
9+$ :" -. .+ /
9! . 7M4 .(6/) 6 D M

9!
/ 5
. # 6.
C" 7( # 6.
D) Q/
:" ,4 34' + + ,4 6 . /
. Q@ C #
.C" 66#
/ 6
.8 - . :> 6.
6. 9!
G .+ 9 ,6$ 6 > +
/ 66#

56
M4 7
/ r
6# C6
: # E#
E
E = V / r ln(b/a)
(4-17)
6 *! ' b 7(6/) 6. ' V :

M
6. + 4K .D M
*! ' a 7
O
:" 9 ,6$ 9! 5
0.01 = a 75
1 = b 7 1000
6 7M4 .5
/ 6000 :> M
5
0.01

+ 4> .6/ M

6 D = I
9 9#0 A M .K " 6# G6A +%
) C . 6" D = I 9 6 5= 3
.(3-+ 5
0.1 66
C
+
125
R0
HV +

66# :(10<4) 9+$
" 9 154

Pulse shape of the proportional counter
8 B 5 J 7 " 7

66# 56

+ "
66# B L .
5 J

. +% + " 8

/
(I " )
+ :> M4
/ + 6/ :> #
+% 9! 6# .(6/)
6. :" +% = M4 96 # C -
+% + " L 6. 66 + .6/
: J E# 56
M4
V / V = l / a ln (b/a)
(4-18)
6# +% + " L B 6. V

' l 7B + 6. ' V 7 .G6 * +

6 #/
66" 56
6# . +S

+ D @B 0.5
66# 96 @B + 6" .
0
:V! 4G6" .5
3<10 x2.5 66 l
V / V = 0.05
% 5 9+$ +% + " L 6. D

.B + 6.
CK 6/

6 D = I
+ :" Q 6. 6 # A + M *" B 9 # + 6"
6+ B @ 0+ 6 > + .66# D 5

: J E# -
126
V+(t) = [M N0 e / 2C0 ln(b/a)] ln(1+ 2 + V / p a2 ln(b/a)
(4-19)
D 5
" G6A H-/ 66" N0
C#
C0 7+% $ e 766# *" B 9 # M 7C
0
6. 66- 7M4 .66# 96 @B p 7 / + + 76
- ,6 - 96# 9 5= 7 - A B
6 :! :> 6. 9! :> 7 ( E# V!
:' C
V+max= M N0 e /C0
:36 t - 6"
t = (b2 a2) P ln (b/a) / 2 + V
(4-20)
6+ H 6. B @ 0+ (11<4) 9+$

0.05 36 @B 6" . 0
,+4 6 #/
66# -
96# JE . 1500 = V D6 6. D @B
B 66- 96# 4' 9 5= 76 #
+ B 6.
B
+ .C :! :> '6. 9! :> ^
( = 1 :> 9! ) ,0 34' 6"
[ 5
D 9
A 6#
( 66# + - 4' 9E
.C

9+$ M4 J 9+$ B
- Q0 +
Q@ 4. ,6 " 56
.0 9+$ 6 56
B
*=+ + (differentiation circuit) B 0 ,6
:" # .+ 96 66# H 6"
= B 0 6 56
B 9+$ 0+ (11<4)9+$
,6 - = Q0 + C JE .* (RC) .C
0 '6. Q0 B
- 9 B 0
.
0
" B 6. > , $% 6
.V # 66 B F
66# .
0
. E 36
66 0 :> 36 4' D6&
127
,6# M4+ I @

3+4 P
M4

: . '

."B = +% 66" *E 6
<
.A A
*! * + M
8 56" <
.Z + 00 E 3
) C 6" 66# *! 9 *E <H
.(
6 56"

+
66# ,6 K 7M4
66# ,6 6 T .I @
.=
.% 30 10

V(t)
RC = 0.5 Sec
RC= 0.2 sec
1
(11<4) 9+$
* (RC) - = B 0 6 56
B 9+$
The delay time
.* )
66# 5
96 J - I 6 C
- L I 4' .H :" 6. B H
:> 66# 96 .+ + / +%
128
+ :"(delay time) I - 6 # 7 .

6 *! C 6 +
+ D 5

: + +S
A "

E
t d = b / v-
*" B 9 # 6 "

66# " 5'
6 6" B 6. *E :> D6& 6. :"
D4 9 " 6. 56
CK 7M4 . 6. *0 @
.(highly stabilized) "

M
+

64
Geiger Muller counters
6# :>
66# 6. ,6 - 6"
M *" B 9 # 66- (9<4 9+$ b 6# )

.(9<4 9+$) G ,6 - 66- G ' ,6 6"
0 P 0 PE 9 ,6 - :> M4

D) GB.+ +> + - @ G- +% 56 !
0 34' V! # 6. 34' 6" .( 9 A ,6 D = I $ . = +% "

/ 9&
'
7G .+ T0 :> 66# 9! 766#
./ +% 66# J 6 @ + M4 " L
' ) @ ( 66" 5
6. 34' 6" 66# *#
.( 3 0$+
6" P / 4' JE (16<4) E# :> 1
" , " M *" B 9 # V! 4G6" . 1 = n V!
: D 7 .A
M = n / (1-1 ) =
66" :" * 6# 5 B 6. K 34'
H- + 0+ C 4> .D 5
" / +%
.B 6. .J T0 " 6 +>
129

D 5
:" * 6# 5 B 6. JE

66 @ ( 66" 56
A 7M4 . .
. . J 6
34' 66" 9
> 7
* A .+ T0 I 6 6

9! 56" :
> 4 66# 96
-' + 66# 96 T0 " * > CK 7M4 .,66
@ ( 66" " 6 .C
66 5
9
A
0> 4 66" ' T0 * > *E 0
.4 0> 4 /
/ . 7 : 8 +

164
Non self quenching G.M counters
0 D6& ( / 9= ) 9 - @ 66# O 6"

6#! GB.+ +% PE :>
0 P
./ 4 8 (
A C= D4 6= +)
D4 (10<4 9+$ ) 3 +% M
6" .. 3 '6 M 0=+
C +
.J :> D6& 6 . :>
34' M
:> /
34' 9! 6" 7 R0 :" 6. B

= +> ,66
0 P L .

74+' .* A
6 Q0 .
DI CB0 5 5 " V 6.
.(5 910 < 8 10 66 ) @ ,+ R0 + 6.
96 # 36. Q0 " 6# /
M 6#
(6/) 6. 6 D . I R0 :" M.
6.

I 7 Va = V - IR0 V! /
M 6"
V! 7 6. Q0 ,+ R0 + 4K ./
M4 .(9<4 9+$ Vb 9 ) T0
A 5-E 6. 9
5-E 6 9 6. + . /
9! 6" CK
/ 9 - + 4K .66# I0 T0
A
130
6 + 10 66 6 C#

=+ 200 66# 96
66# I0 6# .5 8 10x4 66 R0 +
6 7@ ( C@$ 5-E 6. 9 6. +
6# V !/ :> 9! :> 66 ,6 - 6. 4'
.( = 3<10 6# ) R0 C0 - = + 66# + :" 36. 66# C 6#
D4 4' 9E
9E 66# :> 5
96 .,66
9
A 6#
(
@ 0#B B + + 9
+ CK - 4'
- ,0 34' *# . +% - . . 8 A
1 4' " 5' JE .(recovery time) 1
A , 5

.( = 3<10 ) 1
A , + ' 66#
8 7 : 8 +

264
Self quenching G.M counters
Q0 ,+ 6 56# 66# 1 4' -

6. : 7M4 .,@! 56
> (6/ ) 6.
6% .@ ( 6. 6 6 :> Q0 A 6/ :" =
/ - ( 66# O 66# 1 4' 0%

/ 9+ 9= 4 66# + ( %90 )
5= G6A I 6 D 5
96 6" .(%10 )
0 P 6/ = I " C#
GB.+ +% PE :> D6&
0 P
*E 6 + .
@ ( 66" C
0
/

/ 9+ :>

766# 34'
34' R 7M4 .
0 P 0 R ! A #
+% + M4 .. :> 9! A - @ 0
4 8 9+ G- 6 ! GB.+
# J .-0 (6= +) . ,6 4 /
A 0 34' K .I 9+ G- 0 R ! A
74+' .C .+ T0 ! 6/ " =+ 6#
131
G .+ B M4 + . 3 /

M
9! / + .+% + =I A
M4
/ 9+ G- + . :>
M 6" C/ M4+ 7 G- 34'
0 R ! A
6" +>
+ CK . 3
:> 9 36 D4 96 # 9+ D- C 6!
:" / ,4 +% / )
:> 9+ 9! 6" .( 9+ D- +%
7. ,6 = +> # :> D6& A .K .
- @ G- 6 R + 74+' . 4 0% 6
:Z
/ 9+ 9= 4 ,66#
7. :> 0 9!
.C GB.+ +% PE
:> / 9!
.C = +% # 7.
< /"# ) ) 9 364

0% D4 @ ( 66" H :" B +
3 /
M . / + 4
<4) 9+$ Q#
.J #
E+$ + .
) 4 0% D4 66# B 9+$ (12
6 # ./ + " L DJ 9+$ M4+ 7(1 9!
:" .+$ 6 # + .66#
6. 6 #/ :" B 66 = 6# + .(6O) 6#!
G6A I 6 +
B - 66 A 6- 6#! " D 5

.(2 9! ) ." L !
The dead time
)
132
<1
<2
/
9 +% *" B " =
8
( 66# + (6= +) . :> (6/) 6#! 9
G .+ 9 ,6$ Q 0A J 766 D 5
9
A
CK . /
9! 6 . 4'
. :> 9 ,6$ 6# "
36.

6. 9! D 5
96 J - *# .!/
- (9<4 9+$ b ) @ ( " :> 6#! :"
8
( 66# + - 4' 9E .(The dead time) 66#
.[ 5
D 9

V(t)
1
2
(12<4) 9+$
.4 0% D4 66# B 9+$ (1)
6#! " D 5
= 6 # 6" B 9+$ (2)
The recovery time
< /"# )
@ ( " :> 6. 9! - ,0 *#
.(the recovery time) 1
A - ! :> C!
) 4 0% 4 66#
,@! ,0 34' #
133
- 9E .R0 @!

M4 7 = ( 6<10 x 5
) + + D 5
9
66#
1
A
.9 B (6.
.C !! Q@ *E @ ( 66" * 7 "

1 # M4 7 .6 4 4 1 . 6
- ( . 56
1 M ' . ." *$+ " #$%
M4 ,6 ,4 . 9 # BF3 6 =
. " *$+ . 6
A
The cloud chamber
" 74
" *$+ 6

9G
56
@ #
, 9/
. 6
,$ & $

7
@ B
(13<4) 9+$ .51912 5 "
$ @ . @ 6 Y0 O
,I 8+ M 6" .@ , 6 6"
. ^ 0 66 6 90
:> " "

V! , 6 ^ 0 Q 0A :> D6&
5
4
3
2
1
C
134
7
6

@ :(13<4) 9+$
B 96 ,4
* 0$ (
8+
<2
<4
<6
$ 6!
B
! [
. H
<1
<3
<5
<7

J 34' 4K .$ P
*=+ C Y0 96 <+> H- + :> 6 $
= .J 7 / :" $ P
34' & + .$
= 9 / :" 0=+
34' ! ,6 # > 5
= 7
@ 9E ! B 9 6K M4 7J
7!/ C#B :> 8+ 6 # ! 6# .@ D# * 0$
@ V! .6 /
@ 6. 9! 5
6I @ -. 5 7 " .
,6 ,6#
M4
. +I ,6 5 78+ ,6 "> ! 8+

. [ ,-' @ V!
:' S $ P
*#
S = Pf / PI
(4-21)
M4+ . :" 66 9 6# @B ' Pi 7 Pf

:' E 66
K
E = f / i
(4-22)

. :" 66 9 6# @ 5 ' i 7 f
4>
/ :" *=+ 6 .
135
:" *=+ 6 + . 1.31 7 1.25 ,! E +

1.31 ,! E + 4>
/ 9+
C+ Y0 *=+ 6 1.38 :" E 6- 4> . 1.38 7
7M4 .C +I * 96
+ 6 J 6
.
1.35 66 E + 9B0 CK
:" 9! + CK 9+ /
.
9+ :" *=+ 6 1.10 = E + 6" ,! 9B
.
/
C - 5
$ 66
@ 56
+
,$ 66 6# @ 6 Y0 Q# 4K .C
$

* B C6 =+
@ 9
,G6 - " , "
V! 79 4' =I
! # E#
4' 5+ . R ' *!
.
@ 9 $
+
m v = q BR
(4-23)
.C$ q C"
' v 7 D 5
+ ' m
+ CK 7M4+ .(
) $ 1 *A 3 66
.=/ 9 5
66
8
- ! '
*@ " 5'

- " , " 8
- .( = *! )
9!
66 34' 70=+
.@ H .> ,
The diffusion chamber
# + 84
( 5 6

@ 8
- @! J
+ .(14<4 9+$) $A @ *# 75 1936
,66
D# % O .0
/ D" '6 > @
9 3 / J 7 (methyl alcohol) = 9+ 9= 9G

136
.@ , 6 ' % 4' , 6 + .*=+
56
M4 7 5 _ (60 <) :> 36 0
%
D) ! + 6
+ = = 9+
.D# 0
% , 6 H6 :> M4 D6& 7(!
90
:> 4' $ D# % 6 9G
6"
+ M4 .1 6" , 6 Q 0

$ 5
6" .@ 0
$ P
+ ." *=+ / + 34'
,6 @ 66"% .5
= ! + 79G

.G .+ 9 56
.6 /
,66

.(= 10 ) 8
+ .
" @ 34' -
. .
------- -
.
.
.
.
.
. ..
. . .
..
. .
..
.
..
.. ... .. .
..
..
.. .
..
.. ..
..
.. . . . . ..
... . . .
..
.. .
.. . .
.. ..
. .
..
....
..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
___ _ _ _ _ - ---_______ -_ _ _- _ - -- __ - _
_ _ - _ - -_ -- -- -- -- -_ -- -- __ -- -- -- -- -- -
(14<4) 9+$
$A (

9
7 " 7*@ 34' 56

- @ @B + 7M4 . # 4 $
137
* : @B 20 :> 9! 76 + .6
. .6 # 4
34'

The bubble chamber
94
@ 34' 9 " 5 .1952 5 " " ( 9 5 ! 5

G
9G

6" " 0 + ,' J 56
:"
7@ O ." @
(15 4) 9+$
, 6 6" ( - 5' ) 6' 9G
7 "

5 .- 9G
520 76. 5 246 F
9G
: + 7C ( :" , 6 :> 9G

@B 56
P " 7( :> 9 A) 9G

.(9G
1
D @B $" ,6") 6 9 "
@ 6 A
PG 0 9G
K ,I @B Q0 6"
5
6" . @ 6 6 # , > 9
79G
I :> D6& CK @ ,0 34' 9E $
. = 2<10 36 - 9E / 34' :" "
2
138
(15<4) 9+$
" 0 @
! [ <2
9G
6' <4
* 0$ F <1

@ 0 <3
5 $ 5

9 :" " + 74+'
,6 - G .+ 9
/
" 0 34' !
9
,-' @ V! .9G
( 6 9 66 @B
' @ 34. 8
- . = ,6" 6#

:> @ :" @B Q0 J ,0 " , "
@B ,6 - M4 @ 6 A ) 9G
( 6 J
@ 6 + 8
- ,6 - .(/ C :>
- Q0 A> @ 9G
+ " 6
. = 3<10 :> 8

:Z .
" @ 34' -
A6 " =+ 4 9G
56

. 6
+ 7- @
4
9

.( +> @ *A[ ,6") #
.(= ,6")
,6 '66"> - !
9G
,+ 6 # 56
+ >
96 9 + D 5
6
.9G

<
<
<H

6 > 6" " 0 ( 56
9B0 CK 4
. # 9
The scintillation detectors
9 104

9 1104
139

" #$% $

6"
66 NaI 56! 66 9= # 6 :" " #$>
M4 " L 7 '(
A 7
=/ CsI 5-

(scintillators) B 6 5
6 34' *# .GB Q
& " #$% " *$+ ,' J 34' 6
6
. . 66 ."

- ,6" (16<49+$) B *$ + +
8+ # (light pipe) B 9! B ,6 :'
(photomultiplier 0 *" B 7(light reflector) GB
6! ,6 :"
" #$%
6# . tube)
9! " GB B 9 .GB B ,6 34'
*" B / (potocathode) GB (6= +) . :> B
.0
C" B 8+# 5 . GB 8+ # 6
B - B A : O GB . :> C6 ">
C P GB . :" B
6" .5
" L
66" *" B 5= 7GB.+ #A ,' J # +>
9! .0 *" B 96 G 0" B +%
M4 *" B (6) :> . +%
*$+ " R + 74+' ./ H :" .+ B
:Z + 9
B *$+ 56

,6 96 D 5
R !
.,6 34' I , => :> D6& B
9E B :> ,6 ! 9
.B #
GB . :> GB 0 9
.*" B /
140
<1
<2
<3
S
1
PMT
B *$ + :(16<4) 9+$

B 9!
GB 8+ #
$ 6!
<2
<4
S
B ,6
<1
*E@
<3
*" B PMT
GB 0 . R !

.C +> #
*" B 96 +% 66" *" B
.0
/ 6#! 6" +% 34'
.,+ G .+ $ ` +
/ 6 :" # Q .+ $
: E# E
5

Q = eMnph = e MC T F S E
(4-24)
66" nph 7/ *" B 9 # M 7+% $ e

B ,6 , 0+ ' C 7GB . 6 ! +%
7(+ 0 :> . H GB 0
D)
66" D) GB .

S 79! 0$ ' F
0 +> 9+ C ,6 ! +%
6. 6" 6 *$ + = E # # .(

141
<4
<5
<6
H :" + .+ $ VB 7M4 .6

.
5
6
*" B
9 <2 2104
Types of scintillators
.B 6 + 66" 56

Q# (1<4) 96 .+ E 6 34' RG ! *
. .!G ! 56
A #G $ B 6

: RG ! ,6 B ,6
5
9 " , 0+
.GB :> D
. . ,6 ! " #$S
,6 0$
.M+0 - @!
<1
<2
<3
B 6 Q# RG ! :(1<4) 96

M+0 =
8<
10x2.7
9<
10x5<3
7<
10x2.5
5<
10
9
# B
(5
)
4400
4100
4100
4500
. =+
( 5
/5()
B ,6 5

1.25
1.15
3.67
4.10
(B" ,6 )
=/ ,
(B" ,6 )
A ,
NaI(TI) 5 6- 56! 66
Zn S(Ag)B0
6- ! 6+
= B ,6 :> " #$% 96 6

6+ 0 66" @ .GB 0 6!> 6 ,6
: E# -
n = n0 ( 1- e t )
142
J t 36 - 6# ,6 ! 0 66" n :

.,6 ! 0 + 66# n 0 7 " #$% 96
% 63 D 0 (1-e-1) 6!% 5-E - " , " .
.M+0 - 5
- 4' *# . .
5 9+$ =+ + B ,6 / RG !

*$ + Q@ *E * ,6
. .
M4 790 + J 96 ,6 " B ,6 B
.# .> B 9! 6! .
) B ,6 :@ .

6
+ ( GB / 9! 6"
/ 9! .B 8+ #+ 9 # (MgO) 5
@
9! M4 7 H - M

:@ GB
" *$+ B ,6 56
6" .GB . :> B
J ,4 9 "
= $

7H B 9! M4 75 /
.
34' F
C
0

9 52
3104
The photomultiplier tubs (PMT)
Y0 - " , " 0 *" B

. '
G ! " # :" D 6 @0 .
" 7+% - -+ 7GB (6= +)
9+$ .(6/) 7 (dynodes) 66 *#
. 5 .0 *" B /
(17<4)
B ,6 # B
6" +> 6!K
C$ ,6 . ! 7M4 .(GB.+ #A ,' J)
6" .GB.+ ,6 96 , @ 0$

'-+ .. 5 . +% PE
143
9! #

6#+ 9 # D4 +% - -+
66 5 .9/ 66 :> . +%
,6" ) ,+ +>
6# . +% 66" 0" B
.66 D = # :> D6& M4 K ( +> $"
66# 4' C 9/ 66 :" +% 66" *" B 7M4
.! 6" +% + 4K . = 66 :> *" B
'66" *" B C" D = #A 6 ,+ = 66
5 . .66 9+ :" *" B "
74+' .66
:" *" B 6# +% 9G . 66# 4'
+% $ /)
.+ B C" .J (6/)
:> GB . ,6 ! +% M + .(
6. 6- CK 7... 7 = 7 = 79/ 66

9 " 6. 56
M4 P 5 . / 34.
(9+$ :"R11 :> R1 ) ,6" + 6. 5
V
:> L6 6. R 5= V
6. +
+ C :> , $% 6 ) .. :" 0!
V!
GB .
--+
66

R
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
0 *" B :(17<4) 9+$

144
R10
R11 R
R 5= 0!

6. + 4> .
0 P
. 4@ 5 C D .. :" (-V)
V! : 6.
.( 6. 4@ A6
6.

66 :" +% 66" *" B L 74+'
66 :" D = #A 9 # + 4K .D = #A ,' J
+ *" B 9 # + n / :" 2 = :" 1 9/
:' /
M = 1 2. n
(4-26)
66"
' 66 D = #A 9 # I "
+ 4K .C"
+% 66" :> C ,6 ! +%
' *" B 9 # + ,$" / 66 66"
66 66 9+a" D = #A 9 # + 6 10
: D 3.95
1 = 2 = . . . n = 3.95
:" 66 9+ D = #A 9 # 6 #

+ . ,6 - 66- 7C"
+%
6
[ :> 66 M 6" +% .
+
6
#A 9 # K 766 6. P
*" B 9 # K 4 .66 6. P
VB . V 6. 6 :" + 6 " 6 # 0 *" B
6. P 6+ *" B 9 # @ 0+ (18<4) 9+$
9 # " # + CK 7 " .*" B 66#
:66 66" = 6" E# B *" B
M = K EI
145
G .+ 9 ,6$ E 7/ 1 :" 6 # = K :

. 5 D
66" I 766 9+
V
100
10
104
105
106
107
(18<4) 9+$
0 *" B 6. P 6+ *" B 9 # @
+ :> D6& 0 *" B JE 74+'

F 66 D 5
" G .+ B
./ 4@ 56
6. # , 710 7 310
- 5' (*" B) + 9 # # 34' #
@
A + - @ *$+ B *$+
I *( 6
+% ( B ) + "
.+ Q0 9 # 4 + 56

66#
9 1 ) ! :1 11 ' 4104
Energy and time resolution of the scintillation detectors
+ # 6" *" B 6. = 6"

D) B 1

4G6" . = *" B 9 #
M4 . 6
D 5
( !
E * 6/ " B 1
JE CK
146
*EA 4' .,6 4 .

0
00
6. ! ! *0
:Z :> B
. 9! 0 66" *E
.B# R !
B ,6 GB
. ,6
00 E / 96 *" B *E
#A 9 # / M4 9/ 66 :" !
66 :" +%
- :" 6 # D =
G !> " # D = #A " " EB
.
6 E ,6 4
" *$+ 6" CK 7M4
*$ + r ,6 6 > + 7 E 36 . 1-
:' 7/ *$+ C
0
/ B
r = ( E / E ) x 100 %
Q 0 # ,6 ,6 - :> , $% 6

,6 4 - . 4' 9 r = 0.25 % + 4> 7E= . r
.9 ,6 4 - . 9 r = 2.5 % + 4> 7 "
,6 56
M4 B *$+ ,6 ,6 - +
9! :> ! " C 7 0$ " B
B ,6 G' " D M 56" 7B
: 70 *" B / 4' GB 9!
+ 1- 6 :> D6& 7 " 0 34' :" B $ A
L 1- 9 CK 7M4+ .. 9! 0 66"
,6 - +% -+ 70 *" B "
7,6 :" 66 9+ *" B 9 # ,6 - GB .

E 9- +% 66" + 79/ 66 !
# 6. 56
9B0 CK 7M4 .,+ 1- + >
147
<1
<2
6 P 6. - A $ 7+ *" B 9 # P

,$ 6 $E # / :" C F
6. :! /
CK 7M4+ .C+ / * $E 766 .+
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. 66 D 6. P
7% 2 B *$+ 7 " 7 ,6 F
,6 Q0 7B ,6 5 # M4 % 20
.(B ,6 ) , 5 ,6 -
" , " . (time resolution) - ,6
" !0 E
#
- 9! 0
- ,6 66 9 # 5' . - Q# .B#
I - B ,6 M+0 - ' B *$+
F .0 *" B +% 9 " L
/ 5 1 # = 7<10 7 8<10 / - 4'
# 4
+" - 4'
56
6.
. 56
6.
79 A - *E 6 C :> , $% 6 7M4+
. 6" 0
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9 &." 5104

" #$% 1 " *$+ B *$+ 56

Q@ 4. . . 66 B
/ .
&
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B ,6 + B *$ + 56

' / H 9! . *" B " #$%
,6 ,$ P
/ 66 7(6/)
.(preamplifier) / + =" 5
*# +>
148

6 ,$ / ,6" :" ,6 34'
6. 5
,6 5 7M4+ .,6# 0
C
6"
:" 0 66 :" 6. - 5-E 7 (potential - divider)
=" 6. B 4& . .
0 ,6" 34'
4@ 5 . ,-. . 9 '66" 6# / +
. "
D4 9 " 6. *" B
4& C :> , $% 6
C/ J
3 + 7(6/) 9/ 7*" B
Z H 4& .
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H " L C/ J 3 + ,/ 66 6
C! D4 66# + 66 4' +% 66"
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66
.
B 6.
="/ )
1 9 &."
13 "/ 2
2
/ = $

0
" *$+
6+ B , 56
9B0 B *$+

" , 0+ , 34' - . ZnS(Ag) B0 $ !
:> / = $
0
9
*#B ' , 34' " 5' K Z .GB
CK = $
6 @! J C A> . . 0$
*#B 9# (5 1 ) ,6 34' @! M
56

,$ ! 6+ ,6
+ . ' D4 ( 0$
9! / 6 70 *" B H - :"
.B

=( )
1 9 &."
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149
5
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#$/ " #$> " *$+
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B
1 4' 56
9B0 .B ,6 + NaI(Tl)
. =+ + J # . 0+
" #$>
#$/
9+ :" *$ + 0+ 6 # .6 5 = D4 66# +
+ , 0+ 66- # 6# . " #$% , M
9+
, 0+ 9 # M

., M
6, 0+ 66- ,6 - + = GB.+ =/
.( = 9!0 ) 6- + H-/ H %

# " #$%
B *$+ , 0+ K 7 "
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1 9 &." 6

# B 6 1 5( :"
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.
34' " *$+ B# B 6
:Z :> M4
$ 56! 66 , 56
#!
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+ J
D . " , 34' 9-"
.,4 9 " #! 7 A : 90
56! 66 , + D4 - #
L
" *$+
." 5'
*
34' $ "
C"
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)
1 9 &."
150
<1
<2
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" $
9E ." *$+ 5 .

.B ,6 9" 0
9" 0 7 B Li 5= 6 D 56

0
# 6 ' D
D6& 7+ # E" 0 34. B# + .,+
.*$ + , 0+ ,6 - :>
5 = $ 5= 66 , ,6 " 56
7M4
. $ R , 34' - . " *$+
*$+ Q# .56! 66 , R
5= + + , 56
/
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LiI(Tl)
." *$+ 9B0 CK #

:" 34' $ 6" ,6 56

9+$ , -. Q@ 4. .6.
"
:" CGA $ ZnS ! 6+
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, 34' # .6.
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6 # #
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6 ,6" Q@ 4. 56
. (n , ) 9" 0 :" . "

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: E" 0 #
. 6
115
49In
116
49In
+n
197
79Au
198
79Au
+n
'4 116In 56% ' 9" 0 " 6 #
34. " #$% $ 8 .
#$ 6 ! 198Au
. '66" 66 #
" *$+ + 6 !
151
1 >
114
The semiconductor ( solid state ) detectors
- @ *$+ + 9 ,/

6
9 ! E! C$ ,-. *$+ :> B
:> M4
.B0 6"
. '+4 6
! C$ *$+ . ,66# -
E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ 9 " + C $ M '
- @ G- " #$% & I ( 0 .I ( 9 "
:" 9! .# 5 7 +> - M4 +
E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ .G .+ 6. B
+
9= ! C$ ! ,6 4 " #$% &
.# + 7= +> - M4 + 75
T .G .+ B :" . 7 7 ." 9!
,6 = +> H- + -E

34' ) 7 +> 3 5 +

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,$" T 5 +
C
0 D 5

,6 :> 36 D6& . + $ * #B
66 6 :> 7E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ G
6
6 / J .

6 *$+ 56
+ CK - @ C =+ 9 !
5-E - @! :> 36 4' D6& .,@! P "I !
" - ,6 :> 7G .+ $
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3 01 - 3
1114
The P-N junction diode
5 +

9= & + " 6 4 -
,6 + 6" . 6 +> # 6
152
5 J ,6 4 5J , 5 +

, 4 ,4 9+
6'
P 0! , 6 6" CK 7M4 .#/ & + +>
C
0 #/ & + +> +> 9+ +
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6 . - " ,6 + M4 .,6 ,
C , 4 #/ +%
*.> 1.12 5 *.> 0.72 :> 9!
25 D @ , 6 , 6 6" .+

34' ,6 & + +> Q#
+ (0+ _ 298) 5_
+ , V! +% 34' 7
:> D6& =_ +> H- + 74+' . = . +
= +% H-/ 66" + .,6 G .+ 9!
,4 1110 9+ 6 - - A @ E + ,6
+ 7M4 .+
,4 1310 9+ 6 - 5
. D 7@! ! C$ ,6 G .+ !
,6 " :" + +
:> , $% 6 . " +
J @ , 6 6" 75 , G
+ +
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,6 " H-/ :
.5 . 9
.4 $ E
, ! ,6 - , E 66" ,6 -
,6 :> & +
G$ @ ,@!
B> +

4
B> 6# . 5 +

(5 ) +
:> ( As c- ) P 0
0 9= & +
+> #I , (c- ) 0
0 ,4
#/ '
M4 + +
4
V! ,4 ( 8 +% : 7

4 *# .G .+ 9! M$ +>
' . 7 (doner) ' 4 34' & +
153
,6 34' ! C$ ,6 :

., +>
E ' + +% / (n-type-material) +%
4G6" *# 4 A> . 6 E = 7$ @
. / E
G$ 8@ M4 ,6 G .+ 9! ,6 - + 7M4+
4 , `+ 6# .Ga 5 B + & + =E= 6
4 E= =E= & + . +K ,4 G$
+ . '
E= M4 + , +
+
4 6> +% 6I ,4 =I
#
= , +
,4 + 7M4 .,
4 34' & + =E= ,6 4 :
.$
+ , ,4 9+ +> 9
. (acceptor)
= ,6 34' ! C$ ,6 *# .= M4
@ E 9= = (p-type material) 9!
9= M4 ' 4 A> . 6 E +% 7,6 34'
. / E
,6 ,4 ) 6 ,@!
" G$ * B
G$ B> 6" .( 5 +
,4 9+
Z - :> =E= G$ ,6 - :>

! G = 5
*# + ,6 # 80
.(19<4) 9+$ + (The P-N junction diode) : G =
:> +% ,6 , 9! +> 9 : 6"
+ . / .0 + ( $A ,' J) = ,6
:> = ( .
0 ,' J ) = 9
n
154
(19<4) 9+$
( ! C$ *$+ ) ! G =
:" + 7M4 .

/ .0 + 7+%
+ (The depletion layer) 6 0
A 5
*# :
+%
) , G .+ $
G .+ 9 . + - " 34' # .(=
A + (
/ " L E C6$
56" ., 4 # '
#I . 9+
: Q" F G = G .+ 6. 9!
-+ 6- + .G$ -+
# M4 75
5<10 73<10
D) $ 6. 9! 6" .V! 8+# Q# 9 G$
,6
= ,6 6.

V! 34' Q" 9 G = (+%
*# + 74G6" 7 0.5 6" 0!
3 8+" D ) G =
+" 6. 9! 6" .$
*# 6 @! . 34' Q" 66- (
>
+# 6. :"
+# 6 # A .G =
+#
0.5 :"
+# 6. + ) = C +
L C 7, 6 :"
+# 6 # > 7(
. ! C$ ,6 " 4 = +% "
C =+ :" 5
+# + 7M4
9! 7+4 + 7$ 6. 9! 5 .+

155
7+% ,6
= ,6 6.
9! (19<4) 9+$ + . 7
+# 6.
.= ,6
+% ,6
The silicon detectors
)1" 2114
+ .+> = : G = " , " +

*$ +
" #$% 60 A : + 1 9 +% ,6 Q"
,6 Q" @! J .C . + -

. " .
G$ -+ + +%
+ . ,6" :> 9! P # 6 + = ,6
D )
+" 6. *$ + - 6" d : Q" 6 >
: E# (
+" 6. C!
d=dn+dp
(4-28)
:
dp = ( V )1/2 / 2 e N P
dn = ( V )1/2 / 2 e N n
7,6 9-# = 7
+# - 6. ' V :
+% =+ ' Nn 7= +% $
=+ ' Np 7(5 ,6 , +% 66" D) +%
.= =
e

.*$ +

' 6 0
A #
5
" 34' L = +% H-/ 66"
34' 5
4' '60 6

D
G .+ 9 =I .# H-/ 34'
5 .
+% :> +% C 76 0
A
G .+ :> D6& 7= :> = C
.*$ + H :" G .+ B .J
156
:> C6 6 0

A D 5
-
. 34' = +> - 7M4+ 76 CK =
+% 6 9 66" :" A> D A 34' A>
34' .6 #+ = M 7M4 .= 6 + 66" ,
+ 66# '6 6# + ,6 +% +
$
A . + - B =
/ M4+ . 34' 5
'60 #
6 . D 5
6# .+%

, " 34' = + .= +% H-/
+ = 6# + CK @ ' +% "
B = 34' + 66" 60d 7 +% '6
+% Q" + 7M4 . -
* + 6 0
A Q" + 7 @ @!

:" J M4 7 . . :> 9! 9 D 5

D 7# = +% H-/ 66" D 5

.*$ + H :" G .+ B 5

,6" :" = +% H-/ 5-E - 6 #
:" 7
+# 6. :" 6 0
A Q" 9= 79 "
9 =I +% = 9+ M .G$ =+
.G$# + 9#0 M4+ 76 0
A G .+
:" , " E 9 =I
A "

v = E
+ *EA +% = 9+ * '

6# A v +% = D/
A"
. . 9+
6 0
A Q" + 4K .6. 6- . =/5
7 10
' 4' 7 = 8<10 ' $ 5-E - K 5
0.1
- * 7 " .$ - :6/ 6
G = 6 #
9= 9 " ,6" :" C :! :> 0!
9<
10x 3 / - 4' F .6 C (*$ +)

.0 ! C$ *$+ = 7<10 :>
,6

-. *$+ 1 4' 56

+ = $
" *$+ +

*$+ 1 4' 5 ,6 56
A 7 " . 0
/ E " L
+# 6 / J
6" .D 5
" L + 5
Q0 CK *$+ 34' 9= -. 5 9 #

(DG 0! 196 D) 0+ _ 77 :> C
9 '> + : 74 E + 66" + A :
.D 5
" L

+#
&3 & / 3114

Germanium -lithium detectors
56
9B0 CK " #$>
" *$+
7M4+ .D4 '66" + # . =+ J 5 ,6
)
+ (6 0
A )

Q" +
" +%
.E * : (5 3<1
4 8( 5 Q@ 4. . " #$% GB.+ =/
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66" 9 = 1 5 ,6 5= 4 8( 6#
,6 ! .! V! M4 7 . @ =
6" : 6 0
A Q" ,6 - :> 36 D6& 7
+ P 5= 4 8( 5 .,@!
+# 6.
- 0 ,66 , 6 # 6. 56
0
8@ 5 5
2 66"% ! 5 ,$" )
.(5=
)

5 ,6 - :> , $% 6
4' .
+# ,6 - :> D6& (6 0
A
158
Q0 CK ! C$ ,6 , 6 :"

6 #
B0 , 6 : 5 *$ + 6 M4 7 .
5 M 6" CK 7M4 :> B% .(5_ 196<)
56" : CK 7@ , 6 6" 5= 8@
5= 4 P
6 + C>
+# 6. 9!
9#0 5 4 34' 60 7 .V
M
+$ 34' # .9 *$ + * .+

." 5 ,-. *$+
, (
*$ + :" J 4. .+
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D (0! 5196) B0 , 6

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, =I
6. 4' @ A $ 6
+" 6. =I *$ +
.R ,6 - G 0 @
+#
7
& /
4114
The hyper pure germanium detector
4 0 6 5= 5 *$+ * "

@ , 6 C 6 1 0 9G

5 0 5 B # + 6#
Q0
+" - 5 ,6 - "
*$+ 9 " 5 *$+ 7
+#
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+# - 6. 9! 9 A> (9G

. "
66 66# *$ + 9@$ 9 D .*$ +
1 > &?2 5114
E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ -
: . ' - ,6# B - @ *$+
159
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*.>.M 1.7 :> 5= 5 *$+
*.>.M 1332 4 " #$%

# = # D4 60 + J ,6 !
= $
*$+ .! 34.
:> .6 9! +
,-.
,6 =+ 9B 4' . % 0.3
- @ ,-./ 9B ' ) I @
,6 (* 9! :" .6
,6 - :> M4
.B *$+
" $" = +% H-/ 66"
I ( / +% H-/
66"
G !% F R :> D6&

5 @! CK 7M4+ .H-/
6 9 " L F K 9! C$ *$ +
.
B0 Q0 H-/ Q#
1
D 5
E" 6
7C" ( . 1 0 :! D ) G .+ B
Q" + Q" 6 B M4
. +

5
" .+ B - !
6" + > :> M4 D6& .

5 @!
6
10 :> 9!
9 " 96# 9
. =/5

6. @ M4

Q" @ + >
.
+#
$
0 1/ 9! + >

D 6# . .B# " =
6. + 7E= 0
:"
6- A 7( 66" 66 ) @!
+"
+ . 0
6 "

Q"
160
<
<
<H
<6
'
- 60 6 Q# 4'

6 0
9
M4 5 7 .

.
.C 9 # .
*$ + 5 @!
.
@ 9 @

56"
0
6' 9 +$ :" *$ + 66"> + >
7(annular detectors) D = 4 *$+ +
.180 - 6"
% M4
<
<<F
3 $ ,-. *$+ ,6 +

.J (20<4) 9+$ :> J B *$+ E!
$ D4 ) 60 + J ,6 ! " #$> *
56
( *.>.M 1332 7 *.>.M 1173 ' " #$>
,6 9+$ 4' VB .B [ *$ +
1.73 MeV
1.332 MeV
104
3x 3 Na(Tl)
3
10
102
Hyperpure germanium
2000
3000
(20<4) 9+$
*$+ ,6
161
4000
5 *$+ Na(Tl) 56! 66
E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ #

.B *$+
E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ 6 .
:Z # 34' R .

/ # Q#
4
" *$+ . 6
:" ,6 56"
. # 6" D 9 6
@ 6

*$ + " !
* 6 M4+ 7V
6" ! ,6 +
.
B#
(radiation damage)
. " #
$>
. ! 70=+ " #$%
6 6" 9@$ + > 56" 6 ,B
.#0 ,
.,+ 5 / 4 *$+
B - ,6 The spark counter
<
<
<H
<6
@ 124
- @ , ( (21<4 9+$) D$ 66# +

B .D @B @B 9= 9
9+
F .# - F ,6" @
R! Q@
9 F/ 66" 66- .5 20<2
66" 9! # 6" 6
66# Q# .66# C
F/ 9! . 130 =+ :> F/ 34'
6" . + 15<10 :> 36. 9! 66 9 " 6.
9 :" 4 & CK F/ $ 5
D
.FO (*.M 15<10) # 6. B 9! 74G6" .3

6 9+ 9 " 6. P 6 J
9+ .+ ,$ 6 F/ I " +%
.
162
96 6# F/ :> # 6. B 9 6> 7 "
34'
=+ 0.2 :> 9! - ,0 5

(22<4) 9+$ .G .+ ,$ 6 :> B
.t = 0 # D4 5
96 -
# 6. B 96
HV
(21<4) 9+$
D$ 66#
5

9 :" G G .+ ,$ 6 74+'

H E" 0 6 .$
96 ,6
D 5
56 ! $
.+ $ 9+$ ,66
34' =[ M4+ .J @
() - D
(23<4) 9+$ . '
M4 B

,6" C" 0 66# 96 3 6" E" 0
.
163
V
15
KV
0.2
O
t
(22<4) 9+$
(t = 0) 5
96 -
# 6. B 96
+
- A

(23<4) 9+$
66# 96 3 6" E" 0 - <D

D 5
5- 66 D$ 66# 56
+
8 =
@ 9 96 66# B M4 7

,6 D$ 66# . 6
A 66
6" 66# 4' 9B0 .- @ 66# ,6
B 96 - + C/ M4 7" 0 @ :" #
CK 7M4+ .# - ,6 9E 5
96 6# =/ !
164
A ,6 9E G .+ 9 56

@ /
+
.! = + 2 :" 6-
Cerencov detectors
134
,6 $
6" C *+$ JA
CK 7,6 34' B "
:" "
- "
'66 + 70#B
@ .+ " #$> # M4 " L
5
# ) " #$% 34' * .G B 66
A . 7F +A " #$> " .# (*+$ " #$>
.
5
"
:" A ,6 D4 66# :" 6 #
: + *+$ " #$> # 5. +
B . ! CK " "
$
6"
34' D6& .( - @
@ .+ 9 )
@ .+
+% -> P " ,6 4
:> B
4' .
5

9 :" 4
L CK
@ .+ 9 @
- @
A
4K .
@ .+ 9+$ " #$% ,4 6!> M4 "
" ,6 ! " #$% K ,@! "
+ 5
+
,6# 6" (destructive interference) 6' E6 96 4
5
+ 4> .0!
34' 6" B ,6$ +
B (phase velocity) "
:" v "
+
E6 ,6# 34' 6" 96 + + CK 7,6 34'
34' 6" B ,6$ * M4 7 (constructive interference) e
' 9+$ 96 $ 6 > + .0! "
t '6 - , 9E .(24<4 9+$) (Huygen`s construction)
: '6
5
9
AB = v t = ( v / C) C t = C t
:' 7Y0 B "

' C :
165
=v/C
,6 H 1 #$ 9 .

0 ,0 34' 9E
: '6
D :> A
A D = (C / n) t
(24<4) 9+$ .,6 B

+ 9 # n :
:
cos = AD / AB = 1/ n
(4-29)
6! ." L :6/ 6 E# 34' 66

9 A # ,6
C 6 7*+$ " #$>
:" 6
min = 1 / n
(4-30)
*+$ " #$> 6! A 6 4' 9 + 4K

=1 6 7 n = 1.5 ,6
+A 9 # + 4> .,6 "
H 5
'60 D .max = 48o : JE
3 7 96 = 2 48 :' C
- 1 #$> ,!
D
(C/n)t
v t
' 9+$ :(24<4) 9+$
56
6 ! B " *$+ + .5
3 '
.0 *" B
166
66 Q@ 7*$+ 9 # *+$ = 56

6
.,6 ! " #$S ! - 8 M4 7 " #$%
6" 7 +> @ 340 * (25<5) 9+$
.*+$ 66" 56
." *$+
37O
38O
330
39O
340
350
MeV
(25<4) 9+$
+> @ 340 *
*+$ 66" 56
." *$+ 6"
1 " &A2 B2 144

Photo- emulsion plates and films
= $

+ & " #$% 6"
! 5E F 9E " #$>
#$/ 00
" 6> :> D6& 7
,6 & .K

+ . G B =& = 78
F 50
B0 6 ,6 E 7 " 78
50
F/ .* 0$ M
E 5 :" ! (Silver bromide)
6" .M
E A6 * 0$ H - F 56

R

34' & " #$% B
167
7B0 6 ,6 ( . - ) " #$% 34'

,6" :" ,6 " D ) ,@! + M4 " L
.J% ! Q / 50 # 6" .B0 - ( 4
. + 7 9+ -0 B0 4 66" 66- =
. - F M
E 50 :" 6
9+$ .J
7 5 + .J> " = # " #
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175

004 كواشف الإشعاعات النووية

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004 كواشف الإشعاعات النووية

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electron ion pairs

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