Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Testing
Final Report
Declaration
I hereby certify that this material which I now submit for assessment on the program of study
leading to the award of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering Honours Degree, is entirely my
own work and has not been submitted for any academic purpose other than in partial fulfilment
for that stated above.
Signed:
___________________________
Robert Mc Auley
Date
_____________________________
ii
Acknowledgements
The objectives set out for this project were ambitious and required a large amount of work
covering many different areas of the engineering profession. The success of the project was
greatly helped by a number of individuals who provided invaluable advice in their respective
fields. These individuals helped the progress of this project by dedicating their time to providing
prompt responses to any queries regarding certain phases of the project. I would like to thank the
following people for helping me to make this project a success.
Dr. Fergal Boyle
Project Supervisor
Sean Keane
Martin Byrne
Lab Technician
I would also like to thank my friends and family for the help they provided throughout the course
of the project, in particular Hugh OReilly for his help with the wind tunnel testing, Stephen
Kirwan for his help with the spin down testing and L.A Mc Auley Ltd. for the use of their metal
fabrication facilities.
iii
Abstract
The aim of this project was to carry out performance testing on a vertical axis wind turbine
(VAWT) designed by a company called Br Toinne Teoranta. The first section of the project
involved a background study into the history of wind turbines and wind energy at a global level.
Once a clear understanding was developed for the importance of sustainable energy sources, an
investigation was then carried out into the testing of wind turbines.
A manufacturing process had to be specified for the designers complex blade geometry. A
detailed investigation was carried out into the area of rapid prototyping and 3D printing
processes which were available at DIT Bolton Street. Several prototypes of the blades were
manufactured before a manufacturing process was decided upon for the final blades.
A testing methodology was developed by carrying out research into the different methods of
applying torques and measuring the power produced by a VAWT. A decision was made to
proceed with the development of a Prony brake apparatus and a magnetic particle brake (MPB)
apparatus. A test rig was designed and fabricated to accommodate both of these testing methods.
The test rig was designed to work specifically with the wind tunnel situated in DIT Bolton Street.
A careful approach was taken to the wind tunnel testing of the VAWT, with preliminary tests
being carried out to ensure that the apparatus was working safely and correctly. Phase 1 of the
Prony brake testing was carried out providing performance curves for the turbine at different
wind speeds. The mechanical losses in the test rig were assessed and reduced before
commencing phase 2 of the Prony brake testing. The performance curves for the VAWT were
converted into dimensionless form and an experiment was designed to calculate the magnitude of
the mechanical losses in the bearings of the VAWT test rig. Several components were designed
to allow testing to be carried out using the MPB. The MPB wind tunnel testing was documented
along with any issues which arose.
All of the data from the wind tunnel testing was carefully analysed and documented in a way that
would accommodate future testing using the designed testing methodologies and test rig.
iv
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Project Background ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Project Aims/Objectives ....................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Project Management ............................................................................................................. 2
1.3.1 Time Plan ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Objective Tree Method .................................................................................................. 3
Chapter 2: Background ................................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Energy ................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Wind Energy ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Wind Energy in Ireland .................................................................................................. 7
2.3.2 Benefits of Wind Energy ............................................................................................... 8
2.3.3 Measuring wind energy.................................................................................................. 9
2.4 Wind Turbine Fundamentals............................................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Power ........................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Wind Turbine Design Variation................................................................................... 11
2.4.3 Aerodynamics of Wind turbines .................................................................................. 13
2.5 Orientation of axis of rotation ............................................................................................. 16
2.6 VAWT Development .......................................................................................................... 19
2.6.1 Rotor Design ................................................................................................................ 19
2.6.2 The Flettner Rotor ........................................................................................................ 20
2.6.3 Savonius Rotor ............................................................................................................. 21
2.6.4 Helical Rotor ................................................................................................................ 22
2.6.5 VAWT Case study ....................................................................................................... 23
2.7 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 24
Chapter 3: Rotor Fabrication ....................................................................................................... 25
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Rotor Design ....................................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Sizing of rotor (scale).......................................................................................................... 26
vii
List of Figures
Figure 1 (Predicted Test Rig Design) ............................................................................................. 1
Figure 2 (Project Time Plan)........................................................................................................... 3
Figure 3 (Test Rig Design Tree) ..................................................................................................... 4
Figure 4 (Graph showing energy consumption pattern (in million tonnes oil equivalent)) ............ 6
Figure 5: (Wind-sourced electricity in Ireland 2000-2009. Source: Eir Grid & SEAI EPSSU ) ... 8
Figure 6 (Various Power Curves for wind turbines) ..................................................................... 11
Figure 7 (Drag-type rotor) ............................................................................................................ 12
Figure 8 (Left: Darreius type lift turbine, Right: Propeller type lift turbine) ............................... 12
Figure 9 (Airfoil Geometry)[8] ..................................................................................................... 13
Figure 10 (Aerodynamic Forces)[8] ............................................................................................. 15
Figure 11 (Power Curve Comparison)[7] ..................................................................................... 18
Figure 12 (VAWTs used in comparison)[7] ................................................................................. 18
Figure 13 (VAWT Rotor Designs) ............................................................................................... 19
Figure 14 (Flettner rotors used on ships) ..................................................................................... 20
Figure 15 (Savonius Rotor)[10] .................................................................................................... 21
Figure 16 (Gorlov helical rotor) ................................................................................................... 22
Figure 17 (Helical VAWT from Quietrevolution)[12] ................................................................. 23
Figure 18 (The Eole 3.8MW VAWT) ............................................................................................. 23
Figure 19 (Rotor Design) .............................................................................................................. 25
Figure 20 (Wind tunnel dimensions) ............................................................................................ 26
Figure 21 (Rotor size) ................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 22 (Blades with modified holes)........................................................................................ 28
Figure 23 (Hub design) ................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 24 (Powder Blade Prototype) ............................................................................................ 32
Figure 25 (ABS Plastic Blade Prototype) ..................................................................................... 33
Figure 26 (Catalyst Screenshot) .................................................................................................... 34
Figure 27 (Final Blades) ............................................................................................................... 35
Figure 28 (Prony Brake fundamentals) ......................................................................................... 42
Figure 29 (Prony Brake Derivation) ............................................................................................. 42
Figure 30 (Prony Brake Behavior 1) ............................................................................................. 45
viii
List of Tables
Table 1 (Selecting manufacturing process)................................................................................... 31
Table 2 (List of variables) ............................................................................................................. 37
Table 3 (Brake Selection) ............................................................................................................. 41
Table 4 (Recorded data) ................................................................................................................ 77
Table 5 (Average Rpm Values) .................................................................................................... 79
xi
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Project Background
The fluid mechanics department in DIT Bolton Street were approached by a company called Br
Toinne Teoranta with a design for a vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT). The company had
completed the preliminary design of the turbine but had not carried out any testing to determine
its performance. It was decided that the mechanical testing of this VAWT design would be
undertaken as an undergraduate final year project.
On accepting the project, videos of an early version of the turbine operating in a wind tunnel
were provided by the company to show the principle of operation of the turbine. These videos
were carefully analysed in order to gain an understanding of the challenges that were ahead for
the project. The company also provided the relevant CAD files for the unique turbine blades,
which would allow the blades to be manufactured in accordance with the companys design.
The following dissertation was compiled to document the approach used in testing the Br
Toinne Teoranta turbine design along with the testing methodologies which were devised for
analysing the turbines performance.
different methods of applying a braking torque to the rotor, so that comparison tests could be
easily carried out.
The final basic requirement of the test rig was that it could be easily adapted. It was decided that
to meet this requirement the turbine should be capable of being quickly and easily detached from
the wind tunnel, have a means of staying upright while maintenance work was being carried out
on it and be reasonably portable.
When all of the basic requirements for the test rig design were analysed and understood, a
decision was made to carry out research into the areas of wind energy and VAWT technology.
Chapter 2: Background
2.1 Introduction
The following chapter contains a literature review which was carried out in the areas of energy,
wind energy, wind turbine fundamentals and the development of vertical axis wind turbines.
Before any work could be done on designing the vertical axis wind turbine test rig, a good
understanding of the history of wind energy was obtained. In the following chapter, the history
and the development of the wind turbine is discussed, from its early conception in the form of the
windmill to the modern day electricity generating devices with which the world is now so
familiar.
The area of aerodynamics is explored in this chapter, pointing out the various characteristics of
aerofoils and the concepts behind aerofoil performance. This is a crucial area as the turbine being
tested in this project is a lift type device which has an aerofoil cross section.
The development of the VAWT was investigated, along with the various different rotor designs
which have been developed over the years. In this chapter the different rotor design are discussed
in order to gain an understanding of the performance expected from the unique VAWT rotor
design presented by Br Toinne Teoranta.
2.2 Energy
The environmental implications of the continued global energy systems dependence on fossil
fuels call for urgent action across the world[1]
Most of the worlds energy currently comes from non-renewable sources as indicated in Figure 4
below. This graph from the BP statistical review of world energy 2011 gives a striking indication
as to the worlds dependence on fossil fuels like oil and coal, and taking into account the fact that
these resources will one day run out makes it a matter of urgency to pursue the development of
renewable energy technologies. It is vital that the world is able to reduce the amount energy
being produced from non-renewable sources.
Figure 4 (Graph showing energy consumption pattern (in million tonnes oil equivalent))
Looking at the data taken from the 2009 IEA Annual report for Ireland there is a promising
growth in wind power in Ireland. In Figure 5 below it is clear to see that there has been a
significant rise in the amount of wind sourced electricity being used in Ireland since the year
2000. This dramatic increase makes the national targets for renewable electricity look like they
are a realistic goal. [4]
Figure 5: (Wind-sourced electricity in Ireland 2000-2009. Source: Eir Grid & SEAI EPSSU )
2.3.2 Benefits of Wind Energy
Wind energy is classed as a renewable source of energy and has certain benefits associated with
it when compared with other non-renewable processes used to produce power. A common theme
amongst renewable energies is that they can be described as clean energy sources. A clean
energy source does not produce any emissions like nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide, mercury and
carbon dioxide, which pollute the air. This means that not only can wind energy provide the
world with extra capacity for creating electricity; it can do so without producing any extra
emissions. When a country has got a well established system for producing electricity using wind
energy in place, it can then start to decrease the demand on electricity produced in power plants,
hence decreasing the amount of fossil fuels which will be consumed on a daily basis.
The development and progression of wind energy as a source of electricity has benefits on a
domestic level also. As the wind energy industry grows, there will be a diversification in the
market whereby the majority of the worlds electricity will no longer be coming from power
plants burning fossil fuels. This means that when there are dramatic increases in the price of oil
8
and other fossil fuels around the world, the cost of electricity for customers will not be as
dramatically affected. In an ideal situation, 100% of the energy supplied to a customer would be
from a wind energy source and electricity prices would not be affected at all by the cost of fossil
fuels. [5]
2.3.3 Measuring wind energy
When choosing a source of energy which will be used to power a machine, it is crucial to be able
to measure exactly the amount of power the machine can produce using this energy source. It is
easy to calculate the performance and power input of a machine which will be powered by fossil
fuels, because of the set calorific value for the fuel. This set value guarantees a certain amount of
energy output from the machine, and when the machines efficiency is taken into account, the
performance of the machine can be calculated over any given period of time. Wind energy
however does not have this certainty of performance attached to it.
There are many factors which make harnessing the winds energy in a consistent and efficient
way, a very complicated process. Wind speed is one of these factors. The power input for a
turbine is calculated from knowing the wind speed. The faster the wind, the more power can be
extracted from it. The problem with this is that the wind speed is constantly fluctuating, so the
wind turbine does not have a constant power input, making calculations and efficiencies very
complicated. Another factor which affects the performance of a wind turbine substantially is its
placement. The placement of a wind turbine has to be exact in order to achieve the maximum
possible power output.[6]
(2.1)
through the turbine, A is the swept area of the turbine (the area which the blades or rotor sweeps
through), and
The Cp for a wind turbine is the way in which the aerodynamic efficiency of the turbine is
quantified. Cp is a function of the tip speed ratio . This is the ratio of speed at the tip of the
turbine blade to wind speed and is given by
(2.2)
Where
efficiency and performance of a wind turbine is usually displayed using power curves. Figure 6
below shows plots of power coefficient versus tip speed ratio for various different wind turbine
types. The theoretical maximum power coefficient is known as the Betz limit and is 0.59 for an
ideal wind turbine. This Betz efficiency is marked as the ideal efficiency of propeller-type
turbine in Figure 6 below. [7]
10
Figure 8 (Left: Darreius type lift turbine, Right: Propeller type lift turbine)
12
13
Chord Line
The chord line of an airfoil section is the straight line connecting the leading and trailing edge.
The angle of attack of an airfoil is the angle which exists between the chord line and the direction
of the free stream fluid flow. [8]
Mean Camber Line
When a locus of points located half way between the top and bottom surfaces of the airfoil
section is plotted, the resulting line is called the mean camber line. One of the effects of a change
of camber is a change in the zero-lift angle of attack, 0l. Symmetric airfoil sections have zero lift
at zero angle of attack, and likewise zero lift occurs for sections with positive camber when their
angle of attack is negative. [8]
Maximum Thickness and Thickness Distribution
The maximum thickness and thickness distribution have a large impact on the aerodynamic
characteristics of the airfoil section. An increase in the maximum thickness of an airfoil increases
the maximum lift coefficient for the airfoil. An increase in the maximum thickness of an airfoil
section also increases the maximum local velocity to which a fluid particle will accelerate as it
flows around the airfoil. As a result of this the minimum pressure value is smallest for the
thickest airfoil. There is an adverse pressure gradient associated with the deceleration of the
flow between the point on the airfoil where the minimum pressure occurs to the trailing edge.
This pressure gradient is largest for the thickest airfoil and the larger the pressure gradient the
larger the boundary layer will be, therefore boundary layer separation will occur more easily and
hence the drag values for the airfoil section will increase.
The thickness distribution of an airfoil section affects the pressure distribution and the character
of the boundary layer. Moving the location of the maximum thickness of the airfoil towards the
leading edge of the airfoil will result in a decrease in the pressure gradient at the central region of
the airfoil. This decrease in pressure gradient leads to a more stabilised boundary layer and can
14
promote the possibility of a laminar boundary layer which is favourable because of it lower skin
friction drag than occurs with turbulent boundary layers. [8]
Trailing-Edge angle
The trailing-edge of an airfoil affects the location of the aerodynamic centre. The theoretical
location of the aerodynamic centre of a thin airfoil in a subsonic stream is located at the quarter
chord. [8]
Aerodynamic forces
The motion of air around an airfoil section produces variations in pressure and velocity which
result in aerodynamic forces and moments. Viscous forces are neglected apart from when they
occur in a small area near the surface of the airfoil called the boundary layer, a region in which
the large velocity gradient results in large viscous forces. If these boundary layer forces are
neglected then standard equations of motion can be used to analyse the three main forces which
occur in an airfoil section; lift, drag and side force. [8]
The primary forces shown in Figure 10 contribute to the main forces which occur in the airfoil.
Lift is a component of force which acts upward, perpendicular to the direction of the undisturbed
free-stream velocity. The primary cause of the lift force is the pressure forces acting on the
airfoil surface. Drag is the net aerodynamic force which acts in the same direction as the freestream velocity. The drag force is due to a combination of pressure forces and skin friction forces
which act on the surface of the airfoil. Side force is a force which acts perpendicular to both the
lift force and the drag force. [8]
Guy wires can be used to support VAWTs which means that the main shaft of the turbine can be
of a smaller diameter. This is not the case with HAWTs, guy wires cannot be used on HAWTs
because they would interfere with the rotation of the propeller.
In a direct drive wind turbine the rotor or propeller is connected directly to the generator without
the drive going through a gearbox. The power generating equipment associated with direct drive
machinery is usually more bulky than the usual equipment used in a system with a gearbox. This
means that the nacelle (the area in a HAWT where the generating equipment is housed) will be
heavier and hence the turbine support mast will have to be larger. In a VAWT however this will
not be an issue as the power generating equipment can be located at ground level.
One of the problems Associated with VAWTs is the torque ripple which occurs in the rotors.
This torque ripple causes cyclic loading of the blades of the turbine which can lead to failure of
the blades. In HAWTs there is constant torque acting on all of the blades, so the issue of fatigue
due to cyclic loading does not arise.
A study was carried out comparing the power curves of three different turbines, a Darrieus type,
an H-type, and a standard HAWT. The power curves are shown in Figure 11 below. The power
curves were formed by plotting the coefficient of power (Cp) against the tip speed ratio ().
The three turbines which are being compared in Figure 11 are a 100kw H-rotor VAWT, a
500kW Darrieus VAWT (shown in Figure 12) and the HAWT data comes from the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory in the USA, and is said to represent the data associated with a
typical HAWT. The high values of Cp which can be seen for the HAWT show how much more
developed the HAWT is compared to the two VAWTs which are also plotted. It should be noted
however that the maximum value for coefficient of power for the Darreius type turbine is not
very far off the HAWT value, and considering how much more field testing and research has
been carried out on the HAWT, the performance gap between the two turbine concepts could
easily be closed. [7]
17
18
Flettner Rotor
Savonius Rotor
Darius Rotor
H-Type Rotor
Helical Rotor
19
20
21
2.7 Summary
The research carried out in this chapter provided a good insight into the history of wind turbines
and some of the fundamental principles on which their operation depends. The areas investigated
also gave a good rounded insight into the position of wind energy in the world today.
The issue of global energy demands was investigated and it was clear that alternative energy
sources such as wind power generation will be crucial in meeting these demands in the future.
The sustainable and environmentally friendly nature of wind energy was also investigated and it
was clear from the information obtained that wind energy will play a leading role in reducing the
amount of fossil fuels being used worldwide.
The potential for wind power generation in Ireland was explored briefly in this chapter. Irelands
large Atlantic coastline gives it great potential to eventually source almost all of its power from
renewable sources like the wind. It is likely that in a strong economic climate, there will be huge
investment in developing offshore and onshore wind farms along the coast of Ireland.
The fundamentals of wind power generation were discussed in this chapter which involved the
differences between drag and lift turbines, the area of aerodynamics, the theory behind
calculating the power produced by a wind turbine and the differences between horizontal and
vertical axis turbines.
Particular attention was paid to the development of the vertical axis wind turbine along with the
different design concepts which have been devised in recent years. It was clear that the VAWT
had not seen the same commercial success as the HAWT but this could have been due to a lack
of investment into the development of the VAWT. The different VAWT rotor designs which
have been developed proved to be remarkably different in their appearance and operation. After
looking at the different rotor designs, it could be argued that the optimum VAWT rotor design
has not yet been discovered, thus making the testing of the rotor designed by Br Toinne
Teoranta a relevant and worthwhile project.
24
25
which could be applied to the blades, it was concluded that the maximum rotor diameter was
limited to 200mm. The 200mm rotor would fit comfortably into the wind tunnel and there would
also be significant distance between the tip of the blades and the walls of the wind tunnel. This
gap was considered to be important as it helps to prevent blockage effects and should also
prevent issues with the boundary layers on the walls of the wind tunnel. Figure 21 below shows
the rotor placed in the cross section of the wind tunnel.
used to fit the blades to the central shaft so it was necessary to replace these with 4.2mm holes
which would accommodate an M4 machine screw. The holes also had to be slightly re-located as
the new larger holes went too close to the edge of the blade which could potentially cause failure
of the blades. The re-located larger holes are also shown in Figure 22 below.
28
printer, Z-Corp 3D printer and the Dimension Fused Deposition Modeller. Both the Rap-man
and the Dimension machine use a plastic as their working material and the Z-Corp machine uses
a powder based material. In order to decide which machine would be used, a number of criteria
for selection were decided upon. The three machines were assessed by looking at parts
previously manufactured by each machine. The following criteria were marked on a scale of 0-5
in below.
Surface Finish
A smooth, uniform surface finish is vital to the performance of the VAWT blades. If the surface
of the blades is rough and uneven, the lift forces created by the aerofoil cross section will be
affected.
Geometry Replication
Accurate replication of the blade geometry is important so that the blade performs as the
designer intended. Accurate blade geometry also means that the current design of the blades is
being analysed correctly and design modifications can be implemented following the testing. It is
also necessary to manufacture three identical blades in order to ensure that the rotor is balanced.
Rigidity
The blades of a VAWT are put under a considerable amount of mechanical stress during testing
at high wind speeds. It is vital that the blades are manufactured to be as rigid as possible in order
to prevent any bending and possible failure of the blades.
Compatibility (software)
In order to correctly produce the VAWT blades, the software for the rapid prototyping machine
should run smoothly without errors or complications. Incorrect use of the software could lead to
incorrectly produced parts and in turn wasted materials.
Capacity
The capacity of the rapid prototyping machine is one of the factors which determine the
maximum blade diameter which can be manufactured.
30
Z-Corp Dimension
Surface Finish
Geometry Replication
Rigidity
Compatibility(software)
Capacity
Technical Support
18/35
25/35
28/35
Total:
31
imperfections and possible problems involving geometry. Overall the powder blade proved to be
an accurate recreation of the desired geometry, and no major modifications had to be made.
The next step was to manufacture a small section of the VAWT blade on the Dimension ABS
plastic machine. This small and inexpensive model of the blades cross section was used to assess
how the Dimension machine would reproduce the aerofoils characteristics such as the trailing
edge. The ABS blade section shown in Figure 25 was inspected and a decision was made to
proceed with the manufacture of the blades.
32
33
3.7 Summary
Before the investigation into the rotor manufacture began, the wind tunnel in DIT Bolton Street
was measured in order to determine the maximum size VAWT which could be tested accurately.
The wind tunnel had a cross section of 0.5m by 0.5m so the rotor diameter was immediately
limited to within these dimensions.
The next area which was investigated was the manufacturing methods available for the
manufacture of the blades in DIT Bolton Street. The 3D printing machines available were limited
to a maximum dimension of 200mm. This 200mm was then considered the maximum diameter
for the turbine blades. The CAD files for the turbine blades presented by Br Toinne Teoranta
were carefully analysed and scaled down to the 200mm limit discussed above.
A method for attaching the turbines blades to a central shaft had to be devised as there was no
attachment method specified with the blade design. Suitable hubs were designed to attach the
three turbine blades in an evenly spaced manner around the central shaft of the turbine. The
design of the turbine blades had to be modified slightly by adding a series of holes which would
allow the blades to be attached to the central hub.
34
Two different 3D printing based manufacturing processes were available for the manufacture of
the turbine blades. Prototypes were made using both of the 3D printing machines. The samples
made by each machine were inspected and by using specific selection criteria the appropriate
manufacturing method was selected.
The final blades shown in Figure 27 below were manufactured on a 3D printer using ABS plastic
as the material. The blades were of a reasonably high quality and were deemed appropriate for
use in the VAWT wind tunnel testing.
35
6. Finally, verify that all the groups formed are dimensionless and write the dimensionless
function.
It was decided that the variables which are relevant to the performance of the VAWT are the
Power
of the fluid
roughness
, the density
and the surface
The units and dimensions for each variable are shown in Table 2 below
Variable
Units
Dimensions
The repeating variables were selected to be the density , the free stream velocity
diameter . Each dimensionless group was calculated as follows
Pi group 1
37
, and the
Pi group 2
Pi group 3
38
Pi group 4
(
Pi group 5
39
For the VAWT performance test, the coefficient of power varies mainly due to a change in tipspeed ratio. This relationship between the power coefficient and the tip-speed ratio can be used
to form dimensionless power curves for the VAWT. These dimensionless power curves allow the
turbine to be compared to larger turbines in the same operating conditions.
From the dimensional analysis of the VAWT it was concluded that in order to construct the
power curves for the turbine, the tip speed ratio must be varied and the torque at each tip speed
ratio measured. In order to vary the tip speed ratio a brake must be used to apply a known
braking torque to the rotor. Applying the braking torque slows down the rotor and changes the
tip speed ratio.
It was concluded that to carry out the performance tests the test rig must have a brake which can
apply the braking torque and a means of recording the rpm and the wind speed. Once this
conclusion was made, the next step was to investigate the different methods of applying a
braking torque to the VAWT and measuring its rpm.
40
Brake
12
Prony Brake
12
Hysteresis Brake
. The frictional
force between the pulley and the belt causes a difference in tension in the two sides of the belt.
This tensional difference is used to calculate the power output from the pulley.
41
angles displayed. It should be noted that for this derivation, the tensional force at
assumed to be greater than the tensional force at .
42
is
Equations for
and
gives
(4.1)
(4.2)
goes to
and
goes to 1 as
(4.3)
(4.4)
following
(4.5)
(4.6)
Dividing the frictional force by the reaction force gives an expression for the coefficient of
friction
as shown
(4.7)
Both sides of the equation are integrated between the limits of 0 and
which the belt or rope is in contact with the surface of the pulley. The integration is carried out as
follows
(4.8)
(4.9)
43
(4.10)
is given by
(4.11)
The work done by the wheel as it turns through an arc of length s is given by
(4.12)
gives the sum of the work done by the contact area. The integration
(4.13)
(4.14)
(4.15)
An equation for the power output from the pulley wheel is obtained by introducing the term
which represents the rate of change of the arc length with time as the wheel turns. This term can
be further simplified by breaking up the
wheel and
term into
The term
the power output from the pulley in terms of the angular velocity and the difference in tension
across the two sides of the belt or pulley
(4.18)
44
The tension T2 is increased in Figure 32 until the frictional force between the rope and the pulley
is large enough to stop the pulley
applying a torque which is equal to the maximum torque output for the turbine.
45
4.4.4 Investigation
From the derivation for the Prony brake the power output from the wheel is given by:
(4.19)
given as:
(4.20)
This formula can now be used to calculate the maximum and minimum tension difference which
will occur in the two sides of the Prony brake. In order to calculate the differences in tension in
the Prony brake, the radius of the pulley must be assumed to start with. The maximum torque
output from the turbine must also be approximated. The increments in which the applied torque
can be adjusted also must be approximated, because until the spring stiffness and the physical
set-up for the Prony brake is determined, there is no way of knowing the torque increment which
will be achievable.
After investigating the previous testing which was carried out on this particular wind turbine, and
other papers in which wind tunnel testing was carried out on small scale vertical axis wind
turbines, it was decided that a maximum torque output of 0.1Nm would be taken as the expected
maximum torque value. A pulley radius of 40mm is used as the starting point for the calculation.
The effect that changing the pulley radius has on the system will also be investigated.
Scenario 1: Maximum Torque of 0.1Nm and pulley radius of 40mm
(4.21)
(4.22)
47
(4.23)
(4.24)
In order to calculate the amount of data points which can be recorded using the Prony brake, it is
important to know how a particular increment of Torque will appear on the spring balances. It is
assumed firstly that the tensioning mechanism allows for ten Torque increments between zero
and 0.1Nm. Thus the brake will be able to apply Torque in increments of 0.01Nm. The
difference in tension which will result from this increment will now be calculated.
Scenario 3: A torque of 0.01Nm is applied by the brake, with a pulley radius of 40mm
(4.25)
(4.26)
Scenario 4: A torque of 0.01Nm is applied by the brake, with a pulley radius of 20mm
(4.27)
(4.28)
It was concluded from Scenario 3 and Scenario 4 that when the radius of the pulley is decreased,
it takes a larger difference in tension across the brake to apply the same torque that was achieved
with the bigger pulley.
4.4.5 Prony Brake Design/Manufacture
The main components in a Prony brake are the spring balances which measure the tension in the
two sides of the belt or rope, and the base which supports the springs. The spring balances
chosen must provide adequate increments of torque in order to gradually increase or decrease the
angular velocity of the rotor. Choosing the correct size springs is crucial to the success of the
experimental set up. Springs are characterised by a spring constant, measured in Newtons per
metre (N/m). The spring constant denotes how many Newtons of force are required to displace
the spring by one metre.
48
Due to the fact that the maximum torque output for the VAWT is unknown, the spring size was
approximated in order to find out from initial testing, the approximate value for the maximum
power output. It was decided that after initial testing a spring could be selected which would be
closer to the required range of applied torque. The springs purchased for the initial Prony brake,
were Salter springs with a range of 0-10N in increments of 0.1N.
treaded bar rigid and only allowed it to move in an axial direction when turned. Lock nuts were
used at positions 3 and 4, to loosely hold the small piece of angle iron in place. Because the lock
nuts were not fixed to the angle iron, as the threaded bar rotates the angle iron will slide along
the base plate which in turn tensions the springs. Finally two nuts were locked together at
position 1 to make it easier for the operator to turn the threaded bar.
50
Figure 37 below shows the fabricated Prony brake before any surface finishing was applied to
the steel components.
Use this force difference to calculate the maximum torque output for the rotor.
5. Divide the maximum torque by the number of data points required (Fifteen for
example). This gives the increment at which the torque should be increased.
6. As in step 1 allow the VAWT to spin without a load and gradually apply the torque in
increments as calculated in step 5, recording the corresponding angular velocity for
each torque increment.
52
53
54
The current produced by the power supply is adjusted using a potentiometer on the front face of
the unit. A digital read-out showing the value of the current makes it easier to apply precise
currents to the MPB.
which would tighten onto flat spots on each of the shafts. The coupling was made from nylon in
order to keep the inertia to a minimum.
different shafts and couplings on the test rig. The figure also shows how the bracket is easily
adjusted using the slot to vary the alignment of the MPB with the central shaft of the VAWT.
57
58
Finally, Figure 48 below shows the magnetic particle brake connected to the power supply using
the extension lead.
It was decided that a laser tachometer would provide the simplest and most cost effective method
of measuring the rpm of the rotor at each torque increment. The laser tachometer shown in
Figure 49, can be used to easily measure the rpm of any rotating shaft by placing a small strip of
reflective tape onto the shaft and pointing the laser at the strip as the shaft rotates. The rpm is
displayed on the digital readout of the handheld laser tachometer. To increase the accuracy of the
rpm measurement, multiple strips of reflective tape should be evenly spaced around the
circumference of the shaft, and the rpm value obtained should be divided by the number of strips
present. Due to the small diameter of the VAWTs central shaft, a light pulley or disc may need
to be fitted onto the shaft to allow the reflective tape to be applied correctly.
The Ideal system would use a control system for measuring rpm of the rotor, and record it into a
spread sheet however this requires expensive rpm sensors to be purchased. It was decided that
once the basic testing methodology had been refined, it would be a good idea to look into the
computerised method of logging the rpm value at various points.
shown in Figure 52 below. Appropriate holes were included in the frame for mounting the
bearings and to allow the brakes to be attached.
62
4.8 Summary
The dimensional analysis carried out showed that the power coefficient varies with the tip speed
ratio of a VAWT. Using this information a suitable methodology was devised in which the tip
speed ratio would be varied by applying a known torque to the VAWT rotor. By measuring the
63
rpm of the rotor at different values of applied torque, the performance curves for the VAWT
could be obtained.
An investigation was carried out into methods of applying a braking torque to the VAWT. The
Prony brake and the magnetic particle brake (MPB) were selected as appropriate braking
mechanisms. A Prony brake was designed and fabricated to be used on the test rig. A suitable
MPB was purchased and the necessary components were designed to allow the brake to be used
on the test rig.
A VAWT test rig was designed around the braking mechanisms and the wind tunnel in DIT
Bolton Street. The test rig was designed to meet several requirements which were specified using
the objective tree design method. The test rig was fabricated and the brakes and VAWT rotor
were attached making the test rig ready for wind tunnel testing.
64
65
The following testing methodology was used for the Prony brake tests
1. The VAWT test rig was attached to the end of the wind tunnel, using the clamps on each
side of the frame.
2. The height was adjusted so that it was in the centre of the wind tunnel.
3. All fasteners on the rig were checked and tightened.
4. The spring balances were adjusted so that there was no load on the central shaft of the
turbine.
5. The wind tunnel was switched on, and wind speed was measured using an anemometer.
6. The wind speed was adjusted to a desired value.
7. The unloaded rpm of the central shaft was measured using the tachometer.
67
8. A load was applied to the central shaft by tensioning the spring balances until the rotor
had almost stopped. This was noted as the maximum torque for the particular wind speed.
9. The tension in the spring balances was released allowing the rotor to reach its maximum
velocity.
10. A suitable torque increment was decided upon by dividing the maximum torque by the
number of data points required.
11. The torque was applied to the central shaft in increments by tensioning the spring
balances, and the rpm of the rotor was recorded at each increment using the tachometer.
12. When the maximum torque was reached, the rotor was unloaded and the wind speed of
was adjusted to a different value.
13. Steps 7 to 12 were repeated for different wind speeds.
68
Power vs rpm
0.3
0.25
22.6 m/s
Power (w)
0.2
19.5 m/s
15.3 m/s
0.15
13 m/s
0.1
0.05
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
n (rpm)
Figure 58 (Prony Brake Phase 1 Power Curves)
The performance curves form the Prony brake tests were converted into dimensionless form and
hence the coefficient of power was plotted against the tip speed ratio for each of the wind speeds.
Figure 59 below shows the dimensionless power curves for the phase 1 Prony brake tests.
At a wind speed of 22.6 m/s a maximum power coefficient of 0.0013 was achieved at a tip speed
ratio of 0.15. The dimensionless power curves collapsed onto each other at low values of tip
speed ratio when compared with the non-dimensionless power curves above.
69
Cp vs.
0.0014
0.0012
22.6 m/s
0.001
19.5 m/s
Cp
0.0008
15.3 m/s
0.0006
13 m/s
0.0004
0.0002
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
70
0.3
0.25
22.7 m/s
Power (W)
0.2
22.2 m/s
22.1 m/s
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
100
200
300
n (rpm)
400
500
600
0.014
22.7 m/s
0.012
22.2 m/s
Torque (Nm)
0.01
22.1 m/s
0.008
19.5 m/s
0.006
15.3 m/s
0.004
0.002
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
n (rpm)
600
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
200
400
600
800
n (rpm)
1000
72
1200
1400
The Prony brake test procedure was carried out for the modified test rig at a wind speed of
22m/s. Figure 62 above shows a comparison of the power curves for phase 1 and phase 2 testing.
Both tests were carried out at approximately 22m/s. By cleaning out the bearings and replacing
the central shaft, the maximum power produced by the turbine more than doubled from 0.24
Watts to 0.55 Watts. This shows that the losses in the system were having a significant effect on
the performance of the turbine. Similarly it can be seen in Figure 63 below that the torque
produced by the rotor was significantly increased by modifying the test rig to reduce losses.
0.02
0.018
22.7 m/s
0.016
22.1 m/s
Torque (Nm)
0.014
0.012
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0
200
400
600
800
n (rpm)
1000
1200
1400
power coefficient compared to the phase 2 tests. At 22m/s the power coefficient almost reaches
0.003, compared to 0.0013 in the phase 1 tests. In the phase 2 testing the turbine also reached a
maximum tip speed ratio of 0.56 compared to 0.277 in the phase 1 testing.
Cp vs.
0.0035
0.003
0.0025
22.5 m/s
0.002
Cp
20.3 m/s
22 m/s
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
74
(5.1)
If the same shaft and rotor is being brought to rest by a braking torque
now assisting the braking toque and the equation can be written as
(5.2)
If the braking torque is equal to zero and the frictional torque is the only thing slowing the rotor
down the above equation then becomes
(5.3)
This means that if the angular deceleration and the inertia of the shaft and rotor are known, then
the torque due to friction for the system can be calculated. This theory shows that if the VAWT
rotor was replaced by an object with an easily calculated inertia value, and the deceleration of the
rotor is measured, the torque due to friction in the system can then be calculated.
This formulation assumes that the rotor has a constant deceleration, but in the case of the VAWT
rig, the deceleration will not be constant because the friction losses in the bearings change with
rotational speed. It was decided that the frictional torque could be measured by approximating
the deceleration over small ranges of rpm, giving a reasonably accurate measure of the systems
overall deceleration. A simple experiment was designed to measure the frictional torque in the
system at different rpm values. The details of the experiment will now be discussed.
5.6.2 Procedure
A simple mechanical experiment was devised to approximate the torque due to friction acting on
the VAWT. Firstly the rotor was removed from the VAWT and it was replaced by a bar with a
known moment of inertia. The test rig was removed from the wind tunnel and the following test
procedure was carried out.
1. Using a battery powered drill, the VAWT central shaft was accelerated and the rpm was
measured using a laser tachometer.
2. Once the desired rpm value was reached, the drill was removed and a timer was started.
3. The rotor was allowed to decelerate by a set rpm value.
75
4. When the rotor decelerated to the desired rpm value, the timer was stopped and the time
was recorded.
5. Steps 1 to 4 were repeated for different rpm ranges and the relevant data was recorded.
(5.4)
Where M is the mass of the bar, R is the radius of the bar and L is the length of the bar. Subbing
in the values the equation becomes
(5.5)
(5.6)
76
Upper rpm
500
400
300
200
Lower rpm
400
300
200
100
The results from the spin-down tests are shown in Figure 66 below. The graph shows that the
torque due to friction in the bearings increases as the rpm increases.
77
Torque (Nm)
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
rpm
(5.15)
Where R is the maximum radius of the bar and dF is the force acting on a small element of the
bar at a radius r. Subbing in for the force the equation becomes
(5.16)
Integrating the above equation gives the total drag torque being applied to the bar as it
decelerates which is given by
78
(5.17)
At different rpm values there is a different drag force acting on the rotating bar. Average rpm
values were taken to coincide with the values in the spin down tests as shown in Table 5 below.
Average rpm
450
350
250
150
Radians
47.12
36.65
26.18
15.71
This value for torque can be subtracted from the torque calculated in the spin down tests to give
the actual frictional torque in the bearings. At 450 rpm the actual bearing friction torque is given
as follows
(5.20)
(5.21)
(5.22)
(5.23)
This calculation was repeated for the other values of rpm and the results were plotted on the
graph shown in Figure 67 below.
79
Friction Torque Nm
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
150
200
250
300
350
n (rpm)
400
450
500
Torque (Nm)
0.12
0.1
22.5 (Free Bearings)
0.08
Bearing Losses
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
n (rpm)
80
600
An equation was generated to represent the curve in Figure 67 above. The equation was then
used to calculate the frictional losses at specific rpm values from the phase 2 Prony brake tests.
The vales for the losses due to friction were then added onto the corresponding value for output
torque from the VAWT. Figure 69 below shows a plot of the total dimensionless power curve for
a wind speed of 22 m/s. This curve is a combination of the data recorded in the phase 2 Prony
brake tests and the bearing losses calculated. The power curve is an ideal power curve as the
torque which is lost due to friction in the bearings is not useful torque, but it still has to be
overcome by the VAWT. With the calculated losses included the VAWT reaches a maximum
power coefficient of 0.09 at a tip speed ratio of 0.25. This is a significant increase on the
previously calculated maximum power coefficient.
Cp vs
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
Cp
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
81
0.5
0.6
Divide the current at which stall occurred by the number of data points desired
for the test to get the increments at which the current will be increased.
7. Reset the % rated current potentiometer to zero, and apply the current in
increments, recording the rpm at each increment using a laser tachometer.
82
Wind tunnel testing could not be carried out using the MPB because the losses due to friction in
the MPB were greater than the maximum torque produced by the VAWT at the maximum wind
speed possible. The manufacturers of the MPB quoted the minimum torque produced by the
brake to be 0.02 Nm which is greater than the maximum torque recorded in phase 2 of the Prony
brake testing. Figure 71 below shows the minimum value of current being applied to the MPB
with no rotation occurring in the VAWT.
There are several solutions to the problem including gearing the MPB instead of connecting it
directly to the central shaft of the turbine. Solutions will be discussed in detail in the
recommendations section of this report.
5.8 Summary
The wind tunnel test facility in DIT Bolton Street was used for the VAWT wind tunnel testing.
Before any testing took place a good understanding of the facility and the equipment available
was obtained. The VAWT test rig was attached to the end of the wind tunnel and an anemometer
was put in place to measure the wind speed during testing. The Prony brake apparatus was
attached to the test rig and preliminary wind tunnel tests were carried out to gain experience with
the operation of the test rig and the turbine.
Phase 1 of the Prony brake testing began by running performance tests at several wind speeds.
The phase 1 testing resulted in a maximum recorded power coefficient of 0.0013 being recorded.
83
After these tests several modifications were made to the test rig to reduce the mechanical losses
in the system.
Phase 2 of the Prony brake testing was carried out on the modified test rig with reduced friction
in the bearings and a new central shaft. There was a significant increase in the maximum torque
produced by the VAWT, giving a maximum power coefficient of almost 0.003. As with the
phase 1 testing, the VAWT performance was tested at several wind speeds.
Due to the significant impact of the test rig modifications on performance, analysis was carried
out into quantifying the magnitude of the frictional losses in the bearings. An experiment was
designed to approximate the opposing frictional torque generated by the bearings during
operation. The data from the experiment was combined with the performance data from the
phase 2 Prony brake tests to give the total power curve for the VAWT. This idealised power
curve reached a maximum power coefficient of almost 0.1 at a wind speed of 22m/s.
An experimental procedure was devised for the MPB testing of the VAWT. Power curves could
not be generated from the MPB testing because the maximum torque which the VAWT could
produce was lower than the minimum value of braking torque applied by the MPB. The MPB
test however could be carried out on the VAWT if the rotor is redesigned for higher torque
output.
84
85
prototyping components using different manufacturing techniques before deciding upon a final
solution.
The area of VAWT performance testing was investigated which provided several methodologies
for assessing a turbines performance. Several selection criteria were used to decide upon the
appropriate testing methodology for the test facility available. A more detailed investigation was
carried out into the selected testing methodology.
A VAWT test rig was designed which incorporated the selected testing apparatus. The test rig
design was optimised to ensure that it was both safe and easy to operate. The test rig was
designed to work specifically with the available wind tunnel test facility. Great experience was
gained in the area of fabrication as the test rig had to be completely fabricated and finished to a
high standard.
Wind tunnel testing of the VAWT was successfully carried out which yielded excellent results
using simple test procedures. The performance curves for the VAWT were successfully obtained
for several different wind speeds. The wind tunnel tests were carefully documented so that the
testing could be assessed correctly. An understanding of the challenges associated with wind
tunnel testing was gained along with valuable experience with troubleshooting any issues as
quickly as possible.
The results obtained from the VAWT wind tunnel testing were analysed in depth, presenting the
data in the form of dimensionless performance curves which allow for comparison between
different turbines. Excellent experience was gained in dealing with large amounts of data from
various wind tunnel tests and filing the recorded data correctly.
Overall this was a very successful project from start to finish. It provided the opportunity to gain
experience in a broad range of areas of the engineering profession. The project also made a
strong contribution to the wind turbine testing facilities present in DIT Bolton Street, providing
valuable experience to everyone involved with the project.
86
6.2 Recommendations
This project provides a good foundation for testing to be carried out on different VAWT designs
using the methodology devised. This would provide a good opportunity to directly compare the
performance of different turbine designs and would also make it possible to begin to optimise the
aerodynamic design of turbine blades in future projects. The test rig designed for this project can
easily accommodate different VAWT designs and the testing apparatus can be used on future
testing projects.
Although all of the objectives which were set out for this project were completed successfully,
there are certain areas of the VAWT testing methodology which could be refined further in order
to improve the testing methodology. These areas include
The friction losses in the bearings could be minimised by using air bearings or other alternatives
which have the lowest possible drag. The magnetic particle brake could be mechanically geared
in order to allow it to be used to test turbines which produce low values of torque. The Prony
brake mechanism could be refined by using an apparatus which uses an arrangement of strain
gauges to measure the torque applied to the VAWT. A method of recording instantaneous values
of rpm could be used in conjunction with the refined Prony brake to automate the recording of
data during the testing.
In an ideal situation the VAWT testing would be carried out in a larger wind tunnel. A larger
wind tunnel would provide the opportunity to manufacture a larger version of the designed
turbine. The larger turbine would produce larger torques which would be easier to measure and
would also reduce the effects of the mechanical losses on the turbines performance. The existing
wind tunnel however would be adequate for conducting comparisons between different VAWT
designs. Overall this project has provided a good insight into the challenges associated with
VAWT testing and it has also created opportunity for future work in the area of wind turbine
performance testing.
87
Bibliography
[1]
[2]
SEAI.
(31/10/11).
Wind
Energy.
Available:
http://www.seai.ie/Renewables/Wind_Energy/
[4]
[5]
Constructing New Wind Energy Facilities," Wind Engineering, vol. 26, pp. 63-70, 2002.
[6]
[7]
wind power," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 12, pp. 1419-1434, 2008.
[8]
J. J. Bertin and M. L. Smith, Aerodynamics for engineers, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs,
schematic.
[11]
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100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
Test type
Prony Brake
Wind
Speed
(m/s)
Description
24.2
Prony Brake
22.6
3
4
5
Prony Brake
Prony Brake
Prony Brake
22.7
19.5
15.3
13
Prony Brake
Prony Brake
M.P.B
22
22.1
22.2
Prony Brake
10
Prony Brake
22.5
11
Prony Brake
20.3
12
Prony Brake
15.5
13
Prony Brake
12.1
111
112