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UNU-IAS Cities and Bio E-Ver
UNU-IAS Cities and Bio E-Ver
The United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS) is a global think
tank whose mission is to advance knowledge and promote learning for policy-making
to meet the challenges of sustainable development. UNU-IAS undertakes research and
postgraduate education to identify and address strategic issues of concern for all humankind,
for governments, decision-makers, and particularly, for developing countries.
Established in 1996, the Institute convenes expertise from disciplines such as economics,
law, social and natural sciences to better understand and contribute creative solutions to
pressing global concerns, with research and programmatic activities related to current
debates on sustainable development:
Biodiplomacy Initiative
Ecosystem Services Assessment
Satoyama Initiative
Sustainable Development Governance
Education for Sustainable Development
Marine Governance
Traditional Knowledge Initiative
Science and Technology for Sustainable Societies
Sustainable Urban Futures
UNU-IAS, based in Yokohama, Japan, has two International Operating Units: the Operating
Unit Ishikawa/Kanazawa (OUIK) in Japan, and the Traditional Knowledge Initiative (TKI) in
Australia.
Printed on Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified paper using soy-based ink
Contents
Foreword ..................................................................................................................... 5
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................... 6
Executive Summary........................................................................................................ 7
1. Introduction: How are cities related to biodiversity, particularly with
regards to the implementation of CBD?.................................................................. 9
2. Processes of Urbanisation and Biodiversity............................................................ 12
2.1 A brief history of cities in the environment............................................................ 12
2.1.1 Past............................................................................................................. 12
2.1.2 Present........................................................................................................ 13
2.1.3 Future.......................................................................................................... 13
2.2 C
onverging views in the movements for biological conservation
and urban planning.............................................................................................. 14
3. Linking Cities and Biodiversity................................................................................ 17
3.1 Biodiversity and urban well-being: provision of ecosystem services........................ 17
3.2 Major drivers of biodiversity loss and its links to urban activity............................... 18
3.2.1 Habitat destruction...................................................................................... 18
3.2.2 Pollution...................................................................................................... 18
3.2.3 Introduction of alien species........................................................................ 18
3.2.4 Overexploitation.......................................................................................... 19
3.2.5 Climate change........................................................................................... 20
3.3 Linking biodiversity loss to urban processes........................................................... 20
3.3.1 Urban development..................................................................................... 21
3.3.2 Production and consumption in cities........................................................... 23
3.3.3 Trade and transportation............................................................................. 24
3.3.4 Heat stress related to the urban heat island effect........................................ 25
4. Instruments for Improving the Contribution of Cities to the CBD........................ 27
4.1 Development and implementation of proper housing and infrastructure policies... 27
4.2 Provision of a good network of urban green spaces and functional
aquatic habitats.................................................................................................... 29
4.3 Local sustainable production methods for biodiversity in urban areas.................... 31
4.4 Improvements in public transportation and more compact cities........................... 35
6. Conclusion................................................................................................................ 48
References ................................................................................................................... 50
Foreword
Foreword
The world is on the brink of a confounding crisis, which is brought about by a cumulating
cascade of factors such as rapid changes in our natural climatic conditions, environmental
degradation brought about by unsustainable production and consumption practices,
depletion of environmental and biological resources, and a sharp decline in various
indicators of well-being. While noting that it is our actions and, often times, inactions
that have precipitated these impending crises, it is imperative that we the citizens of our
planet should quickly come up with effective measures to mitigate the consequences
and adapt to the changes in our natural ecosystems. This would require us to pay more
attention to the enhancement and maintenance of natural resources and processes as wellfunctioning ecosystems with the diversity of resources contained therein so as to enable
sustainable production, consumption, and related livelihood activities. Obviously, this would
require inputs from various scientific, technological, and allied academic fields in terms of
innovations and radically new ideas; from business communities by fostering best practices
in the use and disposal of resources and transactions with others in the supply chain; from
civil society in fostering responsible stewardship of natural resources and social concerns;
and, from governments in terms of development and implementation of appropriate policies
that are sensitive to the needs of the diverse sections of the society they govern. And the
implications of actions by the various stakeholders need to be analysed in a timely, and,
often, anticipatory manner, in order to draw attention to benefits and concerns related to
decisions made at different levels.
In this context, I am pleased to state that the United Nations University Institute of Advanced
Studies (UNU-IAS) has been actively contributing to advancing awareness of various concerns
related to biodiversity and ecosystems among a variety of stakeholders. Our research has
straddled areas in the interface between the natural world, human aspirations, and wellbeing consequences. We have focused especially on the notion of fostering equitable
transactions between different stakeholders over the years.
This year, we are launching several new publications that are of particular relevance to
the Conference of Parties (COP) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The
publications examine a diverse set of topics that include, among others, the effectiveness
of implementation of national biodiversity strategies by different countries; the governance
and management of bio-cultural landscapes such as satoyama and satoumi; the status of
biodiversity in the South East Asian region; the impact of emerging biofuel technologies to
the provision of ecosystems services; scoping the role of urban centres in green development;
and underscoring the need for bridging epistemological divides between modern and
traditional world views in securing development goals and conservation priorities all of
which are topics that are of keen import to the CBDs objectives as well as to the broader
sustainable development agenda. I expect each of these publications will provide a basis to
inform discussions and facilitate designing of implementable policies in their related areas.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank our partners and collaborators for their support
in our research and capacity development activities. There are several expectations from the
outcomes of this COP, and we hope to continue our work in the future informing and
providing relevant inputs to policy-makers, academics, and practitioners alike.
Govindan Parayil,
Director, UNU-IAS and Vice-Rector, UNU
October 2010
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank some members of the Global Partnership on Cities and Biodiversity,
particularly Oliver Hillel, Andr Mader, and Peter Werner for the comments they made on
the early drafts of this document.
Executive Summary
Executive Summary
City governments can contribute more to implementing the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD), as the 2010 target to reduce the rate of biodiversity loss set by governments
during the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 is not being achieved. The
necessity for city governance to tackle the challenges of biodiversity loss has increased as
urban populations have grown enormously in the last decades, particularly in developing
countries. The way cities are designed, planned, and governed influence the amount of
their direct and indirect impacts on biodiversity.
However, the process of interaction between cities and biodiversity is still not well understood,
both in theory and in practice. This gap needs to be closed if we want to make progress
on the implementation of CBD since more than half of the worlds population lives in cities
today. As cities are the consumption centres of world resources, and this proportion will
grow in the future, there is no time to lose.
This report analyses the general relationships among cities, local governance, and biodiversity.
Initially, it will examine the relationships between cities and biodiversity by looking at the
major influences cities can have on biodiversity loss or on conservation within and outside
the city boundaries, as well as the benefits of biodiversity conservation for cities, such
as the provision of ecosystem services. The report then moves to understand the main
instruments and governance mechanisms that exist, allowing cities to effectively implement
the directives of CBD.
Cities are some of the biggest beneficiaries of biodiversity and ecosystem services, as
citizens and economic activities depend on those services. However, their involvement in
the CBD process is still limited as compared to their potential contribution and amount
of benefits they could gain from biodiversity. There are many conceptual underpinnings
and governance obstacles to overcome, and we need to create new and adapt existing
conservation strategies, as well as city planning and management instruments to deal with
biodiversity properly.
Nevertheless, the interest of cities in the biodiversity agenda is moving fast, and there are a
lot of opportunities to bring cities to be effective actors in the implementation of CBD. This
requires a large effort for collective action to create better governance mechanisms. Good
governance at the city level, which indeed can deliver an effective implementation of CBD,
depends on governmental and non-governmental actors, not only from one city but from
other levels of governments, including international organisations, and of course the cities
themselves. The key point in the governance structure is not only the capacity of individual
organisations but the strength of coordination among them.
Urbanisation creates new challenges for biodiversity conservation. As a large part of the
worlds population gradually moves from rural to urban areas, there are changes in the link
between human activities and biodiversity, and consequently in the way we should think
about biodiversity conservation policies. Scarce attention has been given to understanding
how to make cities more biodiversity-friendly, not only within, but particularly in the faraway
places.
Executive Summary
Understanding how cities can create better governance mechanisms to effectively support
the preservation of biodiversity within and beyond city boundaries is the key to implement
the directives of the CBD. The actors, instruments, and processes that should be in place are
still not completely understood enough to move the city and biodiversity agenda forward.
This report argues the need to study the conceptual underpinnings of the relationships
among city, governance, and biodiversity to create the basis for policies at the global,
national, and local level, as well as provide some practical insights on the way to move the
biodiversity agenda in cities forward.
Section 1 Introduction
Section 1 Introduction
Additionally, cities consume large amounts of resources coming from faraway places,
influencing the biodiversity of those places, what we call here global biodiversity influence
(related to the green agenda of cities). For example, some of the unregulated timber
consumed in cities around the world comes from trees of distant forests such as the Amazon
or Borneo. The high demand for marine species, such as blue fin tuna in some Asian cities,
poses a threat to those species. These varying levels of influence enabled by globalisation
in many markets means it can be hard to precisely identify the impact of a given city in
different regions across the world.
Secondly, we consider the inverse question to that above. Namely, how does biodiversity
influence cities and city dwellers? Biodiversity provides a series of benefits (commonly termed
ecosystem services) to cities ranging from the more directly perceived such as water supplies
and recreation facilities (parks) to less directly tangible effects of large biodiverse areas such
as plants which may help cure diseases or help with long term climate stability. The services
biodiversity provide to cities are important to city planning both in terms of design, as well
as convincing citizens and policy-makers in cities about the importance of implementing the
CBD. However, those services, and the costs to maintain them, are not distributed evenly
among different groups of citizens within the same city, among cities, among urban and
rural citizens, and among countries. Understanding conceptually the main benefits brought
by biodiversity to cities can help direct policies.
Thirdly: Which biodiversity should we preserve? Cities are found in all natural environments
and as such, they are subject to and exert different levels of influence on biodiversity.
Urban biodiversity may not accommodate the native biodiversity of the surroundings as
this may not be compatible with the urban environment or the demands of city dwellers.
For example, Manaus in Brazil is surrounded by the Amazon jungle, but its citizens do not
expect to share their daily life environment with local fauna, such as boas or piranhas. Some
native trees may not be suitable for the urban environment because of natural limitations
(e.g., need for space, clean air, water or certain species) or due to management constraints
(e.g., frequent need of trimming or cleaning beyond a citys reasonable capacity). Indeed,
the removal of some species from cities, like mosquitoes, can add a better quality of life for
urban citizens. Therefore, the role of cities to foster biodiversity will vary according to its
individual context. For one city, the urban biodiversity may comport with the surrounding
biodiversity and the city can leave a corridor for this biodiversity. In this case, the urban
fabric would be intertwined with the local habitats. For another city (like Manaus), this may
not be possible, or at least not in regards to some species.
Cities also affect other aspects of biodiversity mentioned in the CBD. Cities can be a threat to
biosafety, as many genetic experiments or exotic species exist in cities, or more importantly,
cities can be an easy route to the introduction of those species in the wild environment.
The uncontrolled spill of some of those could cause problems to the urban biodiversity or
biodiversity as a whole.
10
Section 1 Introduction
Thus, the governance of cities - the way they are designed, planned, and managed - is
important to determine the outcomes of their influences on the biodiversity at the different
levels. Understanding how cities can create better governance mechanisms to effectively
help in the preservation of biodiversity is the key to implement the directives of the CBD. The
actors, instruments, and processes that should be in place are still not completely understood.
This report aims to shed light on the conceptual underpinnings of the relationships between
city, governance and biodiversity to create the basis for policies at the global, national, and
local level, as well as provide some practical insights on the way to move the biodiversity
agenda in cities forward.
We do this by attempting to understand the relationship between cities and biodiversity
and by looking at conceptual and practical aspects of this interaction. The report begins by
discussing urbanisation and city planning in the context of the environment and indirectly,
biodiversity in section 2. Section 3 then moves to understand how cities benefit from and
is affected by biodiversity and ecosystem services. Section 4 examines the main instruments
for making cities and biodiversity conservation compatible. The final section in five analyses
the governance of biodiversity and the role of cities in the implementation of the CBD,
looking at the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead.
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12
2.1.2 Present
Cities are human-dominated ecosystems, which have become dense nodes of energy/
material consumption and residuals production; urban population depends on flows
and services provided by nature more than ever, and the patterns of consumption in highincome urbanised countries cannot be sustained for a global population (Rees, 1997).
However, the impacts of cities on biodiversity are both direct and indirect and can vary over
a wide spatial scale. As with biodiversity, the distribution of people across the Earths surface
is not an equal one. People preferentially live at lower elevations (and by association nearer
coasts) than at higher altitude and prefer temperate to tropical zones (Cohen and Small,
1998). The distribution of human population is shown in the top panel of Figure 1 (in the
inside back cover, p.59), with its urban expression in the form of satellite observed nighttime lights in the lower panel. The worlds most endangered regions are overlaid on both
maps to show the proximity of these areas to both major urban areas and zones of high
population. We see that many biodiversity hotspots occur in developing countries which are
currently experiencing high levels of urbanisation. Distances between protected areas and
cities tend to decrease over time and most of the protected areas affected by urbanisation
are located in medium and low income countries (Mcdonald, et al., 2008).
Split by region, Africa and Asia remain predominantly rural with urbanisation levels of 39
and 41% respectively. As such, these two regions have the greatest potential for growth in
urban population and by 2050, 63% of the worlds urban population is estimated to be in
Asia and one-quarter in Africa. However, in a world where urbanisation grows apace, it is
tempting to make the false assumption that all cities are growing and this it is a one-way
process. Growth rates differ markedly not just by region but also by city size. The UN-HABITAT
reports that the urban population of the developing world grows at a rate of five million
people per month (UN-HABITAT, 2008). This is ten times the rate of the developed world
urban expansion. Much of the urban growth in developing country happens informally.
Although the percentage of population of developing regions living in slums conditions
fell from 47% to 37% between 1990 and 2005, the rapid urbanisation may change this
trend (UNO, 2007). On the other hand, cities in the developed world will expand primarily
through in-migration rather than natural increase. The population of 46 countries including
many major economies (Japan, Germany, and Italy) is expected to be smaller in 2050 than
they are now. This will inevitably be reflected at the city-level. Whilst urban growth attracts
most attention in the urban literature due to the enormous pressures of urbanisation on
the developing world, there is the counter phenomenon of shrinking cities, mainly in the
developed world, which also has a bearing on biodiversity, as this could be an opportunity
to rethink biodiversity in the city landscape.
2.1.3 Future
The regional levels of urbanisation referred to above bring to light another more important
trend in contemporary urbanisation; that of the rise of the city region. Although conurbations
and megacities (cities > 10 million people) exist in many countries, the development of
dense and efficient transportation links not just within but between cities has facilitated
the rise of whole city regions, which are vast urban corridors, home to tens of millions of
people. Several of these exist not just in Europe and North America, but are also emerging
throughout Asia along with Brazil linking several cross national borders (Florida, et al., 2008).
The largest, Hong Kong-Shenhzen-Guangzhou in China, is a conurbation of about 120
13
million people (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Such regions concentrate economic and intellectual
resources and in time, may even compete economically and politically with nation states.
The fact that more than 50% of people live in cities is significant in the sense that humanity
can be said to now share an urban experience. More people know what it is like to live in
a city than those who do not. Whilst this poses a challenge in terms of consumption, the
dense concentration of people nonetheless facilitates the production and dissemination of
ideas and social interaction, which is crucial to moving forward on tackling issues related to
governance of the commons.
As such, the merging of cities into larger more pervasive urban landscapes poses both threats
and opportunities. (Bio)diversity is seen as a precondition for the resilience of ecosystems
(Elmqvist, et al., 2003), including urban agglomerations. Urban health, for instance, as much
as ecological health, refers to the capacity of a system to recover and self-renew; adaptation
refers to the ability of an organism to change the state or structure of the system, the
environment, or both (Sontag and Bubolz, 1996). Because land use change is a main cause
for the decrease of biodiversity, massive land consuming (sprawling) urbanisation requires
the concomitant designation of preservation areas. Currently 293 out of 825 eco-regions
are more than 1/3 urbanised (Mcdonald, et al., 2008). Seen purely from the perspective of
spatial expansion; of the 779 rare species with only one known population, 24 are expected
to be affected by the growth in urban areas by 2030.
In the future, changing environmental conditions will affect millions of people worldwide
and can lead to massive forced migration (e.g., Cernea, 2000; Cernea and Guggenheim,
1993; Courtland Robinson, 2003; McGranahan, et al., 2007). With rapid urban development
and fundamental land policy reform during the past three decades, issues of climate change
and biodiversity have not received the necessary attention by many governments. For
example, in China, temperatures have risen more than the global average over the last
100 years and the country has already suffered billions in economic loss with increasing
frequency of extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods (for recent examples, see
Branigan, 2009; Qian, 2009; Xinhua News Agency, 2009a, 2009b). By 2020, it is estimated,
the urban population might comprise 60% of the total population in China (Yusuf and
Nabeshima, 2008). Many of Chinas growing cities are located in low elevation coastal
zones, hence particularly threatened by climate change related issues, like e.g., sea level rise
(McGranahan, et al., 2007). Biodiversity enhancing initiatives could help to build resilience
in vulnerable areas, such as on riparian or coastal areas, as well as mitigate the effects of
climate change.
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15
activities of the cities. Residential, industrial, and commercial uses had to be separated. As
the city planning field evolved in the 20th century, this idea of functional division (industrial,
residential, etc.) of the cities was crystallised by planners like Le Corbusier and Lucio Costa
in cities such as Brasilia. Biological conservation was addressed only by the introduction of
green areas, mostly urban parks or green belts, having their main function as providing
recreation to urban citizens. However, this planning tradition was challenged both from
those that criticise the functional division of the city and those that advocate for a more
process oriented, bottom-up input in the planning process (Davidoff, 1965).
As urban planning moved to the 21st century, plans and planners have indeed become
more process oriented and have increasingly become aware of the sustainability challenges.
The idea of having cities divided by functions created problems, like urban sprawl and
car-dependent and climate-unfriendly cities, and has lost ground recently to a more multifunctional urban areas, multi-use land use, compact cities, such as those in the smart growth
(Bullard, 2007) and new urbanism movement (CNU, 1996), which are argued to be more
environmentally and people-friendly4. New uses that are not traditionally from cities, such
as urban agriculture, has gained attention recently as well as a way to provide green spaces,
food security, jobs, and climate mitigation from the transport of agricultural products. The
inclusion of biodiversity concerns in city planning is still in the early stages of conceptualisation,
as for a long time green areas and biodiversity conservation were interchangeable concepts.
However, there is today an intellectual space to include biodiversity issues when thinking
about urban landscapes and multi-uses and should definitively be introduced in discussions
and planning processes.
Thus, as biological conservation has moved to become more people-friendly, urban
planning has become more biodiversity friendly. The two movements which seemed far
apart in the past, now include some ideas that have allowed them to come closer to each
other. Even though those movements still have to evolve to fully incorporate each others
ideas, this convergence now allows us to discuss both concepts together. Furthermore,
this could help to find a combination that moves the city and biodiversity agenda forward
on both sides (urban planning and biological conservation) and to make cities a major
implementation agent of the CBD.
16
urban places should be framed by architecture and landscape design that celebrate local history, climate,
Ecosystem services are defined as those ...benefits people obtain from ecosystems (MA, 2005: 27).
17
3.2 Major drivers of biodiversity loss and its links to urban activity
Urbanisation can contribute significantly to biodiversity loss and degradation (McKinney,
2002; Sukopp, 2004; Whitford, et al., 2001). In addition to the impacts within the city, wider
impacts at regional and global scales are also likely. According to the CBD (2007), most of
the fundamental threats to biodiversity loss are related to public services and instruments,
of which city governments are directly responsible.
Considering the importance of ecosystem services on the well-being of urban residents6 and
the fact that biodiversity directly and indirectly provides numerous ecosystem services, it is
important to understand how urban activity can affect biodiversity at various spatial scales.
According to the MA, the major human drivers of biodiversity loss are habitat destruction,
pollution, the introduction of alien species, overexploitation, and climate change. All of
these drivers can in one way or another be linked to urban activity. The remainder of this
section unravels how urban activity can influence the main drivers of biodiversity loss.
3.2.2 Pollution
Pollution can affect biodiversity in and around cities. There is significant evidence which
links air pollution to the loss of biodiversity. For example, more than 1,300 species were
threatened in Europe alone due to acid deposition in 1990s (Tickle, et al., 1995). Water
pollution can also significantly affect biodiversity in coastal and inland water ecosystems
through toxicity and eutrophication among other processes (MA, 2005; SCBD, 2010). It is
interesting to note that the main water pollutants can be either directly emitted by urban
areas (e.g. sewage, industrial activity) or indirectly (e.g. run-off from agricultural and mining
activities, ship discharges due to increased trade) and affect extended areas and aquatic
ecosystems.
18
iodiversity is increasingly considered to have an intrinsic value. As a result, more voices are currently articulating
B
that biodiversity should be conserved irrespective of its contribution to human well-being (i.e. irrespective of the
ecosystem services it provides).
of it (Sumel and Kowarik, 2010; Gulezian and Nyberg, in press). In South Africa, more than
300 plant invasive species cause diverse kinds of problems (Bromilow, 2001). In certain cases,
these non-native species have become invasive after their planned or uplanned introduction
into cities. Two famous cases are those of the European starling and of the water hyacinth.
European starlings were introduced in America in the 1890s. From an initial population of
40 pairs in New Yorks Central Park, it currently numbers around 200 million individuals
across the US and is competing with native bird species (MA, 2005). The water hyacinth
was introduced as a water purification mechanism and as a pond ornamental plant but it
has taken over whole freshwater ecosystems and is competing with local flora and fauna for
oxygen often, causing asphyxiation and massive population die-offs (MA, 2005).
3.2.4 Overexploitation
An example of biodiversity overexploitation is the case of bushmeat overconsumption in
urban poor and rural households in Africa. Bushmeat is a significant component of the
human diet around the Congo Basin with its demand having grown significantly due to
the increasing urban consumers and even illegal exports (Kinver, 2010). This demand is
resulting in a defaunation ring around population centres (in peri-urban areas), and may be
driving unsustainable levels of hunting in more distant areas (Wilkie and Carpenter, 1999).
A second example of the overexploitation of biodiversity is the trade, in most cases illegal, of
wild animals and plants for pet, food, ornamental, medicinal, and other purposes. In several
cases, the illegally traded animals and plants can be endemic (Flores-Palacios and ValenciaDiaz, 2007) or threatening7. It has been suggested that it is urban demand associated with
the generally higher incomes of urban residents (and not local demand), which is driving
this wildlife trade in several parts of Asia (World Bank, 2008) and possibly around the world.
Box 1: Food consumption and long-range effects on biodiversity
Whilst much attention is devoted to the capacity of cities to preserve and enhance biodiversity
within their borders, it must also be realized that a cities appropriate resources from outside their
borders in the process of catering to the needs and desires of its citizens. One of the most obvious
exurban biodiversity effects of urban development and rising affluence is in the domain of food.
Cities in both developed and developing countries exert this pressure.
In general, this can be conceived of as the increase in meat products. This has lead to wide scale
deforestation to make way for ranches and soya plantations which provide feed for increasing
numbers of cattle. The efficiency of commercial fishing has the potential to decimate fish stocks
and several have been declining for many years. The increased consumption in species like tuna
is raising fears of collapse of the bluefin tuna in the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea
(MacKenzie, et al., 2008)
Rare and endangered species are also at risk through the bushmeat trade. In Vietnam for instance,
rising affluence of a growing middle class in urban areas is increasing demand for domestic
wild animal products. This new market has shifted the consumption of wild species from what
was previously a subsistence activity to an almost entirely a commercial one (Drury, 2009). The
consumption of wild species is also finding a wider market in many European and Asian cities for
both food and traditional medicinal uses. A recent study estimates 5 tons of bushmeat per week
is smuggled into Paris-CDG airport. The species discovered include CITES-listed species including
primates and crocodiles. Some of these meat products can fetching 20 times the price between
Africa and Europe (Chaber, et al., 2010).
7
efer to Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
R
(CITES) which lists approximately 800 such species <http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml>
19
Currently the illegal transit of wild species is a low priority with customs agencies since most are
focused on, and incentivized to intercept drugs. Improved methods of detection and procedures to
easily identify species which are seized are also required; the use of genetic barcodes is a promising
development in this area (Science Daily, 2009). Ultimately education and cultural change are the
mechanisms by which the demand for rare species will wane. The evidence from Vietnam shows
that there is a strong connection to status in consuming wild species since it is perceived as rare,
precious and of high quality. Substitution to farmed equivalents of wild species is unacceptable or
may even intensify demand for bona fide wild species (Drury, 2009).
Sources:
Chaber, A-L. et al., 2010. The scale of illegal meat importation from Africa to Europe via Paris. Conservation
Letters, [Published Online] doi: 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2010.00121.x.
Drury, R., 2009. Reducing urban demand for wild animals in Vietnam: examining the potential of wildlife farming
as a conservation tool. Conservation Letters, 2(6), pp.263-270. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00078.x.
MacKenzie, B.R., Mosegaard, H., and Rosenberg, A.A., 2009. Impending collapse of bluefin tuna in the northeast
Atlantic and Mediterranean. Conservation Letters, 2(1), pp.26-35. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00039.x.
Science Daily, 2009. First DNA Barcodes of Commonly Traded Bushmeat: New Tool for Tracking
Global Trade in Wildlife. September 8th 2009. [online] Available at: <http://www.sciencedaily.com/
releases/2009/09/090904165105.htm> [Accessed 12 July 2010].
3.3
The previous section introduced the major human drivers of biodiversity loss. In the following
sections, we provide a detailed discussion of how different urban processes affect these
drivers directly and indirectly. It should be noted that this discussion is not exhaustive due to
the complexity of these processes and their impacts.
20
21
authorised. Thus, what prevents urban planning to make a positive change is the lack of an
ecological understanding and thinking in our current planning approaches. Perhaps, the lack
of such urban planning approaches that have integrated sound ecological understanding
can be perceived as an underlying cause of biodiversity loss within and around cities.
Box 2: Conflict between biodiversity preservation and unauthorized
housing in Mumbai
The Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), which covers an area of 103 square kilometers in the
north of Mumbai, is one of the largest parks in the world in a metropolitan area. The park is known
to include a rich and diverse ecosystem along with numerous historical assets. A dense forest with
substantial flora and fauna diversity and two main lakes as important sources of water for Mumbai
are found in the park area. Needless to say, the park also functions as a major carbon sink within
the dense and congested city of Mumbai.
SGNP was exposed to illegal urban development, which was accelerated greatly after 1990,
both in terms of squatters of urban poor and the large bungalows of the wealthier sections of
society. Between mid-1995 and mid-1996 there occurred the loss of 27 ha forest land by such
urban development1. Environmentalists led in large part by the middle class citizens filed a Public
Interest Litigation case against the local government to ensure the protection of the park. Shortly
after, the court case turned against the poor groups, who were regarded as the main threat to
environmental sustainability. Squatter settlements became the mere focus of the court case, which
lasted from 1995 to late 2003. The court ruled in favour the relocation of 33,000 people (those
with proofs of residence) to a village far away from their present location and work places, and the
immediate eviction of 24,000 people (those without proofs of residence), who were considered
as illegal settlers.
Resistance by the individuals and resident associations followed the final judgment of the court.
Numerous challenging petitions were filed in the court, yet all of them were dismissed. However,
no significant progress has taken place since the final judgment of the court. Most of the poor
inhabitants of the park area refused to move, and those, who moved, went to some other illegal
settlements nearby, in order not to lose their close connection to the city. Such attitudes by the
inhabitants of park area are regarded as a logical response, as the judges neglected the rights of
the urban poor as citizens of Mumbai. The Judges decision implied that the right to the city is
not applicable to low-income and poor groups.
The case of Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP) in Mumbai shows how the lack of proper housing
policies and unauthorized urban development could affect green spaces, which contain critical
ecosystem and habitats. However it also highlights that conservation and preservation efforts should
be carried out in a way to consider the urban poor and to bring pro-poor solutions. Prevalence of
the explicit conflicts between conservation and sheltering could inevitably marginalize the poor,
and hence relocate the problems rather than solving them.
Source:
Zerah, M.H., 2007. Conflict between green space preservation and housing needs: The case of the Sanjay
Gandhi National Park in Mumbai. Cities, 24(2), pp. 122-132.
22
E conet, (1997), A comprehensive environmental assessment of SGNP (Borivili National Park), Mumbai, Vijay
Paranjpye and Econet, Study Commissioned by the Maharashtra State Division of the WWF, Mumbai
Such an example is the case of the Atlantic blue fin tuna that is now considered critically endangered by the IUCN.
23
Production activities, on the other hand, have shifted geographically in the last two
decades. Industrial production is now a major function in many cities in the developing
world and is generally located within or just outside the cities and in close proximity to
surrounding natural resources and labour. In a nutshell, industrial production processes
generate sewage and solid waste, which can impact biodiversity in adjacent areas and
faraway areas. Soil pollution, water pollution, and air pollution such as GHG emissions
by industrial activities are also major threats to biodiversity at different spatial scales. The
need exists for a reformulation of urban development objectives, particularly for a move
away from purely economic growth targets and towards the inclusion of environmental
sustainability, efficient urban forms, and liveable communities(Ingram, 2009; see also
Yusuf and Nabeshima, 2008).
Box 3: Linking consumption and its impacts Garstang and 100% fair trade
One of the biggest challenges to address biodiversity issues in cities is to find a way to control the
impacts of consumption, sometimes in far away places, without restricting individual freedom
or hurting economic possibilities for trade. The fair trade movement could be the beginning
of a solution, even though its main objectives are to improve the lives of farmers in developing
countries. Different kinds of certifications and definitions try to include impacts on biodiversity as
one of the main points to consider a product as a fair trade product, such as making sure areas
of conservation are identified and preserved by producers, harvest of natural species are done
sustainably and endangered species are not collected or hurt.
The town of Garstang in Lancashire, North West England, is considered the first Fairtrade Town,
a network of more than 800 towns in 19 countries. Fair trade towns are recognised by the Fairtrade
Foundation, which follow a series of criteria to assess whether communities give full support to fair
trade initiatives, such as having the town councils enacting a resolution to fully support fair trade,
engage communities in awareness raising, and make fair trade products available in the retail
market and at public places like schools and colleges when it is possible.
In April 2000, the people of Garstang voted almost unanimously to make the city the first fair
trade place in the world. The town was a pioneer in a global initiative to make fair trade more
mainstream, what could also be a seed to a global initiative to make consumption more accountable
to its impacts on people and biodiversity.
Source:
Fairtrade Towns, 2010. International fairtrade town movement. [online] Available at: <http://www.
fairtradetowns.org> [Accessed 12 July 2010].
24
than the worlds average in many developed nations. Cities shares in transportation-related
emissions can also be significant. In So Paulo , 48.6% of GHG emissions are due to land
transportation related emissions (Puppim de Oliveira 2009). In the United States, almost
40% of carbon dioxide emissions come from cars and residencies (EIA, 2009).
Increasing trade as a result of urban appetite for global commodities might also have direct
impacts on biodiversity. For instance, ship discharges along trade routes can be an avenue
for the introduction of invasive species. Such an example is the case of the European zebra
mussel which was introduced in the Great Lakes of North America through the ships
ballast water. The European zebra mussel has a significant impact on the biodiversity of the
ecosystems it invaded (MA, 2005).
25
lower the infectious disease risks on the individual level, due to better nutritious conditions
through food availability, for example. The feedback loop associated with urban climate
change is, therefore, highly complex and needs careful examination (Bradley, 2006).
26
27
involving commercial loans and direct repayment elements by the householders themselves.
ERSO aims at increasing the affordability of housing and providing seed-capital to community
projects for slum upgrading and infrastructure projects through local financial institutions.
Box 4: The planning-implementation gap in Dongtan Eco City, China
Located north of Shanghai, Chongming Island is the worlds largest alluvial island and home to
precious wetlands and migrating birds. In 2005, British engineering firm Arup was commissioned
to design the master plan for Dongtana new eco city for 500,000 people occupying one third of
the Island and envisioned to become a model for Chinas future urban development.
The concept for Dongtan focused clearly on environmental sustainability, largely neglecting
political, economic, and social factors. Arups master plan featured zero-greenhouse-emission
transportation, complete self-sufficiency in water and energy, zero energy building principles,
and close-to-complete waste recycling, among other innovative intentions. The plan claimed that
existing wetlands would be protected by buffer zones between the city and the wetlands, and that
the total area covered by wetlands currently would even be increased by land use conversion from
agriculture. The original plan envisioned 5,000 people to live in Dongtan Eco City by 2010, in time
for the Shanghai World Expo, but the project failed to materialise for reasons undisclosed, and its
future remains uncertain (Sigrist, 2009).
Envisioning tourismresorts, theme parks, stadiums, and exhibition centresas the main
contributor to the economic development of Chongming Island, Shanghais municipal government
focused on the construction of a bridge-tunnel between Shanghai and the Island as a first step
toward to development of the Dongtan project. Indeed, the completion of the bridge-tunnel
in November 2009 attracted 480,000 visitors in just ten days, and visitor traffic forced local
authorities to consider charging fees for scenic spots and limiting touristic activities to designated
areas. Parking areas quickly took the place of agriculturally used land, and toilet blocks and other
infrastructure needed to sustain the visitor torrent spread quickly and subject to loose control
(Shen, 2009). Land use conversion owing to the tourist boom swiftly forced local farmers out of
business, and many continue to wait for the local government to deliver on their promise to reemploy them in the tourism industry around the wetlands (Lu, 2009). The current tourism boom
and the seemingly uncontrolled development on the Island, far from Arups original plans, clearly
increases resource consumption, and furthermore, poses a growing danger to agricultural land,
precious wildlife habitats, and local culture, while its justification as a source for local employment
has not lived up to expectations to date.
Since it was first made public, Dongtan Eco City has attracted mixed reactions, ranging from its
appraisal as a model of urban sustainability to accusations of sociopolitical totalitarianism. Dongtan,
should it ever materialise, can only be considered socially sustainable if it clearly addresses the existing
and emerging problems around its current population. If future development, indeed, succeeds in
addressing equally all aspects of sustainability, without giving priority to economic gains, Dongtan
may become a replicable model; so far, it has ceased to meet even basic requirements, and the gap
between the original vision and the current, profit-oriented development, causes much concern. In
any case, building more cities on undeveloped land seems less promising than converting existing
cities to meet the criteria for social, environmental, economic, and political sustainability.
Sources:
Lu, S., 2009. Boom forces farmer to adapt. Shanghai Daily, [online] 23 November, Available at: <http://www.
shanghaidaily.com/sp/article/2009/200911/20091123/article_420335.htm> [Accessed 23 November 2009].
Shen, W., 2009. Visitor limits planned for Chongming. Shanghai Daily, [online] 14 November, Available at: <http://
www.shanghaidaily.com/sp/article/2009/200911/20091114/article_419474.htm> [Accessed 15 November 2009].
Sigrist, P., 2009. Dontan Eco City: A Model of Urban Sustainability? The Urban Reinventors, 09(3), [online]
Available at: <http://urbanreinventors.net/3/sigrist/sigrist-urbanreinventors.pdf> [Accessed 24 June 2010].
28
29
edge density, and patch and landscape shape complexity, and sharp decreases in the
largest and mean patch size, agriculture habit area, and landscape connectivity (Zhang,
et al., 2004). Small urban areas spreading in fragmented habitats have limited impact on
connectivity in a study of 66 urban areas in the US, and that connectivity is threatened
where larger urban areas spread through previously highly connected habitats (Bierwagen,
2007).
Furthermore, critically important habitats and ecosystems have to be designated as
protection or conservation zones for an exclusive protection of species. Urban development
has to be avoided and controlled within these areas. Protection or conservation zones
should not be left as isolated and disconnected patches. Instead, a continuous network
of these protected zones together with other urban greenery has to be established. To
this aim, green belts surrounding cities and green corridors running through cities
are the effective strategies (Niemela, 1999). These belts and corridors not only prevent
urban sprawl but also ensure the connection between green and natural patches. Green
corridors, which link different habitats, allow species to find food and shelter, and to breed
and disperse (Roetman and Daniels, 2008). Effective provision of green belts and green
corridors as a strategy necessitates their mainstreaming into the relevant plans at regional
and urban levels (Breuste, 2004).
It should also be noted that increased vegetation cover and more greenery within cities are
also effective strategies for urban heat management. To reduce UHI effects, these strategies
can be pursued with urban spatial strategies.
There are numerous and incredibly diverse mechanisms currently being implemented in
cities across the globe to bring cities and nature more closely. For example, the city of
Curitiba (Brazil) has launched a 175 million USD BioCity programme, which includes the
use of native species for ornamental purposes, establishment of conservation areas with
direct involvement of civil society, revitalisation of the nearby water river basin, planning
for tree linen streets and public transportation corridors including bicycles and pedestrians
lines, as well as linear parks. Porto Alegre is another example in Brazil, with a project to
allow people to adopt trees in order to preserve its one tree per person ratio by reducing
tree city mortality. Nairobi (Kenya) holds the Managing Urban Biodiversity programme in
order to integrate the management of its renowned part into urban policy. Bonn (Germany)
is working towards integrating biodiversity into urban planning, designating 51% of urban
space as specially protected areas.
In addition to green spaces, aquatic urban habitats are also a key source of urban biodiversity.
Therefore, the sustainable design, planning and management of urban streams, canals,
rivers, ponds, impoundments, reservoirs, lakes and other water bodies, constitutes a
key instrument for improving the contribution of cities to biodiversity. For urban aquatic
habitats to preserve its basic characteristics and contribute to the adequate performance
of their associated biological communities, proper management of morphology, effluents,
including temperature, pollutants and waste, as well as water catchments should be
taken into account (Lafont, et al., 2007). One example of an integrative policy instrument
targeting the sustainable management of urban aquatic habitats is the Urban Biosphere
Reserve (UBR) approach for the city of Istanbul (Tezer, 2005). A city with over 10 million
people, Istanbul relies heavily on the Omerli Watershed for drinking water provision. Urban
development poses an acute threat to its ecological integrity, including water quality and
30
aquatic biodiversity. The Urban Biosphere Reserve (UBR) proposes a governance instrument
aiming at reconciling urban development and water quality and biodiversity conservation in
a sustainable way, through integrated urban aquatic habitat management.
Box 5: Integrating biodiversity and urban planning in Curitiba
Curitiba in Southern Brazil is synonymous of innovative city planning around the world. Since
1970s, the city has implemented a series of initiatives to become more sustainable, even before
the buzzword sustainable city became fashionable. Its master plan of 1970s started the process
of planning to a sustainable growth with actions in areas such as transportation, waste and green
areas. Curitiba was pioneer in the cost-effective Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), now used in many other
cities around the world, what makes the consumption of the fuel in the city proportionally 20%
less than the countrys average. The city is also well-known for its large extension of green areas,
more than 50 square meters per inhabitant, one of the largest rates in the world. Many of the
parks are well planned, occupying former degraded areas (like quarries) or areas under flood risk,
such as lowlands.
Following the footpath of its green area policies, the city is trying to address the biodiversity issues
and integrate it in the citys urban plan. The article 20 of its Municipal Plan of Environmental
Protection and Sustainable Development explicitly states that the city should take into account
the goals of the international protocols signed by Brazil. Thus, the city has been involved
in the implementation of international agreements, particularly the CBD. It hosted the 8th
Conference of Parties in 2006, and took the initiative together with the SCBD to host the First
Curitiba Meeting on Cities and Biodiversity in 2007. The 34 mayors who came to the meeting
launched the Curitiba Declaration on Cities and Biodiversity, which is a landmark in the area.
Following its footpath in the establishment of green areas, the city now tries to address specifically
the biodiversity issues, particularly focusing on the 2010 biodiversity targets. Since 1980s, the city
gives tax breaks of up to 100% for landlords that keep more than 70% of native or old growth
forests. Owners who preserve 100% can use their development rights in other areas of the city.
Moreover, the city collects information and protects the large number of native reptiles, mammals
and fish (more than 30 species each) and its more than 200 species of birds. A series of cross
cutting programs exist to preserve water and awareness raising for biodiversity issues.
Source:
Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010. City of Curitiba, Brazil. [online] Available at: <http://www.cbd.int/
authorities/casestudy/curitiba.shtml#measures> [Accessed 12 July 2010].
31
chances for biodiversity, sustainability, and resilience (Hester, 2006). Linked to this idea is the
concept of Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes (CPULs), which represent a powerful
urban design instrument for achieving local sustainability while reducing cities ecological
footprints (Viljoen, 2005).
Yet any policy instrument aiming at integrating non-human species in cities faces cultural
challenges. Cultural values and norms play a role for the propensity of local populations to
accept, embrace, or even strive toward coexistence with other species, particularly in urban
contexts (the coexistence of people and animals elsewhere considered farm or wild
animals, be they goats or monkeys, for instance, is a common phenomenon in Indian
cities).
Although the CBD does not address agricultural diversity directly per se, species and
varieties of agricultural interest (including germ plasm) and thus the agroecosystem in
general, constitute an important component of the declaration. Policy instruments focusing
on urban agro-ecological management can potentially contribute to:
Reducing ecological footprints of cities by providing local access to foods, fuels, fibres,
ornamental species, etc;
Creating spaces for in situ conservation by using traditional varieties and improving
ecological corridors;
Contributing to social inclusion and traditional knowledge preservation by involving civil
society;
Contributing to technological innovation in waste management and building design (e.g.
vertical farming).
A good example of urban agro-ecological management leading to biodiversity conservation
is Oakland (USA). The citys urban agriculture programme in public lands Cultivating the
Commons, aims at using city spaces for organic food production as a tool for access to
fresh foods, thus reducing the city ecological footprint, while contributing to environmental
education of local residents (McClintock and Cooper, 2009). In Tokyo (Japan), an agricultural
park in Adachi ward sponsored by the neighbouring ward offices and developed in
conjunction with the Japanese Organic Agriculture Association (JOAA, 2007), not only
serves as a local green space for conservation and leisure, but contributes to local food
provision at affordable prices and educational purposes.
In developing countries, urban agriculture is often associated with urban land squatting and
thus considered a socio-economic problem, not a solution. Local authorities are hesitant
to be more proactive on urban agriculture because it is largely seen as resulting from a
failure to address adequately rural development needs (Mougeot, 2006), or that the city
will lose status, as many policy-makers associate agriculture to backwardness. There is also
resistance to urban agricultural products with the fear that they can pose health risks. Yet
Havana (Cuba) is a remarkable example of developing policy instruments to increase food
security for urban residents while reducing the use of fossil fuels and oil-based fertilisers
(thus reducing CO2 emissions and ecological footprints), and making significant changes
32
in the educational curriculum to include sustainable farming disciplines (Cruz and SanchezMedina, 2003). However, given the singularity of the Cuban political system, other cities
may not easily replicate the Havana initiative.
The shrinking cities phenomenon presents an intriguing policy space of economic crisis and
ecological opportunity directly linked to urban agriculture. Whilst commonly thought to
be a developed world artefact, socio-economic decline also occurs in developing countries
where outmigration from smaller cities to larger ones leaves behind an aged population
(Haase and Schetke, 2010). Although socio-economic decline is not a desirable scenario,
this presents opportunities for biodiversity renewal. The perforating land use pattern that
accompanies urban decline leads to fragmentation, which in turn poses opportunities for
enhancing biodiversity. Most obviously, this can be thought of in terms of brown field sites
of disused factories or surplus housing units as was common in cities of the former East
Germany. Around one third of Detroits 376,000 vacant lots are being used as a resource
to regenerate the city by investing in the scale-up of urban agriculture (Huffstutter, 2009).
Skilful navigation of this area to maximise the triple bottom line could provide frameworks
for future urban sustainability.
Besides farming, sustainable aquaculture and proper urban fisheries management represent
another key instrument for cities positive contribution to biodiversity. By providing local
sources of nutritious foods, cities can not only improve local food security, and create jobs
and spaces for technological innovation, but they can also significantly reduce their ecological
footprints (Costa-Pierce, et al., 2005). Urban aquaculture is especially relevant within the
context of the developing world, especially in South and South East Asia. Aquaculture
development in cities are direct effects of job creation and food security among poor urban
households, yet major challenges related to waste management and financial investment
should not be neglected (Little and Bunting, 2005).
In addition to aquaculture, traditional sustainable management practices of aquatic
biodiversity can also be integrated into successful policy instruments for biodiversity friendly
city governance. For instance, the case of satoumi, or traditional fisheries management
in Japan, illustrates the importance of taking into account traditional knowledge when
planning coastal urban areas. While satoumi is associated to small village type of human
settlement, its ecological management model can provide valuable insights for modern day
city planning (Yanagi, 2005).
33
34
35
rather unsustainable development paths characterised by falling urban densities, largescale consumption of farmland and open space, decreasing mix in land use, prioritising of
automobile transportation, and finally, loss of the sense of place (Knaap and Zhao, 2009).
This development stands in stark contrast to some of the main principles of smart growth
and sustainable development, including the preservation of natural resources, reduced
automobile-reliance in the area of transportation, increased density in housing development,
and mixed land use zoning in planning (Ye, et al., 2005). In the developing world, where
urban spaces are expanding more rapidly, efforts should be concentrated on urban design
and planning which leads to energy efficient and compact cities.
Changing urbanisation patterns with respect to the location of residential developments
and public transportation availability are complementary instruments which can help reduce
emissions considerably; therefore, mitigating the threat of climate change on biodiversity. It is
suggested that more compact cities with advanced public transportation services can reduce
GHG emissions considerably. For instance, in New York, it has been estimated that suburban
development causes more than 300 times more damage in carbon dioxide emissions than
central city development (Glaeser, 2008). Likewise, studies including multiple cities across
developed countries show that emissions can be reduced by 30% if public transportation
options are implemented in substitution of private car use (UITP, 2006). By setting up
emissions targets and reorienting housing developments in compact, central areas, cities can
make significant contributions to cut emissions and decrease land consumption. A variety of
successful experiences exist in different cities across the world. For example, the city of San
Francisco (USA) recently approved a comprehensive ordinance establishing Climate Change
Goals and Action Plan setting ambitious greenhouse gas reduction targets for the city: 25%
below 1990 levels by 2017, 40% below 1990 levels by 2025, and 80% below 1990 levels
by 2050 (San Francisco City and County Government, 2008).
36
necessary (Breuste, 2004). City governments should develop and implement relevant ways
to include urban dwellers and their associations in nature conservation, urban planning, and
management processes.
It should also be noted that lack or inadequacy of awareness is not a problem limited to
citizens and urban dwellers. In many cases, decision-makers and even professionals are
not well aware of the merits of biodiversity preservation; therefore, in the same manner,
awareness among all stakeholders needs to be increased. Key local actors in decision-making
and decision-implementation have to be well-informed about the means and importance of
effective biodiversity conservation.
10
37
collection, and a substantial reduction in crime. Starting from 1998, Kigalis government
targeted garbage collection, improved the sewage system, upgraded the slum areas, and
banned use of plastic bags. The streets and pavements were improved, and the public
transportation system was upgraded.
38
12
Some countries, like Japan, have different kinds of local governments with different autonomy and authority.
39
Cities are also key in the implementation of CBD through their national policies. CBD
requires the development of a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)
by each party to the Convention, and provides a framework for its implementation. The
second CBD Conference of Parties (COP 2) in 1995 provided the guidelines for the NBSAPs
and their implementation, and parties are responsible to update and periodically reassess
their biodiversity strategy plans. In tune with the governance concept, NBSAPs should be
developed and implemented with the participation of different stakeholders in society,
including local governments, as they are crucial to provide information and determine the
outcomes of the plans.
Besides the inclusion of local governments in the CBD decisions, sub-national governments,
including cities and civil society are important actors in NBSAPs as they are responsible
for many factors that influence the outcome of the implementation process. Sub-national
governments in many countries, such as Ecuador, India, and South Africa, have already
introduced aspects of the CBD in their own policies (Pisupati, 2007). The SCBD is also
developing the Plan of Action on Cities, Local Authorities and Biodiversity 2011-2020.13
Sometimes cities go ahead of the national governments in the adoption of biodiversity
policies. Even in countries that have not supported the CBD, such as the United States, there
are cities engaged in the CBD process through their own initiatives.
However, even though cities are important institutional actors to achieve the objectives of
the CBD, there are still many conceptual, institutional, and political obstacles to improve
the governance of the CBD process to incorporate cities in the main debates and actions to
achieve the CBD goals as we describe below.
40
adopted measures to control state imports of illegal timber. The lack of focus on city policy
may be the reason for limited CBD discussion; however, engagement of cities in the process
is also lacking.
5.1.6 There is a lack of proper instruments to deal with biodiversity at the city
level
There is very limited number of comprehensive instruments to deal with biodiversity and
cities, and when they do exist, there is little coordination to put them into practice. Without
adequate instruments, it is difficult for cities to implement the CBD even when they have
the political motivation and resources. Incorporation of biodiversity concerns in existing
practices, such as urban design projects or redevelopment plans, is still almost unheard of.
ICLEI-LAB is developing a guide to help practitioners in local government to plan for and
manage their local biodiversity (Berrisford, Patrickson and Mader, 2010). Lack of proper
biodiversity indicators for cities, such as the initiative of the Singaporean government (CBD,
2010), is key but the results will take time to affect policy. Instruments for controlling
the impact of cities on faraway ecosystems are in the very early stages of development.
Many of those instruments will involve the coordinated action of more than one locality.
41
Economic instruments to deal with the protection of biodiversity, which can be applied at
the city level, are still being tested, such as payment for ecosystem services and its use for
forest preservation in Costa Rica (Chomitz, et al., 1998). Change the planning process to
incorporate biodiversity issues is still a major challenge.
14
42
T asker-Brown (2010, forthcoming) will address how national governments can involve local authorities in the
implementation of CBD.
43
44
Box 9: Taking stock of biodiversity in the city the city biodiversity index
In order for cities to monitor their level of biodiversity and progress on its conservation, it is
necessary to have a framework which can be used to aid planning and governance. The Global
Partnership on Cities and Biodiversity has developed a self-assessment tool known as the City
Biodiversity Index (CBI) under the leadership of Singapore and the SCBD. The index comprises of
indicators split into in three categories which enables cities to (i) monitor their level of biodiversity,
(ii) understand the provision of ecosystem services within the city and (iii) develop their capacity
to manage these resources within the city. As such it combines a range of physical and biological
survey such as number of native species, natural connected areas, green areas, number of alien
species in the city and an assessment of governance structure and activity (alignment of local to
national policies; number of projects and outreach programs) to come up with a score, which can
be used as a reference for future updates.
Given the huge bio-geographical variation in cities and their fundamental level of natural
biodiversity, it may not be useful to compare scores in a scientific sense but rather in a relative
sense to understand cities progress in conserving their natural biodiversity and ecosystem services
whilst developing policies and strategies to achieve these aims. More details on the CBI including
the users manual on how to conduct the assessment can be found in the source reference.
Source:
Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010. The Singapore Index on Cities' Biodiversity (CBI). [online] Available at:
<http://www.cbd.int/authorities/gettinginvolved/cbi.shtml> [Accessed 12 July 2010].
5.2.4 Policies can be more effective at the city level because of the scale
As cities are dense in population, scaling up of initiatives such as awareness raising campaigns
or law enforcement mechanisms can be an efficient and powerful way to implement
CBD initiatives. Awareness raising campaigns would reach a wide audience in cities; the
enforcement of legislations is also more effective in cities. Thus, if CBD implementation
initiatives have a larger focus on cities, their efficiency and impact can be greater.
Spencer Environmental Ltd. (2006), State of Natural Areas Report, City of Edmonton.
45
46
6. Conclusion
47
Section 6 Conclusion
6. Conclusion
Cities are fundamental players if we want to achieve the objectives of the CBD, as most of
the world population lives in cities today and many of the important decisions that affect
cities are made in cities. Cities are also some of the biggest beneficiaries of biodiversity
and ecosystem services, as most of their citizens and economic activities depend on those
services from faraway areas. However, their involvement in the CBD process is still limited in
comparison to their potential contribution and amount of benefits they get from biodiversity
and ecosystem services. There are many conceptual underpinnings and governance
obstacles to overcome; there is a need to create new and adapt existing city planning and
management instruments to properly deal with biodiversity.
From an ecological perspective, there are two different, yet interrelated kinds of instruments
through which cities can make positive contributions to the CBD. First are those aiming
at reducing cities ecological footprints, and second are those aiming at restoring urban
ecosystems. Although deeply interconnected, the former does not necessarily include
the latter, and vice versa. For example, reduced consumption levels or increased recycling
reduces ecological footprints, but these can be achieved without making any significant
local environmental improvements. Likewise, cities can improve the local biodiversity by
creating new urban parks for leisure activities using local species, however at the same time,
if the per capita consumption of meat is increased, the ecological footprint in the regional or
global scale is not reduced. Yet in certain cases, both types of instruments go hand-in-hand.
For instance, in transportation-related impacts, improving urban mobility systems contribute
both to improved local ecosystems and to reduced global atmospheric impacts. Given the
complexity of tackling ecological causes of diversity loss by urban governance mechanisms,
efforts should be directed toward designing and implementing synergetic instruments, in
other words, developing mechanisms which contribute to both the reduction of ecological
footprints of cities while improving the ecology of the urban fabric.
In addition to the ecological dimensions, managing social and cultural aspects is also
of paramount importance for creating successful instruments. Equity, transparency,
accountability, security, civic engagement, and citizenship must be integrated in any
governance transformation aiming at contributing to the CBD. In this respect, the inclusion
of civil society and stakeholder group in local governmental policy initiatives is vital for
effective biodiversity management (Elander, et al., 2005). Furthermore, since interest groups
and local stakeholders have a direct influence in biodiversity management through their
own land use and management practices of green spaces (Barthel, et al., 2005), policy
mechanisms should be designed and implemented in conjunction with social initiatives to
create adaptive and polycentric networks.
Urban planning can serve as an effective instrument to reduce the adverse impacts of
urbanisation on the natural environment and facilitate such change and improvement.
Nevertheless, it is not enough to rely on the current approaches and practices of urban
planning as they generally lack deep ecological understanding and knowledge. Baseline
information of physical properties and biotic characteristics of biotope patches in and
around cities (Niemela, 1999) would provide the sound scientific knowledge base for
urban planning decisions. City governments can greatly benefit from an urban planning
approach mainstreamed with an ecological understanding in addressing biodiversity related
problems.
48
Section 6 Conclusion
There is growing participation of local governments and city representatives in the CBD process
and an increasing recognition of the importance of cities for the effective implementation
of CBD. However, there is room for improvement, as biodiversity policies in sub-national
governments in cities are still very much lagging. Even though there is considerable effort
on the part of some cities to mainstream biodiversity, the engagement of cities is still low
compared to other global issues, such as climate change. Moreover, if we consider the three
levels of interaction between cities and biodiversity (urban biodiversity, regional biodiversity,
and global biodiversity), much of the efforts have been put or limited to urban biodiversity,
which sometimes is mixed with green areas. The influence on regional biodiversity has
been the concern of some cities in their policies to avoid sprawl, but most of the time for
different reasons, such as the need to revitalise city centres. Finally, the global influence on
biodiversity is still in its early stages of conceptualisation at the local level. Nevertheless, the
interest of cities in the biodiversity agenda is moving fast, and there are ample opportunities
to bring cities as effective actors in the implementation of CBD. This will also require a large
effort for collective action for results; we will need the cooperation of a large number of
cities, and/or greater support at other levels of governance.
Urbanisation is ambiguous to biodiversity. The globalised nature of agriculture and supply
chains means that threatened ecosystems could exist at land or sea, far away from any city.
To achieve the aims of CBD, it is crucial to understand the systemic levers of our governance
and institutions. This could take the form of enlightened city planning or strengthened
enforcement of institutions (e.g. tracking of criminal networks and prohibiting the trade
and transfer of endangered species to restaurants and health centres).
Cultural issues related to consumption can be an underlying factor that drives these changes.
Modern cities are not only ecologically unsustainable but socially constructed as spaces
outside of nature. Many city residents only experience very humanised environments
throughout their life, so there is the perception that cities can function with little regards
to the environment outside of the city. Despite the fact that the sustainability of human
life ultimately depends on the Earths ecosystems and the services they provide, peoples
perception about the impact of increasing urbanisation and biodiversity loss may not
go beyond what is happening to certain emblematic species (e.g. pandas). This cultural
paradigm of the city as defeating nature is also shaping the minds of planners, decisionmakers, mass media, etc. Only by deconstructing this cultural notion, effective instruments
can be designed.
49
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Figure 1: The biodiversity hotspots of the world (red outlines) from Conservation International
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59