)(

The Vector differential operator Del

) ( x , y , z

i
j
k
,
,
x
y
z

)(The gradient :

) (x, y, z .
) (GRAD .

i
j
) k ( x , y , z
x
y
z

e .e

The divergence :

V
3
z

V j V k
2
3

.V

V ( x, y, z ) V1 i . V

DIV V .

V
V
1
2
x
y

V ( x, y, z ) (V , V , V )
1 2 3

= A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3 :

. V V . :

A B

V V V
V
V
1 x
2y
3 z

The curl ( )

Curl V V V (x, y, z)

i j
x V ( x, y, z) x (V , V , V ) x y
123
V V
1 2
(V V , V V , V V )
3y 2z 1z 3x 2x 1y

k
z
V
3

Formulae involving ()

( + ) = +

(A

grad ( + ) = grad + grad

)=.A+.B

x (A + B) = x A + x B

div (A + B) = div (A) + div (B)

Curl

(A + B) = Curl (A) + Curl B

( A) = () . A + ( . A)

( ) 2

2
x2

2
y2

2
z2

xx yy zz
2

2
x2

2
y2

2
z2

xx yy zz

zero

is The eurl of the gradient of

x ( )

 = The divergence of the curl of

( x A) = o

is zero

: Invariance
) (x, y, z ) ,(`x`, y`, z .
) P ( x, y , z
)` x ( x`, y `, z

`X
X

`Y

O
Z
`Z

P )(x, y, z ) ,(`x`, y`, z .

:

11 x + 12 y + 13 z
y` = 21 x + 22 y + 23 z
z` = 31 x + 32 y + 33 z
= `x

x` 1 12 13 x

)y` 21 2 23 y (1
z ` z

31 32 3
:

j 1, 2, 3

ij , i, `x`, y`, z x,

.y, z

11 x + 12 y + 13 z + a`1
y` = 21 x + 22 y + 23 z + a`2
z` = 31 x + 32 y + 33 z + a`3
= `x

)(2

O ) (x, y, z ) (a`1, a`2, a`3 ):(`x`, y`, z

 a`
x` 1 2 13 x 1

y` 21 23 y a`2
z` z
a`
31 2 3 3
) (1 ) ( ) (2
) (.
.

Solved Problems
The gradient :

:(1)
If -

( x, y, z ) 3 x 2 y y 3 z 2 , Find at po int(1,2,1)

(x, y, z) = 3x2y y3 z2

( grad )

= ( x, y, z ) = (6 xy, 3x2 3y2z2, 2y3 z)

:(2)

Find -

1
r

if (a) lin r , (b)

lin | r |,

1
r

1
x 2 y 2 z 2 , ln ( x 2 y 2 z 2 )
2
1
2x
2y
2z
r
(
,
,
)
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 x y z
x y z
x y z
r2
r ( x, y , z ) | r |

1
( ) (
r

1
) ( x2 y2 z 2 ) 2

x2 y2 z 2
x
y
z
(
,
,
)
3
3
3
( x2 y 2 z 2 ) 2 ( x2 y 2 z 2 ) 2 ( x2 y 2 z 2 ) 2

r
r3

:(3)

- Show that + is a vector perpendicular to the surface (x, y, z)

= C , where C is a constant.
. C (x, y, z) = C
.

(x, y, z ) =

. d r (dx, dy, dz ) =
:

dx
d y
d z ( x , y , z ) (d x, d y, d z )
x
y
z

:
d=

.d

=o

. d r

: (4)

- Find a unit normal to the surface x2y + 2 xz = 4 at the point (2,-2,3)

x2y + 2 xz = 4

| |

= (2xy + 2z, x2, 2x)

1
(2 x y 2 z , x 2 , 2 x)
2
4
2
( 2 x y 2 z ) x (2 x)

:(5)
- Show that rn = nrn 2

rn = nrn 2 r :

r n ( x 2 y 2 z 2 ) 2 ( x ( x 2 y 2 z 2 ) 2 ,
n

2
2
2
(x y z ) 2 ,
y

2
2
2
(x y z ) 2
z

1
1
n
n 2
2
2
( ( x 2 y 2 z 2 ) 2 (2 x) ,
(x y z ) 2
(2 y) ,
2
2
n

1
n 2
2
2 2
(x y z )
(2 z))
2

n ( x2

y2

n
1
n (r 2 ) 2

n
1
2
z )2

( x, y, z )

r n r n2 r

: (6)
- Show that

d
dr

ds
ds
d
dr

ds
ds

d
d x
d y
d z

ds
x ds
y ds
z ds

dx dy dz
dr
( x , y , z ) (
,
,
)
ds
ds ds
ds

The divergence :
: (1)
- If

= (x2 z, -2y3 z2, xy2 z) , Find

(x2 z, -2y3 z2, xy2 z) =

. A

= ( x , y, z) .

at the point (1,-1,1)

. A (div

= x (x2 z) + y (-2y3 z2 )

+ z (x y2 z) = 2 x z 6 y2 z2 + x y2
:(2)
- Given = 2x3 y2 z4
(a) Find

(b) Show that

= 2 , where 2 = xx + yy + zz denotes

the laplacian operator

= 2x3 y2 z4
:

.

(div grad )

(1)

= 2

(2)

2 = xx + yy + zz

= (6x2 y2 z4, 4x3 yz4, 8x3 y2 z3 )

= x (6x2 y2 z4) + y (4x3 y z4 ) + z (8x3 y2 z3)

= 12x y2 z4 + 4x3 z4 + 24x3 y2 z2

.

= ( x, y, z) . ( x, y, z)

(2)

= xx + yy + zz = 2
:(3)
- Prove that 2 (

1
=( o
r
.

1
2 ( ) ( xx yy zz ) (
r

1
1
o = (
) 2
r
r

1
)
2
2
2
x y z

1
2
2
2
x (
) x ( x y z ) 2
2
2
2
x y z
3
1
2
2
2
2x ( x y z ) 2
2
1

3
2
2
2
x( x y z ) 2
3
) x ( x ( x 2 y 2 z 2 ) 2 )
x2 y 2 z 2
5
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
[ x ( ) (2 x ) ( x y z )
( x y z ) 2 1]
2
5
3
2
2
2
2
3x ( x y z ) 2 ( x 2 y 2 z 2 ) 2
1

xx (

3x 2 ( x 2 y 2 z 2 )
2 x2 y 2 z 2

5
5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(x y z )
(x y z ) 2

2
(
y2

2
(
z2
(

1
)
2
2
2
x y z

1
x2 y 2 z 2

xx yy zz )

2 y2 x2 z 2
5
2
2
2
(x y z ) 2

2 z2 x2 y 2
5
( x2 y 2 z2 ) 2
1

x2 y2 z2

10

o
5
2
2
2
(x y z ) 2

)o

: (4)
- Determine the constant a so that the vector V = (x + 3y, -2z +
y, az) is solenoidal.

V (x + 3y, -2z + y, az ) = a

.V

= (1 + 1+ a) = o

a = -2

The curl
:(1)
- If

= (xz3, -2x2 yz, 2yz4) , Find

A at the point (1,-1,1)

:

= (xz3, -2x2 yz, 2yz4)

(Curl

11

 X A ( x , y , z ) X A
i j k
x y z (2 z 4 2 x 2 y , 3 x z 2 , 4 x y z )
x z3 2 x2 yz 2 y z4
: (2)
- Evaluate

). A

r ( if

A =

o
o

.( A

= (A1 , A2 , A3)

12

= (x, y, z)

i
j
k
A x r A
A
A
1
2
3
x
y
z
(z A y A , x A z A , y A x A )
2
3
3
1
1
2
( A x r) x (z A y A )
2
3
y ( x A z A ) z ( yA x A )
3
1
1
2
z

A
A
A
A
A
A
2y 3x 3z 1 y 1x 2
x
x
y
y
z
z

x(

A
A
3 A2 ) y ( A1
3 ) z ( A2 A1 )
y
z
z
x
x
y

r ( x A) o

:(3)
- If

1
= w r Prove w 2 curl V

where

is a constant

vector
( + )
V

13

1
w 2 curl V

i
Curl V x ( w x r ) x w
1
x

j
w
2
y

k
w
3
z

x ( w z w y ; w x w z , w y w x)
2 3 3 1 1
2
i

x
w zw y
2
3

y
w xw z
3 1

z
w y w x
1
2

2 (w , w , w ) 2 w
1 2 3
: (4)
x, y, z

, (x`, y`, z`)

.
- Two rectangular x, y, z and (x`, y`, z`) coordinate systems having
the same origin are rotated with respect to each other . Derive the
transformation equations between the coordinate of a point in the
two systems.

`r = r ` r, r
x i y j z k x ' i` y ' j ` z ' k `

14

(1)

:
A ( A i`) i` ( A j `) j ` ( A k `) k `

(2)

A A i A j A k A i A , A j A

1 2
3
1

A k A3 A ( A i) i ( A j) j ( A k ) k

: k

( 2)

i = (i i`)i` + (i j`)j` + (i k`)k` = 11 i` + 21 j` + 31 k`

.
j = (j i`)i` + (j j`)j` + (j k`)k` = 12 i` + 22 j` + 32 k`
(3)
k = (k i`)i` + (k j`)j` + (k k`)k` = 13 i` + 23 j` + 33 k`
: ` i`, j`, k ( 1) ( 3)
x ( 11 i` + 21 j` + 31 k` ) + y ( 12 i` + 22 j` + 32 k`)
+ z ( 13 i` + 23 j` + 33 k`)

xi y j z k

: i` : x 11 + y 12 + z 13 = x`
: j` : x 21 + y 22 + z 23 = y`

(4)

: k` : x 31 + y 32 + z 33 = z`
.
(4) (3)

15

i 1 21 31 i` x`

j 12 2 32 j` ,y`
z`
k k`
13 23 3

1 12 13 x

y
21 2 23
z

31 31 3
16

:5

- Prove (

) = ( )

+ (
(

) = ( )

+ (

)=

( A1, A2, A3) = x ( A1) + y ( A2) +

z ( A3) = ( x ) A1 + x (A1) + ( y ) A2 + ( y A2) +

( z ) A3 + z (A3) = x A1 y A2 z A3 +
A

( x1 y2 z3 ) = (

) + (

)
:6

r
- prove . ( 3 ) o
r

.(

r
) o :
r3

(r-3

) = (r-3)
-3 r-5

= r-3

+ (r-3) ( r ) =
+ 3r-3 = o
:

x
y
z

111 3
x
y
z

17

: (7)
- Prove

X ( X

) = - 2

X ( X

) = - 2

i
X ( X A) X x
A
1

j k
y z
A A
2 3

A A A A A A
X ( 3 2 , 1 3 , 2 1)
y z z x x y
i
x
A A
3 2
y z

j
y
A A
1 3
z x

k
z
A A
2 1
x y

A A
A A
2
1
( y ( ) z ( 1 3 ),
x y
z x

18

z (

A
A
A
A
3
2 ) x (
2
1 ),
y
z
x
y

x (

A
A
A
A
3 ) y (
3
1
2 ),
z
x
y
z

( yy A zz A , zz A xx A , xx A yy A )
1
1
2
2
3
3
( yx A zx A , zy A xy A , xz A yz A )
2
3
3
1
1
2
( xx A yy A zz A , xx A yy A zz A , xx A yy A
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
zz A ) ( xx A yx A zx A , xy A zy A yy A ,
3
1
2
3
1
3
2

xz A yz A zz A )
1
2
3
A
A
A
3 ),
1
2
( xx yy zz ) ( A , A , A ) ( x (
1 2 3
x
y
z
A
A
A

3 ),
1
2
(
y
x
y
z
2 A (

A
A
A

3 ))
1
2
(
z
x
y
z

A
A
A
3 )
1
2
x
y
z

2 A ( A )

:(8)
- If E o,

E and

H o,

X E

H
,
t

X H

E
show that
t

2 u
satisfy 2 u
t 2

:
E o,

H o,

X E

19

H
,
t

X H

E
t

2 u
. 2 u

t 2

E, H

X ( X E ) X (

2E
t 2

E
)
( X H )
(
)
t
t
t t
(1)

X ( X E ) = - 2 E + ( E) = - 2 E
2 E

2 E
t 2

X ( X H ) X (

2H
)
( X E )
t
t
t 2

X ( X H ) 2 H ( H ) 2 H
2H
2 H
t 2

:(9)
- A vector V is called irrotational if curl V =

. Find constants

a,b,c so that V = (x + 2y + az, bx 3y z, 4x + cy + 2z) is

irrotational , show that V can be expressed as the gradient of a
scalar function.

: a, b, c Curl V = o V
V

= (x + 2y + az, bx 3y z, 4x + cy + 2z)

20


. V

i
CurlV X V x

j
y

k
z

x 2 y a z bx 3 y z 4x c y 2 z
= (c + 1, a 4
c+1=o

c = -1
V

,
,

b 2) = o
a4=o

b2=o

a=4

b=2

= (x + 2y + 4z, 2x 3y z, 4x - y + 2z)
: :

= ( x , y , z )

x2 y 4z
x

2 x 3 y z
y

4x y 2z
z

x2
2 y x 4 x z f ( y, z )
2
3
2 x y y 2 y z g ( x , z)
2
4 x z y z z 2 h ( x, y)

x2 3 2
y z2 2 x y 4 x z y z
2
2

21

 XV = O = V
) (V ) ( ) ( .
- Show that if (x, y,z) is any solution of Laplace,s equation

,then is a vector which is both solenoidal and irrotational .

:10
) (x, y,z
.

= o 2 = o ) (
X

=o

): (11
- If (x, y, z) is a scalar invariant with respect to a rotation of axes ,
prove that grad is a vector invariant under this transformation.
) = (x, y, z
) (.

)` (x, y, z) = ` (x`, y`, z

:
)`( X, Y, Z) = (`X`, `Y`, `Z

22

` x` ` y` ` z`

x x` x y ` x z ` x

`
`
`

x` 11 y` 21 z` 31

(1)

` x` ` y` ` z`

y
x` y y` y z` y

`
`
`

x` 12 y` 22 z` 32

(2)

` x` ` y` ` z`

z
x` z y ` z z ` z

`
`
`

x` 13 y` 23 z` 33

(3)

. i, j, k 3 2 1

`
i
j
k
( i j k)
12
13
x
y
z
x` 11

`
`
( i
j k)
( i
j k)
21
22
23
32
33
y`
z` 31

`
`
`
i`
j`
k`
x`
y`
z`

23

Vector Integration

-1 Ordinary integrals of Vectors :
:
)) R (u ) ( R (u ) , R (u ) , R (u
1
2
3
) R (u ) du
3

R (u ) du ,
2

( R (u ) du ,
1

R (u) du

-2 Line integrals :
:
) ) r (u) = ( x(u), y(u), z(u ) A(x, y, z) = (A1, A2, A3
p1 .=p2 A :

) ( A dx A dy A dz
1
2
3

Adr

p
2

p
1

. c

.
) ( A dx A dy A dz
1
2
3

Theorem :

24

Adr

Adr o

R :

A d r o

p
2

p
1

) (.

X A o

A d r A dx A dy A dz d
1
2
3

.
-3 Surface integrals :

A d s A nds

ds
.

A X ds
.

,
s

n ds

n ds

ds ,

.s

-4 Volume integrals :
v

A d

25

Solved Problems

: -1
R

(u) = (u u , u , -3)

1
- If

(u) = (u u2, u3, -3) , find

R (u ) du ,

R (u ) du

R (u) du

R (u ) du

R (u ) du

( (u u 2 ) du ,

u2
u3

2
3

u4
4

u 3 du ,

3 du )

, 3 u) c

(C1, C2, C3) =

2
u 2 u3 2
u4 2
R (u ) du ( (
) ,
, 3u )
2
3 1
4 1
1
(

5
6

15
, 3)
4
: t > o -2

dv
(12 cos 2t ,
dt

. t = o

8 sin 2t ,
r

16 t )

26

, v

- The acceleration of a particle at any time t > o is given by

a

dv
(12 cos 2t ,
dt

displacement

8 sin 2t ,

16 t )

, if the velocity

are zero at t = o , Find

and

and

at any time.

at t = o,

= (6 sin2t, -4cos 2t, 8t2) +

= o, (o, o, o) = (o, -4, o) + (c1, c2, c3)

c2 = +4

= (6 sin 2t, -4cos 2t 4, 8t2)

= (-3cos 2t, 2sin 2t 4t,

at t = o,

= o,, (o, o, o) = (-3, o, o) + (c1, c2, c3)

= (3 3cos 2t, 2sin 2t 4t,

- Evaluate

8 3
t ) + (c1, c2, c3).
3

A X

d2 A
dt
d t2

27

A X

c1

=3

8 3
t )
3

d2 A
dt
d t2

: -3

d
dA
d2 A
dA
dA
d2 A
(A X
) AX

X
AX
dt
dt
dt
dt
d t2
d t2

AX

d2 A
dt
d t2

d
dA
dA
(A X
) dt AX
c
dt
dt
dt

Line integrals

:
:

= (3x2 + 6y, -14 yz, 20 x z2)

: C ( 1 ,1 ,1) ( o, o, o)

A dr

x = t, y = t2,

z = t3 ()

(1 ,1 ,1) ( o ,1 ,1) ( o, o ,1) ( o, o, o) )(

(o, o, o) ,(1 ,1 ,1) )(

- If

= (3x2 + 6y, -14 yz, 20 x z2) evaluate

A dr from

(o, o, o) to (1, 1, 1) along the following paths c :

(a) x = t, y = t2,

z = t3

(b) The straight lines from (o, o, o) to (1, o, o) then to (1, 1, o)

and then to (1, 1, 1)
(c) The straight line joining (o, o, o) and (1, 1, 1)

( 1)

28

-1

r ( x, y, z ) (t , t 2 , t 3 ) dr (dt , 2tdt , 3t 2 dt )
A (9 t 2 , 14 t 5 , 2o t 7 )

A dr

t 1
2
(9 t
t o

, 14 t 5 , 2o t 7 ) (dt , 2tdt , 3t 2 dt )

t 1
2
5
(9 t dt 14 t
t o

(2tdt ) (2o t 7 ) (3 t 2 dt )

28 t 7
60 t10
3

3t

7
10

3465

(o, o ,1) ( o, o, o) )(
y = o,

z = o dy = o,

dz = o

: 1 o x

x 1
2
2
(3 x 6(o)) dx 14(o) (o) (o) 20 ( x) (o) (o)
x o

x 1
2
3x d x
x o

1
3
x | 1
o

(o ,1 ,1) ( o, o ,1)
dx = o, dz = o x = 1,

z = o :

1 o y

29

1
2
((3(1) 6 y) (o) 14( y) (o) dy 20(1) (o)) o
y o

) (o ,1 ,1 )(1 ,1 ,1
x = 1, y = 1 : dy = o , dx = o
z o 1

1
2
(3 (1) 6(1)) (o) 14(1) ( z ) (o) 20 (1) z dz
z o
20 3 1
20

z |
3
3
o

1
2
20 z dz
z o

20
23

3
3

A dr 1 o

- ) (o, o, o) (1 ,1 ,1

z=t

y = t,

30

x = t,

A dr

1
2
2
((3t 6t ) dt 14(t ) (t ) dt 20 t (t ) dt )
t o

(3t 2 6t 14t 2 20t 3 ) dt t 3 3t 2

14 t 3
20 t 4 1
13

|
3
4 o
3


t=2

t = 1

-2

(3xy, -5z, 10x ) =

x = t2 + 1, y = 2t2, z = t3

Find the total work done in moving a particle in a force field given = (3xy, -5z, 10x) along the curve x = t2 + 1, y = 2t2, z = t3

by

from t = 1 to t = 2.

F dr
c
c

(3 x y d x 5 z d y 10 x d

2
3(t 2 1) (2t 2 ) (2tdt ) 5t 3 (4tdt ) 10 (t 2 1) 3t 2 dt

t 1
2
12t 3 (t 2 1) dt 20 t 4 dt 30 t 2 (t 2 1) dt
1
2
2t 6 3t 4 4t 5 6t 5 10t 3
303

31

The divergence theorem of Gauses : -1

:

Ad A n ds

A ds

( ) s

Stokes theorem -2

A dr

( X
s

A ) n ds ( X A ) ds

( ) -3
Green's theorem in the plane

Mdx Nd y

32

N
x

M
y

)d xd y

Solved Problems

. -1
- Express Green's theorem in the plce in vector notation

dr

(x, y) =

(M, N) =

= (M, N) (dx, dy) = M d x + N d y

:

ijk
N M N M
X A x y z ( , , )
M N o z z x y
:

( X A) k

33

N
x

M
y

Mdx Nd y

A dr

)d xd y

( X A) k dR

dR = dxdy

: c -2
1

( x d y y d x)

- Show that the area bounded by a simple closed C is given by

1
2

( x d y y d x)

xd y yd x

R
2
R

N=x

M = -y

( x)

( y )) d x d y

(11) d x d y
d xd y 2 A

: A

34

xd y yd x

1
2

-3 .
- Find the area of the ellipse x = a cos , y = b sin

:
x = a cos , y = b sin

1 2

(a cos ) (b cos d )

2 o

xd y yd x
1 2

2
2
ab (cos sin ) d

2 o

1
2

(b sin ) (a sin d )

2
1
ab d
ab [ ]o2 a b
2
2
o

) -4(
)(
- (a) Express the divergence theorem in words.
- (b) Write it in rectangular form .

) (1

A .

35

div ( A) A

(cos

A1
x

(A1, A2, A3 ) = )(

A2
y

A3
z

cos , cos ) = s

n = (A1 , A2 , A3) (cos ,

cos , cos )

= A1 cos + A2 cos + A3 cos

:

A
A
A
1 2 3 ) d xd y z
x
y
z
( A cos A cos A cos ) ds
1
2
3

F n d s 5
S
s
x = o,

x = 1,

y = o,

F n d s
- Evaluate
, where

(4x z, -y2, y z) = :

y = 1 , z = o,

= (4x z, -y2, y z) and S is the

surface of the cube bounded by x = o, x = 1, y = o,

= o,

z=1

y=1,z

z=1

36

( 4 x z)
( y 2 )
( y z ) d v
y
z
x

F n d s ( F ) d v

(4 z y ) d v

x o y o z o

( 4 z y ) dz dy dx

1
1
1
( 2 z 2 yz ) | dy dx
(2 y ) dy dx

o
xo y o
x o y o
1

2
z2 y y

2
x o

dx
o

3
3 1
3
3
dx
[ x ]1

dx
o
2 o
2
2
x o 2

r n d s
s
-6

r n d s
- Evaluate
where s is a closed surface.

x
y
z
r n d s ( r ) d v (

) dv
x
y
z

3 d v 3 v

s V
. -7
-(a) Express Stokes theorem in words and (b) Write it in
rectangular form.

37

.c s
A

= (A1, A2, A3),

i
X A x
A
1
(

= (cos , cos , cos )

j
y
A
2

k
z
A
3

A A A
A
3 2,
1 3,
y
z z
x

( X A ) n (

A A
2 1)
x y

A A
A
A
3 2 ) cos ( 1 3 ) cos
y
z
z
x
A A
( 2 1 ) cos
x y

A dr A d x A d y A d z
1
2
3
:

A
A
A
A
A

3
3 ) cos ( 2 1 ) cos ds
2 ) cos ( 1

y
z
z
x
x
y

A dx A dy A dz
1
2
3

Curvilinear Coordinates

38

Transformation of coordinates

) (x, y, z
)z = z (u1, u2, u3) (1

x = x(u1, u2, u3),

y = y(u1, u2, u3),

u1, u2, u3 x , y, z :
u1 = u1(x, y, z), u2 = u2 (x, y, z),

)u3 = u3 (x, y, z) .. (2

u1, u2, u3 . ) (1) ,(2

.
Orthogonal curvilinear coordinates :
u3 = c3

u1 = c1, u2 = c2, ) (c1, c2, c3

.
. )
(u1, u2, u3 ) (x, y, z .
Unit vectors in curvilinear systems :
P :
r x i y j zk

)(u1, u2, u3

u1 ) P u2, u3(
:
r
r
e
/
1
u

u
1
1

r
h e
1 1
u
1

39

r
u
1

r
h
1
u
1

e 2 , e 3 u2, u3 p

:
r
h e ,
2 2
u
2

r
h e
3 3
u
3

:
r
h
3
u
3

r
u
2

h
2

e 1, e 2 , e 3 u1, u2, u3 .
Acr length and volume elements :
(u1, u2, u3) :

r
r
r
du
du
du h du e
1
2
3
1
1 1
u
u
u
1
2
3
h du e
h du e
2
2 2
3
3 3

d r

:
d s 2 d r d r h 2 (d u ) 2 h 2 (d u ) 2 h 2 (d u ) 2
1
1
2
2
3
3

:
=o

=1

) : (
e 2 ( h d u e 3 )
3
3

du

40

d = (h1 du1

= h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3

e1
e2
e3

e1 . (e2 e3) = 1
**

:
The gradient , divergence and curl
) = (u1, u2, u3
)(u1, u2, u3

u1, u2, u3

e3
u
3

1
1

e1
e2
u
u
h
h
1
2
2
3

41

1
h
1

. A
(h h A )
(h h A )
(h h A )
h h h u 2 3 1 u 3 1 2 u 1 2 3
1 2 3 1
2
3

he
11
1

x A
h h h u
1 2 3 1
h A
1 1

1
2
h h h
1 2 3

h e
2 2

u
2
h A
2 2

h e
3 3
3

h A
3 3
h2 h3
h1 h3
(
)
(
)
u h u
u h u
1 1
1
2 2
2

h1 h2

(
)

u h u

3 3
3

Special orthogonal coordinate systems

Cylindical coordinates

(, , z)
x = cos
>o
u1 =

u2 =

y = sin
o < < 2

u3 = z

e
z

42

z=z
- < z <

e2

r = ( cos , sin , z)

h
1

r
| ( cos , sin , o) | cos 2 sin 2 1

h
2

r
| ( sin , cos , o) |

h
3

r
| ( o, o,1) | 1 1
z

2 sin 2 2 cos 2

1
1

e1
e2
u
h u2
h
1
2
3

1
h
1

e3
u
3

e
e
e

z z

. A
( A )

( A )

z
A
z

1 2
2

z2
2 2

Spherical coordinates :
(, , )
x = sin cos
>o

y = sin sin z = cos

o<<

43

o < < 2

u1 =

u2 =

r
| ( sin cos , sin sin , cos ) |

h
2

r = ( sin cos , sin sin , cos )

h
1

u3 =

sin 2 cos 2 sin 2 sin 2 cos 2 1

r
| ( cos cos , cos sin , sin ) |

r
| ( sin sin , sin

e
e

1
1
. A
( 2 A )
sin
2

h
3

2 sin

1
2
2 sin 2

1
2

e
sin
A
1

( A sin )

sin

cos , o) | sin

2 sin

sin e

sin A

sin

44


(x, y, z )
r = (x, y, z)
e3

h
1

e1

= i,

e2

, u1 = x

r
1
x

u2 = y
r
h
1
2
y

dr = (dx, dy, dz),

= j,
u3 = z
r
h
1
3 z

ds2 = dr dr = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2

= d = d x d y d z
(, , z)
h1 = h = 1,

h2 = h =

dr

h3 = h z = 1

= (d , d , d z)

= ds2 = (d )2 + ( d )2 + (d z)2
= d = d d d z
(, , )
h1 = h = 1

h2 = h =

h3 = h = sin

dr = (d , d , sin d )
d s2 = (d)2 + ( d )2 + ( sin d )2
d = 2 sin d d d
:
.
- Prove that a cylindrical coordinate system is orthogonal.

45

( , , z)

r x i y j z k cos i sin j z k
r
cos i sin j ,

r
sin i cos j

r
k
z
r

e1 e

e 2 e

e3 e z

r

r

r
z
r
z

cos i sin j
cos i sin j
2
2
cos sin

sin i cos j
2 sin 2 2 cos 2

sin i co s j

e 1 e 2 (cos i sin j ) . ( sin i cos j )

sin cos o o sin cos o
e 1 e 3 (cos i sin j ) . k o
e 2 e 3 ( sin i cos j ) . k o

e 2

:
:
A zi 2x j yk

A, A, Az
- Represent the vector

A zi 2x j yk

coordinates. Thus determine A , A , and Az

46

in cylindrical

 e cos i sin j ................ (1)

e sin i cos j

................. ( 2)

ez k

......... (3)

I, J ( 2) (1)
i cos e sin e
j sin e cos e

= z (cos

A zi 2x j yk

- sin

+ sin

e
z

) 2 cos ( sin

= (z cos - 2 cos sin )

+ (-z sin - 2 cos2 )

+ sin

+ cos

e )

A = z cos - 2 cos sin

A = -z sin - 2 cos2
Az = sin

:
- Prove

d
(e ) e ,
dt

d
e e
dt
:

d
(e ) e ,
dt

d
e e
dt
.t

47

e cos i sin j ,

e sin i cos j

d
e sin ( ) i cos ( ) j ( sin i cos j )
dt
e

d
e cos i sin j (cos i sin j )
dt
e

:
- Express the velocity V and acceleration

of a particle in

cylindrical coordinates.
.

r xi y j z k

dr
j z k ,
x i y
dt

d2r
x i y j z k
dt 2

r xi y j z k

= cos ( cos

( sin ) (sin
=
V

+ cos

e
e )

- sin
+z

)+

e z

+ z e z = ( , o, z)

d r
e e
e e z e z (
, , z )
z e z

dt

d v
e
e
e e



e z e z

dt

e ( e )

e z e z

2
2 ) e (
) e z e z
(

48

: v a .
**
:
.
- Find expressions for the elements of area in orthogonal
curvilinear coordinates

)
(.
|

| | = h 2 h3 d u2 d u3

| = h 2 h3 d u2 d u3

e
1

h 3 d u3

d A1 = | h2 d u2

| = h2 h3 d u2 d u3

| = h 1 h3 d u1 d u3

h 3 d u3

d A2 = |h1 d u1

| = h 1 h2 d u1 d u2

h 2 d u2

d A3 = |h1 d u1

:
u1, u2, u3 x, y, z
u1, u2, u3 h1 h2 h3
- If u1, u2, u3 are orthogonal curvilinear , show that the Jacobian of
x, y, z with respect to u1, u2, u3 is h1 h2 h3

49

 x y z
u u u
1 1 1

x, y, z ( x, y, z) x y z
J

h h h
u , u , u (u , u , u ) u u u 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3 2
2 2
x y z
u u u
3 3 3
( )

x
y
z

i
j
k
u
u
u

1
1
1

x
y
z

i
j
k X
u
u
u

2
2
2

x
y
z
r

r r
i
j
k

u u
u
u
u

1
3
3
3
2
3

h e1 ( h e 2 h e 3 )
1
2
3
h h h e1 ( e 2 e 3 )
1 2 3
h h h
1 2 3

:
a
.

50

- Evaluate

( x 2 y 2 z 2 ) dxdydz

where V is a sphere having

centre at the origin and radius equal to a.

2
2 a
2
2
2
2 2
I ( x y z ) dxdydz 8
r o r (r sin d r d
v
o o

2
2 r5 a
8 a5 2
8

5 |o sin d d 5
( cos ) |o
o o
o

8 a5 2
4 a5
d 5
5
o

(z )
(, , z)

ez

y
e

51

e
e
,
, z
)

z ez (

:
a

1 d
2 ) e
(
( 2 ) e z e z
dt
1 d
2
(
,
( 2 ) , z )
dt

( )
z

P(,,)

x
e
oz

, , sin )
V (

:
a

2 2 sin 2 , 2 2 sin cos ,

(
1
d
( 2 sin 2 )
sin d t

(, , z )
Z
P (x, y, z)

52

x
o

x
> o, o > < 2, - < z <
x = cos ,

y = sin ,

z=z

(, , )
z
P (x, y, z)
x
cos
o

y
y

sin

x
> o,
z = cos ,

o < < ,

o < < 2 ,

x = sin cos y = sin sin

53

:
2(ds )

:
x = cos , y = sin , z = z
dx = - sin d + cos d ,

dy = cos d + sin d , dz = dz

(d s)2 = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2 = (- sin d + cos d )2 + ( cos

d + sin d )2 + (dz)2
= (d )2 [ cos2 + sin2 ] + (d )2 [ 2 sin2 + 2 cos2 ] + (dz)2 2
sin cos d d + 2 sin cos d d
= (d )2 + 2 (d )2 + (d z)2 = h21 (d )2 + h22 (d )2 + h23 (d z)2

54

r cos i sin j z k
dr

r
d

(cos i

r
d

r
dz
z

sin j ) d ( sin i cos j ) d k dz

i (cos d sin d ) j ( sin d cos d ) k dz

(ds) 2 d r d r

(cos d sin d ) 2
( sin d cos d ) 2 ( dz ) 2
(d ) 2 ( ) 2 ( d ) 2 (d z ) 2

:
x = r sin cos

y = r sin sin

z = r cos

dx = -r sin sin d + r cos cos d + sin cos dr

dy = r sin cos d + r cos sin d + sin sin dr
dz = -r sin d + cos dr
(ds)2 = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2 = (dr)2 + r2 (d)2 + r2 sin2 (d)2

:

- Derive an expression for

in orthogonal curvilinear

coordinates

55

 F e F e
F e
1 1
2 2
3 3
d dr ( F , F , F ) (h du , h du , h du )
1 2 3
1
1
2
2
3
3
F h du F h du F h du
1 1
1
2 2
2
3 3
3

d
du
du
du
1
2
3
u
u
u
1
2
3
1
1
F
, F
1
2
h u
h
1
1
2

1
, F
3
u
h
2
3

1
1
e
1
h u
h
1
1
2

,
h u
1
1

1
h
2

u
2

,
2

1
h
3

1
h
3

u
3

e
3
u
3

:
- Let u1, u2, u3 be orthogonal coordinates , prove that

ui

1
hi

i = 1, 2, 3
ui

1
hi

i = 1, 2, 3 u1, u2, u3

1
,
h u
1
1

1
h
2

,
u
2

u
3

1
h
3

= u1

1 u1
u
,
1
h u
1
1

1
h
2

u
1 ,
u
2

1
h
3

u
1
u
3

1
, o, o)
h
1

1
u
1
h
1

56

1
e 2,
h
2

1
,
h
2

e
3,
h
3

1
h
3

:
e1 = h2 h3 u2 x u3 u1, u2, u3
- Prove e1 = h2 h3 u2 x u3 with similar equations for e2 and e3 ,
where u1, u2, u3 are orthogonal coordinates.

e
u 1 ,
1
h
1

e
2,
h
2
e e
e
3 1
u u 2
2
3
h h
h h
2 3
2 3
e h h u u
1
2 3
2
3
u

e
u 3
3
h
3

:
e2 = h3h1 u3 u1

e3 = h1 h2 u1 x u2

:
u1, u2, u3
( A e )
1 1

h h h u
1 2 3
1

- Show that in orthogonal coordinates

( A e )
1 1

h h h u
1 2 3
1

(A h h )
1 2 3

57

(A h h )
1 2 3


A1

(A e ) ( A h h u x u )
11
1 2 3 2
3
( A h h ) ( u x u ) A h h ( u x u )
1 2 3
2
3
1 2 3
2
3
e
e
3
2
1
( A h h )

o ( A h h )
1 2 3 h
1 2 3 h h
h
2
3
2 3
1
1

( A h h ),
( A h h ),
1 2 3 h u
1 2 3
h u
e
1 1
2
2
1

h h
1
2 3
(A h h )

1
2
3
h u

3
3

1
h1 h2 h3 u1

( A1 h2 h3 )

( A e )
2 2
h h h u
1 2 3
2
1

( A e )
3 3
h h h u
1 2 3
3

:
(A h h )
2 3 1
(A h h )
3 1 2

:
:
e

2
(A e )
1 1
h h u
3 1
3

(A h )
1 1

58

3
h h u
1 2
2

(A h )
1 1

- Show that in orthologonal coordinates

e

2
(A e )
1 1
h h u
3 1
3

(A h )
1 1

3
h h u
1 2
2

(A h )
1 1

A1

( A e ) ( A h u ) ( A h ) u
11
11 1
11
1
e
A h ( u ) ( A h ) 1 o
11
1
11 h
1

1
1

( A h ),
( A h ),
1 1 h u
1 1
h u
2
2
1 1
1

(A h )

1 1
h u
3
3

h
1

o,
( A h ),
(A h )
1 1
1 1
h h u
h h u

3 1 3
1 2
2

A, x A, 2
.
:
:
2

ds =

3
3
gPq duP duq
P 1 q 1

- Show that the square of the element of are length in general

curvilinear coordinates can be expressed by
2

ds

3
3
gPq duP duq
=z
P 1 q 1
59


r = r(u1, u2, u3)
dr

r
du
1
u
1

r
r
du

du
2
3
u
u
2
3

= 1 du1 + 2 du2 + 3 du3

ds2 = dr dr = ( 1 du1 + 2 du2 + 3 du3) ( 1 du1 + 2 du2 + 3 du3)
= 1 1 du1 du2 + 1 2 du1 du2 + 1 3 du1 du3
+ 2 1 du2 du1 + 2 2 du2 du2 + 2 3 du2 du3
+ 3 1 du3 du1 + 3 2 du3 du2 + 3 3 du3 du3
=

3
3
gPq du
P 1 q 1

duq, gPq = P q

gPq
P q gPq = o .gPq = gqP
:
g11 = h21,

g22 = h22,

g33 = h23
**

:
u1, u2,) A
( u 1 , u 2 , u 3 ) (u3
.
- Let A be a given vector defined with respect to two general
curviline ar coordinate systems (u1, u2, u3) and (u 1 , u 2 , u 3 ) . Find the
relation between the contravariant components of the vector in the
two coordinate systems.

60


(u , u , u )
1 2 3

(u1, u2, u3) ( x, y, z )

x = x1 (u1, u2, u3),

y = y1 (u1, u2, u3),

z = z1 (u1, u2, u3)

(1)

x = x2

(u , u , u ) ,
1 2 3

y = y2

(u , u , u ) ,
1 2 3

z = z2

(u , u , u )
1 2 3

(u1, u2, u3)

u1 = u1

(u , u , u ) ,
1 2 3

(u , u , u )
1 2 3

u2 = u2 (u 1 , u 2 , u 3 ) , u3 = u3 (u 1 , u 2 , u 3 )
(2)

u 1 = u 1 (u1, u2, u3),

u 2 = u 2 (u1, u2, u3), u 3 = u 3 (u1, u2, u3)

: dr
dr

r
du
1
u
1

r
r
du
d u du du du
2
3
1 1
2
2
3
3
u
u
2
3

dr

r
du
1
u
1

r
r
du
d u d u d u d u
2
3
1
1
2
2
3
3
u
u
2
3

1 du1 + 2 du2 + 3 du3 = 1 d u 1 + 2 d u 2 + 3 d u 3 (3)

: ( 2)
u
u
u
1 du
1 du
1 du
du
1
1
2
3
u
u
u
1
2
3
du

u
u
2 du
2 du
2 du
1
2
3
u
u
u
1
2
3

u
u
u
3 du
3 du
3 du
du
3
1
2
3
u
u
u
1
2
3

du ,du ,du
1
2
3

61

( 3)

: A
A = C1 1 + C2 2 + C3 3,

A C C C (5)
1 1
2 2
3 3

A C1, C2, C3

C , C , C
1
2
3

: ( 5) ( 4)
C1 1 + C2 2 + C3 3 =

u
u
u
3 )
1
2
(
1 u
2 u
3 u
1
1
1

C
1

C C C
1 1
2 2
3 3

u
u
u
3)
1
2
2
3
u
u
u
2
2
2

u
u
u
3)
1
2
1 u
2 u
3 u
3
3
3

u
u
u
1 C
1 C
1 )
C C C (C
1 1
2 2
3 3
1 u
2 u
3 u
1
1
2
3
(C

u
u
2 C
2 C
2 )
2 u
2 u
3 u
2
1
2
3

u
u
u
3 C
3 C
3 )
(C
1 u
2 u
3 u
3
1
2
3

u
u
u
1
1
1)
C (C
C
C

1
1 u
2 u
3 u
1
2
3

(6)

2 C
2 C
2)
(C

2
1 u
2 u
3 u

1
2
3

3 C
3 C
3)
C (C
3
1 u
2 u
3 u
1
2
3

62

)P 1, 2, 3 (7

3 u
PC
CP
q
q 1 uq

C1, C2, C3 ) (u1, u2, u3

C , C , C
1
2
3

) (u , u , u
1 2 3

) (7

63

64