Ackerman Steering Design: Law of Cosines Method Jennifer Glauser ME 595R July 9, 2008Ackerman Steering Desi INTRODUCTION Over the past three year’s BYU Formula Racing has made great sitides in the way of vehicle dynamics design. They have impressed © many with their detailed knowledge of basic fundamentals. One area that has been overlooked Is steering design. The past year we've spent many hours understanding and improving the steering subsystem. ACKERMAN In an effort to reduce steering efforts, but still allow for sufficient driver feedback the mechanical trail was reduced to 0.29 in. But this alone would not solve the steering problem. Ackerman steering had to be Implemented. Ackerman steering is the basic concept that when fuming around a comer, the inside tire must tum at a greater angle than the outside corer. But in racing it becomes more complex, Not only do the wheels have to tum the proper amount to propel the vehicle around the comer, but in: Law of Cosines Method Jennifer Glauser Eric Bowman Brigham Young University they must also take into account the proper slip angles needed for maximum tire lateral force. Without understanding these principles, the vehicle will not be able to maintain speed and traction while driving through a comer. EXISTING MODELS There are many various models to explain how to achieve the ideal Ackerman design. The problem with existing models is that they force you to design your steering for one ideal comer. This leaves all other comer radii to be subpar and lacking In maximum grip. The existing models also don’t fake into account the properties of the tires, varlabllity with adjustable toe, and effects of scrub radius. ASSUMPTIONS In order to begin a proper steering model, we had to start at the fundamentals. To simplify our initial model we made two aassumptions. We were designing for low speed, steady-state cornering and we were designing a neutral steer car. The first assumption, steady-state, is when fore, aft and lateral accelerations are negligible; without transient effects of body roll, lateral load transfer and related effects. The second important assumption, ppp neutral steer, the front and 5 slip angles are equal and can therefore be neglected. In Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, the equation for basic Ackerman design for a vehicle under these assumptions is § = 1 / (R + (t/2)). Where 6 is the Ackerman angle desired, | is the wheelbase, t is the track width and R is the comer adil. (see Milliken) VECTOR-LOOP METHOD It is unclear with this information how to design the steering links. After careful examination, we realized that a rack and pinion steering system works as a kinematic crank-slider. Making this connection allowed us to use @ vector loop model fo solve for our steering link arm lengths. This model allows us fo solve for our desired angles. We put the wheel angles as an input and the steering links are an output. We used Microsoft Excel fo solve our optimization equations. The problem with this method is that small angles in the resulting mechanism makes large angle error in steering wheel steer angles. The error is too significant to be implemented into a physical design. LAW OF COSINES METHOD The next model implemented was the Law of Cosines method. We defined the neutral, inside and outside wheel angles by side- side-side triangles, where the steer arm and fie rod are always the same length. This left the wheel angles and steering arm as variables. There was some error, but when the system was actually built the error was magnified from 5 degrees off to fifteen degrees off the desired wheel angles. On a whim we tried allowing the steering wheel angle to be a variable. The resulting system has avery small error. While improving this system, we began to optimize for more than ‘one corner. With the law of cosines method we were able to design an ideal steering system for three corners (compared to traditional Ackerman’s ability to achieve only one ideal comer). This seven point kinematic synthesis means that as you tum the steering wheel, the wheels will tum at a varying rate, hitfing the critical points for ideal race car driving.IMPROVEMENTS After discussing our model with the judges at the Formula SAE competition we found different areas where we could improve the law of cosines method. We first need to implement our tire data to optimize for slip angle. According to Bill Mitchell, slip angles in a neutral steer car cannot be neglected. Also, Claude Roulle suggested that we use little bit of Anti-Ackerman, instead of our more-than-tue Ackerman design. We are currently continuing to develop this system to further understand and improve Ackerman steering design RESOURCES Attached fo this report are resources to help understand Ackerman more fully, including the SAE report written by Bill Mitchell. Also, through our literature survey, The Theory of Ground Vehicles, by J. Y. Wong and Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, by the Milliken brothers were the most reliable and comprehensive resources.Crank-Rocker Model of Ackerman Steering tire: Erte Bowman, Jenn! Glauser4/3072008 | vot a | ‘Theta Alpha 0 ‘Teta + Alpha ; «1 LLLLLLLL Rack and Pinion 7H STEERING GEOMETRY OPTIMIZATION “Theoracal And Optimized Steering Anges + Created seven point kinematic synthesis + Reduced vector loop error min =<} st 6=0-0, aoo( Ata B+B-2) 2k, Ww ooSAE TECHNICAL PAPER SERIES 2006-01-3638 Analysis of Ackermann Steering Geometry Wm. C. Mitchell Wm. C. Mitchell Software Allan Staniforth Terrapin Racing Services lan Scott Megapin Racing Motorsports Engineering Conference & Exhibition Dearborn, Michigan SAE International” Becenier esronpe 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724)776-4841 Fax: (724)776-0790 Web: www.sae.orgThe Engineering Meetings Board has approved this paper for publication. It has successfully completed ‘SAE's peer review process under the supervision of the session organizer. This process requires a minimum of three (3) reviews by industry experts, All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE. For permission and licensing requests contact: SAE Permissions 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001-USA Email: permissions @sae.org Tet 724-772-4028 Fax: 724-776-3036 Global Mobility Datahase* ‘Al SAE papers, standards, and selected ‘books are absiactog and indexea inthe Global Mobity Database. For multiple print copies contact SAE Customer Service Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) Tel: 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Email: CustomerService @sae.org ISSN 0148-7191 Copyright © 2006 SAE International Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE. ‘The author is solely responsible for the content of the paper. A process is available by which discussions will be printed with the paper if tis published in SAE Transactions. Persons wishing to submit papers to be considered for presentation or publication by SAE should send the ‘manuscript or a 300 word abstract to Secretary, Engineering Meetings Board, SAE. Printed in USA2006-01-3638 Analysis of Ackermann Steering Geometry ‘Copyright® 2006 SAE International ABSTRACT ‘Ackermann steering geometry relates the steer angle of an inside tire to that of the outside tire. When turning the inside tire travels a shorter radius than the outside tire and thus must have a greater steer angle to avoid tire scrub. Classic Ackermann minimizes scrub by positioning both tires perpendicular to the tum center. It can have significant impact on tie wear [1]. ‘Ackermann analysis can also be used as & tuning tool in cases where classic ‘Ackermann may not be the objective. ‘Ackermann has been around longer than the motor vehiole - over a century - but there is litle rigorous analysis in the literature, There are two common measurements of ‘Ackermann which give very different results. Both are used in texts and computer programs{g] Yet a literature search revealed only a couple sentences discussing the relationship between the two. This paper presents a_ mathematical analysis of Ackermann which explains the two measurements and develops a formula relating the two metrics. It also derives additional analytical tools which provide better understanding of Ackermann steering geometry, Wm. C. Mitchell Wm. C. Mitchell Software Allan Staniforth Terrapin Racing Services lan Scott Megapin Racing ACKERMANN ANALYSIS ‘The standard formula for classic Ackermann Involves track and wheelbase. The formula ‘can be improved by considering the effect of scrub radius. The proper formula involves the distance between kingpin axis’s rather than track. ‘The relationship between steering input and steering angle is key to understanding Ackermann, The first and second derivatives of this function provide a formula for classic Ackermann, This formula is a metric for measuring Ackermann in any situation. ‘The angle between the steering arm and the tie-rod in plan view is more important than the angle of the steering arm alone. This can be shown by the formula described above. ‘The Jeantaud diagram projects the steering arms to an intersection. If those lines Intersect near the rear axle it is assumed to represent classic Ackermann. But this convenient graphical representation is only an approximation. It neglects the important contribution of the steering tie-rod. The Jeantaud diagram can be enhanced to include the steoring tie-rod and produce an accurate representation of classic ‘Ackermann,‘THE HISTORY OF ACKERMANN STEERING GEOMETRY Munich carriage builder George: Lankensperger invented a steering system for horse-drawn vehicles in 1817. When viewed from above this resembled a rectangle. His English agent, Rudolph ‘Ackermann, took out a patent in his own name. Frenchman Charles Jeantaud improved the system in 1878 by inclining the steering arms so that lines drawn from the steering arms through the kingpin axis will converge near the rear axle. The system now resembles a trapezoid [2] Dixon [3] refers to the difference in steer angles as the Langensperger (with a g rather than a k) angle. Dixon also refers to a Jeantaud diagram where the projections of the steering arms intersect near the rear axle. This drawing is common and can be a useful indicator, but it usually yields 60-70% ‘Ackermann. Race Car Vehicle Dynamics (5) calls this a “reasonable approximation’ In his second edition Dixon [4] adds “with straight tie-rods, to obtain an Ackermann factor close to 1.0 may require the projected steering arm intersection point to be at about 60% of the distance to the rear axle.” Dixon reports that “the traditional London Taxi has almost perfect Ackermann over its full 60 degree of inner road-wheel steer angle. This statement highlights the fact that it is difficult to achieve classic Ackermann over a wide range of steering values. Miller [1] proposes a definition of ‘Ackermann percentage based on a range of steering values. Rather than debating “Ackerman” vs. “Ackermann” perhaps we should be arguing over “Lankensperger’, "Langensperger" or "Jeantaud” steering geometry. THE DEFINITION OF CLASSIC ACKERMANN The terms “classic” and “perfect” Ackermann are often used interchangeably in the literature, This paper will use classic because “perfect” implies a desirable trait whereas classic Is more neutral. To avoid tire scrub when a vehicle is tuming draw perpendicular lines from all four tres. If the perpendiculars from the front tires intersect along the lines drawn from the unsteered rear tires (Figure 1) then you have classic Ackermann for one steering angle. This is expressed mathematically as Netsteer = -Right’ * Track / Wheelbase Where Right is the steer angle of the loaded tire. Figure 1: The Ackermann Turn Center MEASURING ACKERMANN ‘The literature discusses 100% Ackermann without really discussing values other than 100% and 0% or parallel steer. Just what is 50% Ackermann? The simplest, and most natural, definition is shown below: Netsteer % = 100 ~Actual_Netsteer Classic_Netsteer Formula 1 is the best measurement of Netsteer or Ackermann percentage. ‘An alternative measure is based on the tum center projection. if the turn center projects to the midpoint of the chassis, or 50% of the wheelbase, the inside wheel is turned more than the classic value, This suggests the ‘Ackermann percentage should be 200% in Figure 1:Netsteer 100 *Wheelbase Turn Center Fore-aft Formula 2 is an approximation of Netsteer or Ackermann percentage. This method is less meaningful but it does illustrate the relationship between Ackermann and wheelbase. Trucks are often sold with different _ wheelbase depending upon application [1]. But unless the steering system is changed with each wheelbase the Ackermann steering will Gitfer. Figure 2: Ackermann Tum Centers In Figure 2 above, the outside tire has an angle of 16 degrees. For classic Ackermann the inside tire has a steer angle of 18.031 degrees and a Netsteer of -3.031 degrees. For the other case the inside tire has a steer angle of 22.521 degrees and a Netsteer of - 7.521 degrees. The TurnCenter projection is at 50% of tho wheelbase yielding an ‘Ackermann percentage of 200%. The ratio of Netsteer is -7.521 / -3.031 = 2.481 or 248.1%. The ratio of netsteer values is the best metric of partial Ackermann, IMPROVING THE DEFINITION OF CLASSIC ACKERMANN In the process of preparing this paper a case arose where WinGeo3 [8] and WinSteer {9] calculated 86% Ackermann yet the turn center was ahead of the rear axle, indicating more than 100% Ackermann. This is contradictory. The reason was the calculated Ackermann did not account for the fore-aft movement of the tires when they are steered. With a vertical kingpin axis, the tire contact patch moves fore-aft a distance equivalent to the scrub radius multiplied by the sine of the steer angle. We can express this in algebra, with the detalls available from the primary author [9]. Netsteer = -Right"* Tk / Wheelbase Whore Right isthe steer angle ofthe loaded tre and Tk is the distance between the kingpin axis's. Having done the necessary algebra, the same conclusion can be drawn geometrically. The perpendicular to the tire drawn from the tite contact patch goos through the original axle line near the steering axis. It would go through the steeting axis if the castor trail were zero. At this point we can adjust the classic formula by replacing the track T with the distance between the kingpin axis’, which we call Tk. Bird [10] uses kingpin location as an input to his computer programs which calculate ‘Ackermann angles for heavy trucks. Figure 3: Ackermann with scrub radius ASSUMPTIONS OF THIS PAPER We will limit the analysis to symmetric suspensions with a steering input moving cross-car like a rack-and-pinion. We will temporarily ignore asymmetric suspensions because there are too many ways to achieve Ackermann. We will ignore other steering inputs such as the dragrlink or the kart system with tabs attached to the hand wheel axis,Trucks and oval track racing cars sometimes have a single tie-rod connecting both steering arms, This system can be modeled by placing the inner tie-rod points on the centerline of the car. This ‘approximation Is valid for small angles. We will also ignore static toesteer. ‘Theoretical discussion of Ackermann assumes a static steer angle of zero when the vehicle is not tuming. In reality most vehicles run a static steer angle for stability, either toe-in or toe-out. We will assume the designer desires the same angles in a tur. This is equivalent to ignoring static toe-in or toe-out and assuming the vehicle has zero steer when running straight. THE ACKERMANN FACTOR ‘The general formula *( angle ) for steering Input as a function of right tire steering angle can be differentiated to provide a fundamental formula for classic Ackermann steering geometry. GN/ dR = ohL/R?=-2(0)/1(0) We now have a formula for Netsteer in terms of f and f’. This is @ theoretical formula and is independent of the specitic relationship. This formula applies to any steering system as the steer angle approaches zero. This is a metric for Netsteer at small angles. For classic Ackermann -2£"(0)/1(0) =Tk/W The factor is based on angles measured in radians. It must be multiplied by Pi/180 for angles measured in degrees. This can be veriied with a curve ft. Take a suspension with classic Ackermann and generate a table of steoring angle and steering input. As we limit the range of data the curve fit converges on the Ackermann factor. See [9] for an example SOURCES OF ACKERMANN Ackermann comes from the difference between citcular motion and linear motion, ‘The steering input moves linearly while the stearing arm/spindle/wheelitire rotates about the steering axis, also known as the kingpin axis. The steering projection is a line from ‘the kingpin axis through the steering arm at constant height. If the steering projection is parallel to the centerline of the car then the left and right steer angles will be identical and there will be 0% Ackermann, But if the steering projection is at an angle then the Inside and outside tires follow a different portion of the circle and asymmetric steer results. By carefully selecting angles ‘we can manipulate the resulting Ackermann. If the steering tie-rod were infinitely long (mathematical concept) or very long (engineering concept) this would be the only source of Ackermann, But since tie-rods are of finite length they represent a second ‘source of circular motion. As the tire rotates the angle of the tie-rod, as seen in plan view, must change as the outer tie-rod point moves longitudinally. The primary motion is laterally, but there is a secondary movement longitudinally, and Ackermann is a second- order effect LS Figure 4: Rear Steer Steering Arm and Tle- Rod movement TIE-ROD LENGTH Tie-tod length must be considered in ‘Ackermann analysis. When the tie-rod length is equal to the offset of the steeringfarm, as in Figure 4, and the steering arm is aimed at the center of the rear-axle, provides a case where both Ackermann calculations are at 100%, ‘The easiest way to understand the effect of tie-rod length Is to consider a front steer ‘case where the tie-tod length is equal to the steering arm offset, as in Figure 5. £760 £GO Devivia + Derivib Figure 5: Front steer example where a short tie-tod produces 0% Ackermann This example shows a virtual steering arm parallel to the vehicle centeriine. The steering movement is symmetric and this would suggest zero Ackermann, and that is exactly what it produces. THE ACKERMANN FORMULA, This formulation assumes the relevant points are in one plane. This can mean a plane perpendicular to the kingpin axis. The ‘simplest way to achieve this is to assume the kingpin axis is vertical and Caster=0 and Kingpin=0 ‘Ackermann Factor = -2 (0) /*(0) Analysis of the steering arm and tie-rod felationship to rack travel produces derivatives which can be applied to the ‘Ackermann Factor formula above. Deriv2a + Deriv2b + Deriv2e + Derivad Derivia = frmlength * cos Alpha +x > =~ Aynk Deriv2a = “Armlength = sin¢ Alpha + x > = —Arn¥ These terme relate to the steering arm angle and define the ease with a UERY long tie rod Derivib » -TieX = Arn¥/Tiev Deriv2h = TieX* « arn¥? 7 Tiev? Deriv2e * Arent 7 Tiev Deriv2d 2 / Tiey Figure 6 The Ackermann Formula ‘The actual mathematical results and the derivation are available from the primary author. RESULTS OF CALCULUS Based on the geometric relationship [11] tan( x+y) = tan( x) + tan( y )/ (1 ~tan(x)* tan(y). I we ignore the term TanArm (ArmY =O vhon Tiek=@ 8 when Tiek=8 °O when Tiek-0 1 TieY) then iP = tan( AmmAngle + TieAngle ) When TieX is small Deriv2b disappears and Deriv2c approaches ArmY* / TieY. When TieX=0 and TieY = AmmY Deriv2c is -ArmY* J TieY = -ArmY which is also Derivia. Thus the steering arm the tie rod each contribute 50% and we achieve 100% classic Ackermann,‘THE STEERING ARM TO TIE-ROD ANGLE Allan Staniforth raised the subject of ‘Ackermann In January 2006. In his hilllimb car it was impossible to mount the steering rack in line with the steering arms. The rack had to be significantly forward of the steering arms for packaging reasons. Staniforth and lan Scott devised a solution to this packaging problem. The revised steering improved the handling of the car. Staniforth suggested the angle of the tie- rods could be offset by aiming the steering arms ‘at his rear rather than at the rear end of the vehicle. This suggestion led to numeric confirmation with the computer program WinGeoS [8] and then to the theoretical analysis presented here, and finally full implementation in the computer program WinSteer [9] More important than the angle of the steering arm is the angle between the steering arm and the tie-rod. This is more significant than the arm angle. If the entire steering mechanism is rotated, maintaining the arm-to-tie-rod angle, there is ite ‘change to the Ackermann percentage. During the review process Kevin Kwiatkowski uncovered a prior reference in Dixon's second edition [4]. "Moving the rack forward or backward to change the tie-rod angles can be a useful way to adjust the ‘Ackermann factor, the most important angle being the angle between the tie-rod and the steering arm in plan view, the Ackermann factor being proportional to the deviation of this angle from 80 degrees.” This sentence ‘was published in 1966. Staniforth and Scott did their work in 1998/1999 and published in 2000 [12]. The authors of this paper had Dixon's 1991 English book [3] and were unaware of the new sentence in the second edition published by SAE [4) ange t144 : ogous Figure 7: Steering Arm to Tie-Rod angle ‘The Steering Arm-Tie-rod angle is ArmAngle + TieAngle + 90 degrees. The cotangent of this angle represents the working of the steering system. We have already shown that, if we neglect a couple small terms, ft is tan( ArmAngle + TieAngle ) = cot( ArmAngle + TieAngle + 90) = cot( The Angle ). Having performed the necessary derivation, we can look at the geometry involved. If we rotate the entire co-ordinate system when we rotate the steering mechanism, then the links are not changed. The only items that move are the tire, and this makes nov difference because we are dealing with changes in tie angle, and the steering input. ‘Thus the only change is Tan(Amm) * (AmY/TieT) / (1 - Tan(Arm)*Tan(Tie)) Since the ratio ArmY/TieY does not change when we rotate the mechanism, this term is proportional to Tan(Arm). Nothing else changes CASTER ANGLE ‘The above formula was derived assuming the Caster and Kingpin angles are zero. This assumption allows the situation to be modeled in @ two-dimensional plane. If we permit a non-zero caster angle we can construct a reference plane perpendicular to the kingpin axis and going through the steering arm tie-rod point. The steering tie- Tod inner point still moves in this plane,‘Then the above derivation applies except for the assumption that a steer angle of x degrees is represented by the same angle in the reference plane. This is a small correction, When we deal with larger steering angles this correction is dwarfed by other factors. KINGPIN ANGLE. ‘When the kingpin angle is not zero, we can sill construct. a reference plane perpendicular to the kingpin axis and going through the steering arm tie-rod point, But in this case the inner mount of the tie-rod no longer travels in the reference plane. This introduces other factors, but with the small kingpin angles usually used the correction should be small ‘THE ANGLE IN THREE DIMENSIONS ‘When the kingpin axis is vertical it does not matter ifthe inboard end of the steering ie- rod is above or below the plane. The motions are the same: the length of the tie- rod is the diagonal distance between steering arm and the input device. As viewed from above, the motions in the reference plane are unchanged. Even with a non-zero kingpin angle, vertical cisplacement of the steering system makes litte difference. ENHANCED JEANTAUD DIAGRAM ‘The Jeantaud diagram is quite graphic but it ignores the length of the steering tie-rod. An enhanced Jeantaud diagram can be drawn that does a good job of predicting the percentage of Ackermann. Let Base be the distance between the kingpin and steering arm perpendicular to the steering tio-rod, Create a length Offset equal to the Base squared divided by the length of the steering tie-rod. Then construct a point a distance Offset from the steering arm point along the axis of the tie-rod. In the example below the steering tie-rod is twice the length of the Base, Thus the Offset is half the Base. Tigrod length Figure 8 Geometric display of the Enhanced Jeantaud diagram ‘Then construct lines from the kingpin axis through this new point. The intersection of these lines should be near the center of the vehicle for classic Ackermann. Rear steer example: ‘ananced Jeantaud - Front Steer, 1 degree Offect 3.3 inches Enhanced Ackermann ‘ered 3/3 inches 100-081 200-112 Sis tnenes "751072751054 313 Snones 66.728 © «68.705 13:2 inches 621549 62.531, 217 inenes 951989 55.978 Front steer example: Enhanced Jeantaud - Rear Steer at 1 degre Offset 3.3 inches mhenced Ackermann ered -2!3 inenes 100-081 100-112 353 inches “021s “01035 Sls inches © 26193424388 5°9 inches 33.286 © 33.326 203 inches «S251 451395 ‘That is very good agreement. If you reduce‘That is very good agreement. If you reduce the steering angle to 0.1 degree the differences disappear. Figure 9 Enhanced Jeantaud diagrams ASYMMETRIC SUSPENSIONS, Oval track racing involves asymmetric suspensions. The analysis here refers to symmetric suspensions because the asymmetric case offers too many opportunities to create Netsteer. One of the easiest is to shorten the length of the inside steering arm. This works just fine as long as the car only tums one direction. It the car must turn the opposite direction, perhaps to avold an accident, it yields anti Ackermann, But the Ackermann formula provides a metric for Ackermann. If we calculate the metric for each side and then average the values, the result is a useful indicator of combined Ackermann. A combination of 150% Ackermann on the right and 50% on the left yields 99.28% Ackermann. One example is hardly proof but it suggests this idea merits further investigation. CONCLUSIONS This paper should enhance understanding of Ackermann steering geometry. 1. It creates a way to measure Ackermann. The ratio of Actual to Classic netsteer is the most natural metric. 2. The derivation of a Ackermann Formula, presents a useful analytical tool with each erivative term having a simple geometrical representation. 3. The angle of the steering arm is the primary factor, but the tie-rod angle and length play a significant role in Ackermann, However, the Arm-to-Tie-rod angle is a better predictor of Ackermann than the angle of the steering arm. 4, The Enhanced Jeantaud diagram is accurate when the tie-rods run cross-car. This Is an accurate metric with geometric understanding but it must be aimed at the middle of the ear, not the rear axle. WHAT THE PAPER DOES NOT DO This is a thorough analysis yet there are several things it does not do: ‘A. Should you use 100% classic Ackermann on your race car or street car? This paper provides no answer. Pneumatic tires are complex objects and thelr optimum Performance has littie to do. with minimizing scrub. Zapletal 13], [14], [15] presents a discussion of these factors. B. Ackermann is most crucial at large steer angles. With heavy trucks away from Interstate highways fulllock steering. is ‘common and has significant effect on tire wear. The calculus in this paper deals with ‘small steer angles. C. Racing tires operate at significant slip angles. This analysis ignores slip angles. See Zapletal. D. This analysis assumes everything is rigid. In the real world everything bends, asdemonstrated on a Kinematics and Compliance machine, Ackermann is. significant at large steer angles, for instance inner-city trucks at full lock. But large steer angles are rare in motor sports. If we consider a 6-degree steer angle, the difference between parallel steer and 100% classic Ackermann is 0.4 degrees. Measured as a length this is 5 mm or 8/8 of an inch. The difference between 90% Ackermann and 100% (0.5 mm or 1/16 inch) is much less than the precision avallable on setup. PROCESS Most of the mathematical relationships in REFERENCES [1] The Effect of Ackerman Steering Correction Upon Front Tire Wear of Medium Duty Trucks, Gerald R. Miller, SAE 861975 [2] Vehicle and Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 2nd edition, Amoid (1899) Amold is a member of Hodder Headline Group, London [3] Tyres, Suspension and Handling, John C._ Dixon, Cambridge University “Press (1991) [4] Tires, Suspension and Handling, second edition, John C. Dixon, Sociely of Automotive Engineers (1996) [5] Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Wiliam F Millen and Douglas L. Milliken, SAE (1995) Chapter 19. Much of the material in this section resulted from detailed conversations with Terry Satchel. [6] Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, ‘Thomas D. Gillespie, SAE (1992) [71 Optimum Ackerman for Improved Steering Axle Tire Wear on Trucks Gerald Miller, Robert Reed and Fred Wheeler, SAE 912693 this paper were discovered numerically and then verified with paper and pencil. Scientific Papers usually begin with theory and proceed to numeric verification. The actual intellectual process may not follow the traditional pattern. Several of the most _sighificant developments were made while preparing the SAE paper. The rigor required for publication can lead to additional breakthroughs and understanding. The Enhanced Jeantaud diagram was, discovered after the initial draft had been reviewed. [8] WinGeos suspension geometry program, Wm. C. Mitchell Software, Mooresville, NC [8] WinSteer steering analysis program, ‘Wm. C. Mitchell Software, Mooresville, NC [10] Ackerman Computer Programs for Heavy Truck Front Axles Charles E. Bird, SAE 942802 [11] Standard Mathematical Tables, 12° ‘edition, Chemical’ Rubber Publishing Company, 1961 [12] Allan Stanifortn, Race Tech magazine, Issue #80 June/July 2000. [13] Heavenly Angles, Erik Zapletal, Race Car Engineering, Volume 11 No. 6, June 2001 [14] Running adrift, Erik Zapletal, Race Car Engineering, Volume No 7, July 2001 [15] Coarse Angling, Erik Zapletal, Race Car Engineering, Volume 11 No 8, August 2001 CONTACT Wm. ©. Mitchell Software, 125 East Plaza Drive Suite 117, Mooresville, NC 28115 USA. 800-844-7296 from USA and Canada 704-660-0330 voice 704-663-0085 fax ‘www. MitcheliSoftware.comRacec from the inside MCLAREN TRACTION GOES CATIA ELECTRONICS ge inal, ates eee ‘gigas lovetregh car be wees OIPC MEDIAHeavenly angles If you think Ackermann is merely about tuning the inside wheel tighter than the outside then read part 1 of our Ackermann guide and think again wl rest movement nthe lection of is ale Ie follows that f you want a racecar to go fast na straight ie, then al four wheels shoul pin in the same direction ~ stright head But fyou want the racecar ogo fast round comers ~ thts, you want the cer o accelerate sideways by asing te wheels’ rexsarce to aval morions— then n just wich duections should he wheels pont? During comeing should the fon-wheels teen, remain parallel, or toc-out? How wl these toe changeset the dynamic ofthe cr? And when we have decided which way te wheels shoul point, how should ‘we design the stering geometry 10 point the wheels in the right -iections? Tis Seces fares stp oarswer these questions. It shuld be noted tat t considers mainly the steering of the font- wheels of reacvhee-drive ca being ven on a sealed road However, many ofthe principles also apply to rearsteer,o rant-wheel-deve, of i ay ore road surfaces. The analysis based ona simplfed two-dimensional lan view of the ‘a, No suspension geometry Is considered. Zero point steering is used ie avert! steering ss passing throsth the centre ofthe freprint ro ser, tri, estor-ngl and Kingpin egl). Camber angles Only changes ro the ‘seer anles' are considered, Te alysis ses specie mensions ~ the car has a wheelbase of 26m, and a ron track of 6m, ferent dierstons wl yeldeferent ret. he defining characterise of © Whee 6 that it structure which wel ol reely ina ection perpendicular oat’, but ©IPC MEDIATyres Sincea car's performance iso dependent onthe nteration between the tyres and the read, we should belly coreder the area rgure: shows two sts of curves One et Is fora wide, low profile, radially tre. ‘The other set or a marco all, easly tyre. Each set rdieates performance two erent verves! lads on the syre, The horizontal axis iraes the so ale sp angle’ that exist Between the horizontal heading ofthe whee-hub, and the actual horizontal diecson In which the whee ‘wavelling The vertical ans Indicates the force Fy that ats betwen the ye ard the oad. This force acts at ground level, anes, by definition, horizontal nd parallel othe whee’ in pan view. This fore i often refereed 0 a8 the tyre lateral Fore, batt avoid confusion wth he lateral ores tht acton the chasis, we shal refer fot a5 the ‘ai oree The graphic othe ie ofthe curves depicts the stuation atthe lower part ofthe carves. Here the tyepan ist aetually sloping onthe road Rather, the comering fore causes the fexble side clastic, with the greatest eiorton being towards the rear of the ‘preprint. Ths distortion alow the vl ‘hoop’ of he tread to adopt diferent camber-angl an stee-angle to that ofthe whee-hub. The change in steevangle ofthe rye tead allows the wheeL-hub to eab sdenays despite minimal slippage between thefyrepint and road ‘Aste axl-orce increases, the rearmos pars ofthe tyreprint star Sip. Ths Increases the angle between the whee-hub heading and ts Words and illustrations you want the racecar to go fast around corners then in justhcves ou: es at of toe reprint sides, which directions should the ™=* 9 #« Erik Zapletal OIPCMEDIA | Ackermann actual drection of teavel, and te curves bend! othe righ. AS the ear section ofthe treprin sides the vector’ of te dsribued reprint forces moves forward, causing the slf-aligning torque of the tyre 10 iniish and the tering to ee lah. The curves reech thee peaks force when most of the rear section of the Iyreprint i sing Beyond this point the axia-orce drops off slightly, and then 9) fromthe steering ~ smal changes tthe wheels point??? cc-ansie ct ine wheels wil not stn chagethe xa ore As the vera load Fon te tyre rereses, the pele orce ineresse bya sera, Fo example the vert led is double, then the peaemabforce is less than doubled Theres areducon nthe apparent Ceficent of Frio (Ct ald) ofthe tye a the vera oe increases. Another elec, che lone ack ate sth the vere oad ene, the peakanloce developed ata reste sip-angie During aceslertingo raking theresa Tonga! force Goon and perpen tothe wheel) developed betwee the re andthe toad Te carves fo these nga forces are sar oie wh ‘he evcepon tht ‘slipangle replaced by lp-ati’ which can be detined in several eerent mye The cretion ofthe lngadinal eres volves an expense of ener During accelerton the forces are cetng Keeney, and ‘hus reuefuel 0 bebe Dung brain the revousiycreed > ux nt te 2001kinetic ener, et fel costae dumped as heat. On the ther hand, the tye ase forces are almost re. There basal lp-angl-dag cot, proportional to span sa, which we wil come back 1 ater. But because the ala-forces are alnost orthogonal 10 the deco of ‘mato, they can accelerate the ear oward the cenee ofthe comer at fimost no energy cost. Comering power not only wins races, but, ‘thermodynaically penkng, it almost free. ‘The sbowemenione redaction of CF oa tyre with load, often called the ‘yrecoad-sensitvity, canbe used 10 adjust the understor/overseer hang balance ofa ca. For example, wo of the rca py eyes i Figure are ited to one ale of eat, and cach caries verti load of 4k then they can together develop a total ‘xiaoreof abot io. I dari ap corneig only the ower-whee ‘carrying the combined vert oa of 84N, then it can only develop an axia-forceof abou 8.kN— acflerenceof ak. These ‘nerd transfer’ eects con be achieved by changes othe rl-centre height and springrates of the axle, compared with the rolhcenire height and springrates ofthe other ale ‘Often the oll-cntes and spring ate changes are cosiderod tobe the ‘most important influences on handing balance. However, It should be noted that a change in steerangle of only 1 degree, on just one ofthe above wheels carrying avers! load of 4k, can produce a change in _axi-force ofa A+ degree change in steerangl of the same whee! ‘ary vertical load of BRN, can produce a change in axie-focee of 240 Beforemaking adjustments to roll-centre heights or springates, the ‘engineer should ensue thatthe wheels ar pointing inthe right dvection Static-Toe ‘Statictoe’ refers fo the steerangles ofthe from wheels, relative fo the ‘ars cemrline, when the stering-wheel is in the straigh-ahead poston, Statitoe anes are smal pally fess than dare gure aa depts a ear wih statl-te-in and Figure 2b depts car traveling slong a stat oad. The slip angles (equal to the tatit0e anaes andthe ores acting onthe wheels are shown. canbe seen that wile everyting is symmett the forces wl be balanced ‘The lower parts of Figure 2 show what happens when a small steering movement's made to the let, while the ari stl ravelling sah sind. Alterac the whole car ean be considered to have been yaved slghly tothe let, Now one wheel has er steer angle, and zero slip ange, and thus oly a rearward olin drag fore (or some rearward bralan-forco). The oer whee hasan neeased ster-angle ae ship ‘ana, ence it has an inreased ana-fore, plus the same rllg- agar bralangforce as the first whee. In each case the whee-o-erdnte Cornering power not only wins races, but, thermodynamically speaking, it is almost free: forces are shown 2s hallow arrows, while the sae ores in aera and longitudinal ‘car-coordinates' are shown a sald arrows. In both ofthe lower parts of Figure 2 there i the same otal of lateral force ar lorjainal Force ating on the front of the ea, However, Figure 28 ~Toe-In = there isa greater fngitutinal force at the ht ‘whee, then atthe Ief-wheel The ference in these two longtdinl Forces acts to yaw the ca othe ight. Conversely, n Figure 2) Toe-Out tho rater longi orci the et wheel andthe ‘ferential longitudinal fore! ~ Delta ~ acts to yaw the ear tthe let TF the steering is tured farther to the lt, while the cae stl sealing steaight-head, ten both wheels wl have a lefwardsstoee- ‘andl, and an sesocited leftward aloe. For eq et and right ‘with satictoc out The upperparts of Fgure 2 deplct the car when | whee loads, the whee with the greater stear-angle (which sits -P @ sire 2001 er i © IPC MEDIA| i | tlfectve sp-anle) wil enerate the greater axia-force. But even tf we assume thatthe elt ae rg ail forces re en, hen the Ton co ls have the eater lortadlforce tight side, athe To (ut car wll have the grestrlongittina force ait el side, “This ilerence inthe left and right font forces arises rom the ference of the ster-angles ofthe ¢wo wheels. Fora small ange A ess than about 6 degrees), sina ~ A, and cosA ~1 (A measured in radars) Forsall steer angles the sie ofthe longitudinal earponent of the anal Force, wll be approximately equal othe steerage xy. That i the lontainal component of fore is dieetly proposal 0 the steer At full-lock, dynamic-toe can result in a difference of the two front-wheel steer-angles of 10 degrees or more ~ ane. The longtdinal component ofthe dag or beakingfre, wll be approxinsely equal to fx thats, remains unchanged It allows ‘hat the wheel with the larger stoer-arge will have the larger total Tonga force. ‘Variations in whee loading wl change the sie of the axial fore fora ven slipange which in ur, wl change the ies ofthe Interal and longitudinal companents of he Fores. Bu i general, puting more te non the car wil generate derena-ongtudina-Forces tht ato yaw theca away rom the tun, puting more te-out on the cr wl generate fereni-longna forces that eto yaw the ea nt het. “Anther ay o ook a his is tht with toe the whee wih the — | ater ster an a hot ae for x ore bo te Coreen With tet, he whet wth he rer seen ‘as longer momen ar or sore As ngenrnknton the diferent nga eres ae sting sth an ig ble Wh oe eine sg tr i), | desing wih oot Cen Rerus siraphine devi, ad “Se Dynamic-Toe "Dynamictoe refers to the change in steerangle of one frontonhes, relative tothe other frontwhec, a the steering Is tured amay fom stralght-ead. Dynamic te sa function ofthe steering geometry. At fulbock, dynamic te can result in a ference ofthe two trant-whee steeranges of 0 dees or ore I he steer-angles ofthe ront-wheels emai equal 10 eachother as ‘ey move rom sagt ahead to fl ek, the te stern geome Is sald to have ‘paralll-soe’ If the front-wheel ten elaive 1 each othe as they ave towards flHock, his stented “ynamlc-oe- I the front whedstoo-out relative to each others they move toward fll- lock, the the tering ssa 0 have ynamicoe-out: yamic-te-n soften refered to a5 negative o anti-Ackermaa while éynami-oe-ot s sometimes called postive. or pro-Ackeman “The term ‘Ackerman’ does havea universally accepted definition. Figure 3 indiates the ‘Kinematic Steer-Anges’ KSA) of the font whoo of ca, as the car rotates aroue various Instant Contre. Note tht these angles don't refer to the seta steer angles ofthe font | wheels. Rather, they indicate the diretin thatthe centres of the wheeprins are traveling, eative to te centreine ofthe ca for any Sspelte motion of the ear. Tey can he iterpreted as te stee-anles ‘haar requred ofthe front-wheel, 0 thatthe axes of he wheels wll be pointing directly atthe instantaneous centre ofthe car's otion. > IPC MEDIA tec tae ine 2001‘The horizontal ais ndieatesAlpha(Oute), which s the ange between the centreline of the ea, and the direction of travel of the outer- hepa. The vert ax adatesAipher-Apha(Ouren, which {the dynam-toe-out of the Imer-wheelpn’s ection of wav, telaive tthe outer-whoelpnn’ direction of travel ‘Tyee curves are shown. The ghost curve indicates the HSA ofthe Srontwhets when the cent of the renee has zero sip-anle— that ‘when the Instant Centr es on an extension ofthe ea-axle-ine. This ‘sypcaloflow speed travel when the horzotal Frcs n the ear tyres ae low, and ths thelr sp-agls are minimal. ‘The other two curves idea the KSA ofthe frontwhees when he cenit ofthe rea-anle has slip-engle of 1 deyres end 0 degrees. This rearsp-angl is depicted in the graphic. It refers to the deton of ‘wal of he centre ofthe vear-asle, relative to the corrline ofthe cr both rear-hees are aligned wih the centreine of the ear, and if ‘ere ia significant amount of ear-ip, en the uter-rear wheel wil havea lightly sale slang, ard he inner-ear-whel wl havea slighiy lore slpangle, than that of the centre of the arse This ‘woul suggest haf the reae-whecs rec ut equal spans, then ‘hey should he set-up with some stat-toen. On the other hand, he car has some form of rear-stet, such as that avallable on some rduction car, then its posible forthe ear 0 run with lage, bat tl nual rear-vheet-slip anges, while the ear-slip is kept oa sl value, for instance you could say o degrees. ‘Also indicated on each curve are the ad of comering (prefixed with "Wend taken to the cee ofthe cx for diferent KSAS. The lforest point ofeach curve nears when he cr Is ove ina straight Iie ~ tnfte rads. The curves end ata rghinost polat which can be conser o Be loc teenage beyond this point are only applicable to high manera vies They ate partly presented hereto show that the curves wil eventslycetvn to 2er0 dynamictoe-out, when the ‘outer whee! has tated ilo degres, The curves are asyetic in thts format because the outer-vhee! becomes the ne-whelpartnay through ts ave) ‘acarhasa small ear sip-angle~ due to ether slow speeds si rear lye, or resr-vhet-seer~ and the car I tring a reeonably tight corner, then quite are values of dynamic toe-ou are required both Front-wheel re o operate at sii ip-angles. Por asm radius corer, about 8 degrees of dynaie-toe-out i requed, Fora fultock turn nore than 6 degrees of dynamte-toeout may be requed {As the rearslip-angl increases, then the car needs progressively less front-wheel steerangle to negotiate comers. I the reas Is large enough, nd ifthe comer radsis soars enough, then the font As the rear-slip-angle increases, then the car needs progressively less front-wheel steer-angle to negotiate corners: « hice Kinematic Steer-Angles are negative ~ thats, apposteock. The ynanve-toe-out required In this situation Ws also negative — that 5 ‘éyramictoe-in, Tis condition of oppositedock and dymamictoesn occurs when the nstant Gene the x's sons rota he front alee. For now wel eave it here, but ext month we wl be considering he an Ackermann argument and looking th application ofall his theory Inacel world ° @ re 2001 crea IPC MEDIAMotorsport from the inside | ucHT j FANTASTIC I iene abet Sige seaeret at? a i Building a car for the legend’s Ce Mans return, Ackermann part 2 The anti-Ackermann argument and an affordable super computer | © IPC Media——— Ackermann hres schoo of thought that asues degrees away fom staight-abead. ‘that while production cars can Benet The wpperight secon of Figure ¢ es ‘rom dynami-toe-out during cornering more detaed view ofthe station at he iner- (ostvesAckermann) racecars wil fronthee. The axa-force (Fy) does’ pot jsereraly corer faster with soe dai toe- dretly at the instant Cee bt, by the In(oegative or anirAckermane, This agurentdeinton of sre degre slip and, pts {sbased onthe observation that he eater the nine derees Behind this ail ine. The ip Toad on aye, se Figure then the greater the angle thus senorates aay component of the slp-angle that it must ran at i order to develop axabforce thats rearward tothe direction of ‘ts mauimun camer fore, Since the owter-_whelpint wave, This 'sp-ange-dea is an hoe ofa cenering car wil ary a greater lod undesirable force ast requis forward thst, than the mer whee, follows thatthe aster. and his engine power and ua, to averome whoo must run ata greater sip-ange than the One of the maln benef frilly tees s ner whee i both are to develop their ‘that they comer at lower sp-angls and hus mana comeing ores wih ess drag than eoss-ply res. Forexampl, consider Figure ¢—rogether the cari Fura steeing linkage with he eroas-ply tye curves at the right of that generated dynamic too, then the ner Faure and the Rear-Sip +10 deg curve of wheel sieer-ange would be greater han 27 gure 3. tho degrees of rear-sip anda corner radius of about 3om the followings the One of the main Emer as st ee benefits of radial-ply Meme = $283 < sao tyres is that they comer at lower slip-angles: : the heally lade onterwhe! develops its peak aaore ata lip ange of 0 degrees, an the more lightly loaded inne whe! degrees, od hefner whee pane would Alevelops its peakaniforce at rine degrees be greater tha nine derees. The ye would ‘hen, foram coreg force "hus be running at point pst speak xn ———-—— fore. ts centripeta component of ore would Dare Sr dk = 5H) + TO) Be redued and is drag component of force ieee ‘mereased. The crs total coeneing ore would Towra Suge = SAN) + b-He8) usb reduced and would require moce +27 sys ite engine power to maintain the sare speed. Tis elas. ‘isthe essence ofthe at Ackermann argunent There are, however, several deta tha Put simply here shouldbe about degrees should be kept in mind when considering this facal dynamictocsn,orantiAckermann, _ant-Ackermann argument. lf these are when the ront-vheds ae stere about five detailed over the page. > ‘que 1: Tye ‘Stages’ © 01/2001 Ro aon SIPC MEDIAAckermann__ IPC MEDIA. xa 3 2001The finer points of anti- ernst Ackermann bd pe, Large stip-angles “Theabove losophy was developed quite a few years go, wen racecars had the high slip-anle ‘yrs used in the above example. The race-vaeks of hat period also had ewer thas corners such as chicanes Much ofthe racing volved lng staghs followed by high-speed Iara power-mited beds nhs With low slip-angle, evenly loaded wheels, the need for dynamic- toe-in is considerably reduced: : Je follows that 5 desrable to ft cor with tyres that develop har peak force at smal sip anges ~for example, low-profile rad ply ‘yes — and to minis the lad variations of the wheels: Wit ow sip-angl, evenly loaded els, the need for dynamic ton conseably reduced siamo, afr i-rack as with very igh rearslp-andles, some ant-ckermann,o Amani toe rom the steering my be hpi The macnn mount of dyna te-in needed is about thre degrees for dt racers ar less than two degrees for road racers. As explained previoush, large slipargles are not desirable because they generate dag and il sideways might look ast ts no recess he quickest way through a corer. LUkewise, sot desable io have widely Aferent oad onthe wheels 25 his reduces the maximo avolsblehorontal wheel forces via the tyeload sensi eet Which tyre should peak first? ‘racecar might not have the dal stecing scorer that allows its ront-vhous to each eak-ani-force simutancoisy, the outer whet reaches peak sial-force before the ner hel, du to excessive wer, then any Inerasen sip-agls wil decrease the oxter whee anla-force and increase the inner whee ai-force. A consdeatlon of theca longitudinal components of hese fores would suggest hat such change wl exert an Figure 3 Nema Steer Aagles gy bed © IPC MEDIA ‘overstering yaw moment on the car whichis steering era in A 2001 ©IPC MEDIAbehave in @ simlar manner to above. That's, experimentation to get the dyrami-te curve 10 changes to sterarm angle ard RBP placement rack the KSA curve to within half degree that make Alpha) mare este (as shown in The spec Iyout shoe n igre B has the Figures) aves more dynamictoe out ‘dlers and cetcal-trackrod ting af & (Often itis nt possible to use large steer-arm parallelogram that both ile-fronterms are anges as in Figure 6, because ofthe brake-dsc. always atthe sare angle. The wo sete angles may not be possible o move the REP behind im the Bar’ inkage (lerear-arm to outer te front-ade line, 25 in Fre 7, because of raked, and outer-sreckerod to steer arm) Inerusion nto the ootwel or engine space. cause the dyramictoe cure 1 rise rapidly Figure 8 sows a seeing geometry that ay during itil steering movement ~ more apily sppese complicated bat ibs Severs advantages ‘With ts layout wo idles are mounted ether gS mk an pen ying steam aes than in any ofthe previous REP curves. As the ldler-cear-arm-to-trck-rod angle staghtens (for the iner-vied the dyramic-toe curve Is pulled back down, With some inal statleoe in, this layout would sive stable high-speed ‘rising 6nd cornering, with responsive tern to tighter corners, and negligible wheel scrub uring low-speed ful-ock manoeuvres, Figure 9 shows two stering linkages that renerate asyrmetic dyramicoe carves. -p side ofthe cassis. They are connected via thee frontarms to 2 centralrecksod, end via ther Toe Out reararms to outertackrods which then | Ginge, taad connect tothe ster-arns Ether of the isles | yee cou bedeven by asteeringbox othe centrak | 3 short ack-ods Ihe suspension wsibores are Jong enouth, then the two ides can be merged tncoa sgl certal er, sutably diver. ‘One advantage of he lnyout i that i can Improve packaging convenience, The steersens canbe stright-ahead, andthe central rod ‘or ROP, can be mounted wel forward ofthe Front ae efor increased foowell space. Another fdventage i thatthe incensed numberof anles Detwoen the tackoode and the rotating irs and seer-arms, makes it easier to tallor the shape ofthe ymamictoe curve. takes litle traced cul e ele by 8 ROP and wo ] é rr | —F eye iyi) mit eyo) asset ayaa) wWSicer-Angle! Gover LL} og IPC MEDIA rari 205|. amd pn = vane nok. in comerng. power that due to lnteral-ond- ‘tansfer camber change. and soon. Gul renee 2 AG the “bjelemodel takes tile riage), efter an down(lesstoe-out or more teen) : Geone/ iar ithe nde ihe odeye ster arveg see on both ses heen cde mpl 0 pes beret the wo sera) es na wih ese rea, he Soap tig st the lefterarm whl the nee Steeranm poms srapabead. Again he tpmmeny has the efit of ratng te prety set cave cote. Tr oth of te above eral, epi cronle' te song he dane stoning hs wed gy stp wn uring in he fd corms. When fuming ah ray hope the ess © course thou ele ta eo slage Fs Ame sen la See oS tecibmntbesepel iene ino Model was develope (adie understand. of vile dacs. The simplest version of his ‘models a -D plan-view of a vehicle, wih one feonthel, one rear-wheel, and a cenxeof- ‘mae acted somewhere Between, Each whee! ie Rg sein kage assigned a ropresrtave lateral sfness — the inal slope ofthe curves in Figures (VuNG). (ABS) hardware to brake onesie ofthe ca ‘Wien the dyramic effects of ving this model control yaw mation, and thus 1 control around a particular corner at a particlarspeeé_understeeroverseer. It would be feasible 10 are calculated ten the model ves reasonably. bul high-speed large-ausindy syle racecar fsccuate predictions of the ‘feverti-eteral_ that har all four wheels fied egely saiht= forces ~thediferencebebeeen the front-wheel ahead, and ues ony a joystick conlld ABS and the rearwheellaterabfores ~ that are_sstem for steering, Thiscar cou even negotiate responsible fora tendency toward understeer or Formula tsiyle racetracks although is tre wear overseer behaviour ‘would be increased tough the tighter corners. Steering a car by using the brakes Is't particularly efficient. Overall the car would be slower. Besides which, ABS and sir systems ace banned from most racing. But the yawing power that is avalable fom such diferent longitadinal-forces isn't specially bannes ‘ne ofthe easiest ways to take advantage of this yoming power sto use dynamic toe changes Dynamic‘oe-out of the front-whce's generates Just the ight sort of dferenti-ongiuinal forces that help yaw the car into a comer Parallelseer, and antckermann steering erate diferentablongitdinlfores that at {0 yaw the caraway rom the comme, No new hardware is needed to exploit these yawing forces, Cars have the basc hardware, ts Justthe geomety that needs adustne. @ @ 2121201 tonnes @IPC MEDIA Extensions ofthis model ieide the reduction vehicle's width The vehicle IsHere we tackle the tough questions : “Ackerman? Or not? Does it matter?”. Dale Thompson from Racing Car Technology looks for some answers. What's your view? Have you any test data? Emall Dale on racetech@ozeblz.com.au Ackerman? An‘ i-Ackerman? Or Parallel Steering? ‘Ackerman steering geometry is used to change the dynamic toe setting, by increasing front wheel toe out as the car is tumed into the corner. Racers are interested because of the potential to influence the handling of the car on corner entry and mid corner. ur interest at Racing Car Technology is to look for further developments in racing car set up for our customers. We have been setting up racing cars with our "Weight Transfer Worksheet” (WTW) for a few years now. By track testing we got confirming data, and showed that if you have a baseline set up that is close, you can make changes the driver feels, and improve the car further. The major elements of suspension set up remain spring changes and anti-roll bar and shock absorbers adjustments. A drawback in the weight transfer model is that we consider the tyres a given. We calculate a roll angle for the car of so many degrees per G (lateral G). This gives us an idea of whet rol rate (roll stiffness) is required for the sort of cornering power we think the car will achieve. But itis evident that the tyres, and particularly the tyre slip angles are of interest in optimising grip. We influence tyre slip angles with toe setting (static and dynamic toe). Ackerman Steering Geometry ‘The typical steering system, in a road or race car, has tie-rod linkages and steering arms that form an approximate parallelogram, which skews to one side as the wheels turn. If the steering arms are parallel, then both wheels are steered to the same angle. Ifthe steering arms are angled, as shown in Figure 1, this Is known as Ackerman geometry. The inside wheel is steered toa greater angle then the outside wheel, allowing the inside wheel to steer a tighter radius. The steering arm angles as drawn show 100% Ackerman. Different designs may use more or less percentage pro-Ackerman, anti-Ackerman, or Ackerman may be adjustable. (In fact adjustable Ackerman is rare. This could be the car designer saying to us, "Do not mess with this.”)Figure 1 Full Ackerman geometry requires steering angles, inner wheel and outer wheel, as per Figure 1. ‘The angles are a function of turn centre radius, wheel base and track. In practise, the steering angles achieved are not perfect Ackerman geometry. This is not of concern. We are only interested in the fact that we can have some degree of increasing dynamic, toe out and thet it is exponentially increasing with steering angle. See Figure 7 below for some example curves. So we shall consider “Ackerman” a term to describe any progression of dynamic toe out generated by the steering geometry. If its our choice to use Ackerman, we must use a high percentage because, for small steering angles, Ackerman is minimal We will also look atthe static toe setting, because of its interaction with Ackerman. ‘Suspension movernent may also cause changes in toe (bump steer). Toe could change with roll angle of the car, but probably not in any controlled way we could use. Usually, bump steer will be set at zero as part of the workshop set up. In addition to toe changes, effective steering rato is quite variable in most steering systems. Drivers do not appear to have problems with this. (Although steering ratio is a consideration for designers — yaw response to given steering angle). Tyre Slip Angle - the major variable in the Ackerman story Tyre slip angle is simply the difference between the steered angle of the wheel and the direction the tyre foot prints taking. The mechanism responsible for creating the slip angle interacts with a ‘number of the suspension settings on the car. For instance, the rolling tyre deformation at the tyre foot print, results in a reactive force, the so called “pneumatic trail, that applies a ‘self aligning torque" on the steering axis. The driver can feel this through the steering, in addition to any “caster trail” that may be built into the suspension geometry. Here though, our interest is the interaction of slip angle with dynamic toe, Instantaneous Tur Center with Slip Angles >) Fela Sip Ande Year Ouse Sip Angle Figure 2When the car is cornering at racing speeds, steering Ackerman geometry is modified dramatically by the tyre slip angles, as per Figure 2. With racing tyres at maximum lateral G, we might be looking al 5,6,7or 8 or more degrees, and generally more slip angle again for dot road legal racing tyres. Low profile tyres work at lesser slip angles. Currently, the stiffest racing tyres, as used in IRL, operate at around 2 degrees slip angle. Dirt tyres (speedway, rally) might operate up to 40 degrees slip angle. As the car corners, the tyre load varies side to side, and the slip angles increase and decrease in response to any change there might be in the torsional spring rate of the tyre. Vertical tyre loading varies with comering weight transfor, and also the tyre loading and unloading in response to bumps in the road surface. Lateral tyre loading varies according tothe lateral G force. The following is a representation ofthe sort of numbers involved:- Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle for different Normal Load Figure3 Figure 3 is an example graph of Lateral Force vs Slip Angle from Claude Rouelle's race car engineering seminar. If we are going to get a handle on how toe angles work, tyre data lke this helps. As comering force builds on the tyre, the slip angle is increasing quickly. The slope of this, part of the curve, the "tyre stiffness”, is a measure of the responsiveness of the tyre to steering inputs. When maximum cornering force is reached the curve flattens out. If the driver is easy on the tyres he will drive in this area of the curve. If the driver stresses the lyres more, he uses higher stip angles, with similar cornering force (lateral force, grip), but with the possibilty of overheating the tyres. The graph also shows the affect of changing load on the tyre, The 300Ib blue curve might represent the inside tyre. It has a high co-efficient of friction, 2. Thus maximum, lateral force is 2 times vertical load. The 900b curve might represent the more heavily loaded outside tyre. The co-efficient of friction is less at 1.6 and therefore the maximum lateral force is only 1.6 times vertical load Tyre Load and Slip Angle vs Lateral Force Plotting the two variables on the X axis, against lateral force on the Y axis is perhaps the bestrepresentation of tyre performance. The data, known as “carpet plots”, are generated by the tyre companies at their test facilities. It can show us what happens at small slip angles and lateral force, and how the picture changes as we approach the limit, maxing out the slip angle and applying big weight transfers. First thing of interest is that as the front outside tyre is loaded up in a corner it will adopt a higher slip angle than the more lightly loaded inside tyre. The loaded tyre will oe out more than the lighty loaded inside tyre. We expect that the more heavily loaded tyre will control the trajectory of the car in the corner, s0 all the toe out generated will be seen at the inside tyre. Ackerman geometry will also produce toe out. Add to this the static toe out you generally run on a racing car. How much toe out can the car take before it starts dragging the inside wheel? Will the inside tyre be giving away grip? Itis apparent, that gain or loss in grip will be at the inside tyre, assuming that outside tyre grip is at a maximum, and that the car is balanced. There are a number of observations we can make at this point «Say the car is comering at maximum lateral G and the difference between the outside and inside slip angles is one degree. This equates to an increase in toe out of 6mm. This is a significant change in toe that we might expect to influence handling. + Astthe tyre traverses the corner, any change in tyre loading due to driver input or road surface will result in toe changes (due to the slip angle changes). These changes are additional to any Ackerman and bump steer resuiting from the steering and suspension geometry. The interdependence of slip angle with al the variables is hard to visualise. But fortunately, it seems we do have a large window where the inside tyre grip will be OK. ‘The tyre in Fig 3 shows pretty constant grip level when lightly loaded between 4 and 8 degrees, indicating the inside tyre particularly, can handle a lot of slip angle variation, and siill offer near maximum grip. This means that mid corner, even though the toe angles might be pretty wild, we can have near maximum inside grip. Looking at the toe and slip angles, it appears as if we might be dragging the inside tie, but not so while we maintain near maximum grip. + Atcorner entry, we expect there will be greater need for precision in the dynamic toe setting. Initially, there is no Ackerman, so we are only looking at the static toe setting, plus the developing slip angies. What the Guru's Say Costin &Phipps, "Racing & Sports Car Chassis Design’, 1961. For performance and racing cars, they recommenced a small amount of anti-Ackerman, and did not discuss any circumstance where Ackerman might be used. "Owing to weight transfer, the outside wheel always runs at a higher loading than the inside wheel, and therefore higher slip angles, which necessitate greater lock", Carroll Smith, "Tune to Win", 1978. Referring to anti-Ackerman, he writes it "cannot be right". He suggested that racing car steering angles are generally too small for Ackerman to build, and that in the mid corner, the inside tyre is not sufficiently loaded for it to have much affect anyway (meaning for Ackerman effect - in general consideration of inside tyre grip is @ major focus for set. up). For corner entry he prefered to use small amount of static toe oul andlor, interestingly, small amount of bumpsteer toe out in bump. Because of the difficulty of predicting dynamic ride height side to side, it may be preferable to run the static toe out required with zero bump steer. Those teams with wheel position sensors and data logging could tel for sure. “Engineer in Your Pocket", 1998. No mention of Ackerman. Thisis significant. Twenty years after “Tune to Win? Carroll Smith must have considered Ackerman adjustment stil only a small part of set up. Don Alexander, "Performance Handling’, 1991. He writes that anti~Ackerman was used in earlier years. But that by the 90's, "Ackerman steering has returned, often exceeding 100 percentgeometry’, eg for vehicles with high aero down force. However, he has got his explanation of the slip angle effect the wrong way round, and does not expand further. Finally, he says Ackerman is a design element, not a tuning tool the racer will use. Paul Valkenburg, "Race Car Engineering & Mechanics", 1992. Taking into account the slip angles, "at first glance it might seem’ "Ackerman steering may be a disadvantage. On the other hand, scientifically obtained tyre data tends to indicate that the lighter the tyre load, the higher the the slip angle required for peak comering power. This would indicate that Ackerman is in fact Usefull in racing cars. ".......'although there probably isn't enough steering motion to have a significant effect. Only your skid pad or test track wil tell for sure." Allan Staniforth, "Competition Car Suspension’, 1999. Writing about inside tyre grip he says "My ‘own view, not applying to Ackerman alone, is that any single thing that helps the contact patch do a better job and enjoy 2 happier existence has to be worth any trouble to achieve." He does not ‘say when, or under what conditions, he would use Ackerman. Later he did an article in one of the technical mags (or was it Simon McBeath?) where he got very keen on Ackerman, and did some testing on a hill climb car. Unfortunately, | cant find the magazine. Eric Zapletal, "Race Car Engineering" magazine, August 2001. This is part 3 of a series on “Ackerman Explained. He offers a number of "kinematic steer angle curves”, representing steering systems with a lot of Ackerman, for various slip angles. At the end of the article he does, ‘give some further clues as to how Ackermen may be used. He points out how the car will turn by braking one side of the vehicle - tanks, bulldozers and other "skid-steer" vehioles are an ‘examples where its the only steering mechanism. He points out that modern Vehicle Stability ‘Systems (VCS) use the ABS braking system to brake an individual wheel to counter the yaw motion of the vehiole and control oversteer and understeer. "One of the easiest ways to take advantage of this yawing power (in racing cars) is to use dynamic-toe changes. Dynamic toe out of the front wheels generates just the right sort of dferential- longitudinal forces that help yaw the vehicle into the comer.” | think he is saying ifthe inside front tyre drag is a bit more than the outside, this will help tun the car into the corner. Claude Rouelle, Optimum G race car engineering seminars (www.optimumG.com),Too-Din Tite dirsition toward the outside. ‘Toe-in: Tice dicecton toward the inside, ‘Creaié‘anficiat ‘Sipangle and Tateral grip Figure 4 Claude points out that static toe out or toe in setting creates an “artifical” slip angle at each front tyre, and therefore lateral grip. See Figure 4. Toe out can help inside tyre grip. In particular, toe out helps compensate for negative camber on the inside wheel. Negative camber can be optimised for the outside wheel, but will always work against you on the inside wheel ‘The tyre curves re-enforce this idea. At zero slip angle we always have zero lateral grip. For any slip angle we generate in the tyre we can read off lateral force on the diagram, For a race car running static toe out, I think the cornering mechanism might be something like this. AC intial tur in, the inside wheel is toed out and already carrying a small slip angle. Full static weight plus any weight from trail braking plus aero load if any is still on the tyre, so it responds instantly to point the car into the corner. The outside tyre is also toed out, but in wrong the direction to turn the car. So the car must rollout the initial slip angle, and then start from zero to build slip angle in the correct direction. AAs the car starts to transfer weight in the corner, the ‘outside wheel gains effectiveness turing the car in. The inside wheel starts to reduce lateral force and the outside whee! builds lateral force as the load on the tyre increases, and the relative advantage of the camber gain increases outside tyre grip even further.The Steering Geometry is function of your tire Curve rd |so0m Hoow ine 300 1b men 00 16 Lateral Force (tb) > Pro Ackerman. > Anti Ackerman 72.) 6 67 8 Stip Angle. Figure 5 Claude says the steering geometry preferred wil be a function of the tyre curve. In Figure 5, if the tyre curve shows max force at increasing slip angle for the lightly loaded inside whee, this infers pro-ackerman. Or if the tyre curve shows max force at reducing sip angle, we would expect anti-ackerman to be best. Again the curve is fairly flat atthe top, so does the slip angle ‘matter all that much? However, in amateur racing we do not have any tyre data, so we cannot use any ofthis, but take the ideas on board for insight only ' i ‘ Lateral force Vs Slip Angle Graph and Reverse Ackermann Geofietry tol Fre) Stn Angle es) SS.i ( ‘ Why reverse Ackermann ? See Gore me ne Aettastamie! Front Toe in Test oF tie Maton | Slow Comer | Fast Comer Static Toe In | ee 7 Driver's comments : Fe Toe Out ‘Toe-out is better in fast comer. Statie Toe - +4 “Toe-in is better in slow corner. Te Yous parae Gime nate, Bnd, Yi: Aer (mensin Canine. THM CRA, (nck ck ina, Yous eBid Hee Pe eo) Solution is static Toe-out with Reverse Ackermann Geometry because = fast comer © smail steering angle + toe-out setting practically unchanged «slow comer © high steering angle €> fast variation from toe-out to toe-in Figure 6b To determine whether the race car will be better with dynamic toe in or toe out, pro or anti ackerman, we need to test. Claude suggests a test, as per Figure 6a and 6b, where we analyse whether static toe in or toe out is best, in slow comers vs fast comers. | guess we should use a parallel steering set up, or close to, to do the test. Given that a slip angle variation side to side of one degree equates to a toe setting of 6mm, | think we could choose somewhere around that for ‘ur toe in and toe out test settings. I's a question of how sensitive the car is to toe change. It Could be you need a toe setting of 10mm (in or out) to get a result from the test. A team who has done a lot of testing may already be aware how much will be significant. A rule of thumb is more toe (in or out) required for tyre operating on large slip angles (soft side wall, and less toe for low profile tyre operating on smaller slip angles (stiff side wall. ‘You need to be able to do the tests back to back. So you must be able to change and measure the toe selting at the circuit. You are looking for fairly small differences in handling performance here, so data logging is invaluable. We use @ Race Technology DL1 logger that we can easily attach to the car with velcro strips and power it from it's own battery. The resulting speed and lateral G traces are extremely accurate and will easily show any differences from lap to lap. Claude's example solution in Figure 6b is static toe out with anti-Ackerman geometry, as follows:~ Fast corner: small steering angle, therefore toe out setting vitually unchanged. Slow comer: high steering angle, therefore fast variation from toe out to toe inTrack Testing for Ackerman and Toe Effects So it may be possible to test what initial toe setting you should use, and whether Ackerman, or anti-Ackerman is faster. To have any chance of the test being successfull, the baseline set up and balance of the car must be very good. If the driver has to fight the car, you don't know what the steering angles willbe. The difficulty with the testis to be able to sort out the initial toe effects from the Ackerman effects. It would be great to be able to start on @ 200 ft skid pad (as used in the US) and look at the steady state mid comer situation first. There should be a range of slip of angles that wil produce maximum inside grip, and therefore maximum lateral g on the ski pad, all else being equal. I we can't use a skid pad, then we will need to use At each stage of the tests we must know what steering angles we are achieving in the corner and what toe in or out applies. wonder what toe and Ackerman they run in categories with fixed suspension rules such as, Porsche Cup cars and Aussie racing cars? With few possibilities to adjust the set up, toe and ‘Ackerman would be of greater interest in improving the car. ‘Common racing tyre slip angles of 6, 7 and 8 degrees are large numbers, and therefore there is potential for slip angle variation from side to side, which could toe the wheels out alot. This implies anti-ackerman could help reduce the unwanted toe out. This is the traditional solution and the one that is most readily acceptable. But pro-Ackerman is used in some categories. eg specialised hill climb racing cars, F3 racing cars. Could be 100% or more Ackerman. if you are going to use it, high percentage Ackerman is required because Ackerman is slow to build eg 100% Ackerman, 4 degrees of steer angle at the steering axis gives approx 1 degree (or 6mm) toe out overall. Four degrees at the wheels could be 180 degrees at the steering wheel ie a tight comer. A big factor in what dynamic toe curve is, achieved is the included angle between the steering arm and the track rod (Figure 7). As this angle becomes more acute, dynamic toe out increases. To achieve this, you move the steering rack rearward in the car. This applies for steering rack forward of the axle C/L, and rearward of the axle CiL. ee A Tee Ost oe O;-o ig He a . sem oe SH = eg920" ass) the 210 ye) 1. [_# 2 arn) ¢ To 9 90 ao Steer-Angle 1 Go Wey &Figure 7 Given that the traditional solution, anti-Ackerman, doesn't always fit, it seems there must be ‘another benefit that has only been recognised more recentiy, or that has only become effective with modem race cars. Or are the tyre curves very much different? How Does Pro-Ackerman Work? Eric Zapetal's explanation does fit. That he is probably correct is well supported by his extensive writing on steering and suspension geometry in Race Car Engineering magazine. He has done the maths to amplify and support his ideas. With Ackerman steering, if we can toe out the inside wheel sufficiently, there is greater drag on the inside wheel than the outside wheel, thus creating an oversteer torque around the vehicle centre of gravity. This wil help tum in, or in his words “yaw the vehicle into the corner". With zero front toe settings, the front tyre rolling drag creates @ small understeer torque. Zapatel ‘quantifies the rolling drag as being only 1% of the vertical load. However, in the comer, the drag ‘component of the force acting on the tyre Is very much greater. Drivers of low powered racing cars are familiar with how much speed you lose ifthe car has understeer in fast comers. Figure 8 shows the front tyre drag components of the lateral tyre force. The drag gets greater with increasing slip angle. Carroll Smith in "Tune to Win" page 130, caloulates the front tyre drag for a Formula Ford. It is, significant even for a well balanced car. Because the heavily loaded outside tyre is developing most of this drag, the net effect is an understeer torque.. In a fast corner, itis hard to imagine that, you could turn that around to an oversteer torque by increasing drag on the inside tyre by increasing the slip angle. Even if you could, the total drag would make you slow. TIRE FORCES PRODUCING NET UNDERSTEER TORQUE: Figure 8 10Figure 8 shows this important concept of the oversteer and understeer torques acting on the centre of gravity. Mark Oritz, in my view the best writer in vehicle dynamics, often uses this concept to describe how a car will gain understeer or oversteer. Even if we can't calculate hard numbers, we can hopefully predict the direction the set up will take, as we attempted with this Carroll Smith Formula Ford example. When Would You Use Ackerman (or Anti-Ackerman)? ‘+ When you set the negative camber, based on the tyre temperature readings for instance, you are maximising outside tyre grip, at the expense of inside tyre grip. Toe out helps to ‘compensate for negative camber on the inside tyre. This indicates pro-Ackerman might be usefull for cars carrying a lot of negative camber. + Inusing Ackerman steering we hope to be able to influence the slip angle on the inside tyre to our advantage. There will be a range of slip angles where the inside tyre will be producing near maximum grip (Figure 3). So we have a degree of flexibility in how much Ackerman we use. * To rotate the car on corner entry we are talking about creating increasing drag at the ide tyre. As the comering force builds the inside tyre must at some point reach its optimum lateral grip. We then use Ackerman to toe the tyre out further - say increase the slip angle a couple of degrees. The tyre grip doesnt change that much but the longitudinal component of tyre grip, the tyre drag, does increase in line with the increased slip angle. For this to work we would need to know that we have sufficient steering angle to generate the Ackerman needed. + If in the process above, we started to loose outside tyre grip, and the driver wound on some more lock, we would have increased drag at the outside tyre. We would then loose the effect. The oversteer torque we were looking for would be overcome by the larger understeer torque. ‘+The above indicates that pro-Ackerman would probably not work with low powered cars in fast comers. It might also be a problem generally with heavy cars with spool or locker diffs that might want to push a bit, such as V8 Supercars. With pro-Ackerman, the higher slip angle on the inside tyre will put more heat into the tyre. This will help bring the tyre up fo temperature, but could overheat the tyre on a longer run + Tour race car is faster with toe in, we will use anti-Ackerman. This implies a tyre curve where the lightly loaded inside tyre has maximum grip at a lesser slip angle (Figure 6a) + Sprint cars and similar speedway, dirt short circuits, can make a lot of use of varying degrees of pro-Ackerman. With dirt tyres we expect very large slip angles. Nascars and similar will use anti-Ackerman (Figure 6a). ‘+ With low profile tyres the slip angles willbe a lot less. The tyre drag will be less. The slip angle on the inside tyre will have a smaller drag component (Figure 8). So it may be more difficult to use pro-Ackerman to create the oversteer torque. The toe out from the slip angles will be less. The slip angle variation from outside to inside tyre will be a smaller number, requiring different Ackerman to achieve what we want + We will probably use initial toe out to help turn in, The idea is to get the inside tyre working as discussed earlier. Other settings you would use to help initial turn in are stiffer front shocks, and higher front roll centre height. By delaying the roll we help to keep the weight on the inside, to again keep the inside tyre working, = We make the assumption that the outside whee! will always have the ideal trajectory, with all the toe out being seen at the inside wheel. This may not always be the case. For instance, if the car has a lot of caster and/or caster trail this might have the effect of splitting some of the toe to the outside wheel. If the outside wheel does take on some of the toe out, this will decrease slip angle and the outside whee! will loose grip. uIf you are interested in testing steering geometry set ups or testing any aspect of suspension set up, please contact us at Racing Car Technology , Dale Thompson, ractch@eozebia.com.au , phone (02) 4472 8225. In summary, itis clear there are problems in determining what Ackerman steering geometry. should used. Many race cars will have parallel steering, or thereabouts, because of the difficulty of predicting and testing what slip angles you deating with. Claude says in the future, racing cars will have slip angle sensors. At present the cost of sensors Is too high for regular use in racing, Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) a Mom Yaw More erated by Yebicte Brake Rear imide Wheel Figure 9 Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) (Figure 9) systems give us a window to see how effective the inside tyre drag might be. Most cars with VSC use Bosch, Delphi or TRW systems, VSC is particularly effective on very slick surfaces. The tests you read about describe driving on a skid pad so slippery, that you cannot actually steer the car. Once you start the car yawing in a certain

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