CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION
Introduction of CASTING
Metal casting is definitely one of the oldest manufacturing processes. Castings have been
found dating back 6000 years. Fundamentally, casting involves filling a mold with molten
material. This material, upon solidification, takes the shape of the mold. There are two basic
types of metal casting processes, expendable mold and permanent mold. Castings can be
made into the same shape as the final product, being the only process required. Or sometimes,
casting is the first manufacturing process in the production of a multi-process manufactured
part.

Metal casting can be used to make parts with complicated geometry,

both internal and external. With casting, intricate parts can be made in a single piece. Metal
casting can produce very small parts like jewelry, or enormous parts weighing several
hundred tons, like components for very large machinery. Although careful influence of
casting parameters and technique can help control material properties; a general disadvantage
to metal casting is that the final product tends to contain more flaws and has a lower strength
and ductility compared to that of other manufacturing processes, such as metal forming.

CHAPTER 02
Casting Process
Basic steps:
<<- Melting the metal.
<<- Pouring it into a previously made mould or cavity which conforms to the shape of the
desired component.
<<- Allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify in the mould.
<<- Removing the solidified component from the mould, cleaning it and subject it to further
treatment, if necessary.
The solidified piece of metal, which is taken out the mould, is called Casting. A plant
where the casting are made is called a Foundary.

Application Of Casting
Cylinder blocks
Piston
Piston Rings
Machine Tool Beds
Water Supply Pipes
Bells
Mill Rolls
Wheel
Housing

CASTING

Refractory mold pour liquid metal solidify, r

Fig :Casting process

A material in a liquid or semisolid form is poured or forcedto flow into a die cavity and
allowed to solidify, thus taking the solid shape of the cavity
The process can be applied on metals and plastics
The term casting is commonly used for metals and theterm molding is used for plastics
Examples: door handles, locks, the outer casing or housing for motors, pumps, etc., wheels of
many cars. Casting is also heavily used in the toy industry to make parts, e.g. toy cars, planes,
etc.

Advantages of casting:
(a) Casting can produce very complex geometry parts with internal cavities.
(b) It can be used to make small (few hundred grams) to very large size parts (thousands of
kilograms)
(c) It is economical, with very little wastage: the extra metal in each casting is re-melted and
re-used
(d) Cast metal is isotropic. It has the same physical and mechanical properties along any
direction.

CHAPTER 03
Types of Casting
Sand
Shell mold
Plaster mold
Expendable pattern
Ceramic mold
Investment
Die
Permanent mold casting
Centrifugal

CHAPTER 3.1
SAND CASTIING(animation)
Sand casting is a method involving pouring a molten metal into asand mold.

cope: top half

drag:bottom half
core: for internal cavities
pattern: positive
funnelsprue runners gate cavity {risers, vents}

SAND CASTIING (Description)

The typical mold for a sand casting is shown in the picture:

The set of channels through which a molten metal flows to the mold cavity is called gating
system. Typical gating system consists of a pouring cup and a sprue receiving the poured
melt, runner a channel through which the melt is supplied to the gates through which the
molten metal enters the moldcavity. A gating system may include a riser (feed head) a
cavity connected to the gating system feeding the casting when it is shrinking.
Air within the mold cavity and gases formed when a molten metal contacts the mold surface
are removed through the vents. The interior cavities of a casting are formed by a separate
inserts called cores. Cores are usually made of sand and baked. A mold frame (flask) consists
of two parts: cope (the upper part) and drag (the lower part). A mold cavity is formed in the
process of pattern molding, when the pattern (commonly wooden) is embedded in sand in the
flask forming an impression of the casting. After the sand packing the pattern is removed
from the flask and the cores and the gating system are arranged.Cores, runner and gates are

arranged in the drag; pouring cap and sprue are placed in the cope.Then the two parts of the
mold are assembled and poured.
After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, thecasting is removed from
the mold by the process called shakeout.

CHAPTER 3.2
Shell mold casting
- metal, 2-piece pattern, 175C-370C- coated with a lubricant (silicone)

- mixture of sand, thermoset resin/epoxy- cure (baking)

- remove patterns, join half-shells mold
- pour metal- solidify (cooling)

- break shell part

SHELL-MOLD CASTING

CHAPTER 3.3
EXPENDABLE-MOLD CASTING(Description)
The pattern used in this process is made from polystyrene (this is the light, white packaging
material which is used to pack electronics inside the boxes). Polystyrene foam is 95% air
bubbles, and the material itself evaporates when the liquid metal is poured on it.The pattern
itself is made by molding the polystyrene beads and pentane are put inside an aluminum
mold, and heated; it expands to fill the mold, and takes the shape of the cavity.

molten
metal

polystyrene
pattern

support
sand

polystyrene
burns;
gas escapes

pattern

Fig: EXPENDABLE-MOLD CASTING

CHAPTER 3.4
Permanent mold casting
MOLD: made of metal (cast iron, steel, refractory alloys)
CORE: (hollow parts)
- metal: core can be extracted from the part
- sand-bonded: core must be destroyed to remove
9

Mold-surface: coated with refractory material

- Spray with lubricant (graphite, silica)- improve flow, increase life
- good tolerance, good surface finish- lowmp metals (Cu, Bronze, Al, Mg)

PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

(Description)
The permanent mold casting is similar to the sand casting process In distinction from sand
molds which are broken after each casting a permanent mold may be used for pouring of at
least one thousand and up to 100,000 casting cycles.Manufacturing metal mold is much more
expensive than manufacturing sand molds or investment casting process mold. Minimum
number of castings for profitable use of a permanent mold is dependent on the complexity of
its shape. Ferrous and no-ferrous metals and alloys are cast by the permanent mold casting
process.

Fig: Piston

CHAPTER 3.5
INVESTMENT CASTING (Description)

10

Investment (lost wax) casting is an ancient method of precision

casting complex near-net-shape details.
The investment casting process uses expendable patterns made of investment casting wax

CHAPTER 3.6
DIE CASTING(Description)
11

Die casting is a permanent mold casting process in which the molten

metal is
injected into the mold cavity at an increased pressure. The mold used
in the die
casting process is called a die. The molten metal injection is carried out
by a
machine called die casting machine.

DIE CASTING(Description)

Pressure is maintained during solidification, thenmold is opened and part is removed

Use of high pressure to force metal into diecavity is what distinguishes this from
other

permanent mold processes

DIE CASTING MACHINES

Designed to hold and accurately close two moldhalves and keep them
closed while liquid metalis forced into cavity

Two main types:

12

1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal under high pressure into
the die

High production rates - 500 parts per hour notUncommon

Applications limited to low melting-point metalsthat do not chemically attack plunger

and othermechanical components

Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamberfrom external melting container, and a
pistoninjects metal under high pressure into die cavity

High production but not usually as fast ashot-chamber machines because of pouring
step

Casting metals: aluminum, brass, andmagnesium alloys

Advantages of hot-chamber process favor itsuse on low melting-point alloys (zinc,

tin, lead)

CHAPTER 3.7
13

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING(Description)
Centrifugal casting is a method of casting parts having axial symmetry. The method
involves pouring molten metal into a cylindrical mold spinning about its axis of
symmetry. The mold is kept rotating till the metal has solidified.As the mold material
steels, Cast irons, Graphite may be used.

Centrifugal casting is carried out as follows:

The mold wall is coated by a refractory ceramic coating

Starting rotation of the mold at a predetermined speed.

Pouring a molten metal directly into the mold
The mold is stopped after the casting has solidified.
Extraction of the casting from the mold.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING(animation)

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING (types)

14

Vertical centrifugal casting is more suitable for cylinders witha ring

geometry (diameter > length).

Horizontal centrifugal casting is more suitable for tubegeometries

(diameter < length).

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING - Products

15

CHAPTER 3.8
16

VACUUM-CASTING(Description)
In this case, the material is sucked upwards into the mold by a vacuum pump.The mold in an
inverted position from the usual casting process,is lowered into the flask with the molten
metal.

Fig:(a) Before (b) after immersion of the mold into molten metal
One advantage of vacuum casting is that by releasing the pressure a short time after the
mold is filled, we can release the un-solidified metal back into the flask. This allows us to
create hollow castings. Since most of the heat is conducted away from the surface
between the mold and the metal, therefore the portion of the metal closest to the mold
surface always solidifies first; the solid front travels inwards into the cavity. Thus, if the
liquid is drained a very short time after the filling, then we get a very thin walled hollow
object, (see Figure):

CASTING

17

CHAPTER 04
DEFECTS - Definition
Casting Defects are discontinuities in castings that exhibit a size, shape, orientation, or
location that makes themdetrimental to the useful service life of the casting.Some casting
defects are remedied by minor repair or refurbishing techniques.Other casting defects are
cause for rejection of the casting.

CASTING DEFECTS
(Types and description )
1.Metallic projections
2. Cavities
3. Discontinuities
4. Defective Surfaces
5. Inclusions

1. Metallic projections

Fins are excessive amounts of metal created by solidification into the

parting line of the mold. Fins are removed by grinding or sandblasting.
Swells are excessive amounts of metal in the vicinity of gates or
beneath the sprue.Scabs are surface slivers caused by splashing and

18

rapid solidification of the metal when it is first poured and strikes the
mold wall

2. Cavities

Blowholes and pinholes are holes formed by gas entrapped during

solidification.Shrinkage cavities are cavities that have a rougher shape and sometimes
penetrate deep into the casting. Shrinkage cavities are caused by lack of proper feeding or
non-progressive solidification. Porosity is pockets of gas inside the metal caused by
microshrinkage.

3. Discontinuities
A hot tear is a fracture formed during solidification because of hindered contractionAhot
crack is a crack formed during cooling after solidification because of internal stresses
developed in the casting.

4. Defective Surfaces

Casting surface irregularities that are caused by incipient freezing fromtoo low a casting
temperatureWrinkles, depressions and adhering sand particles

19

5. Inclusions

CHAPTER 05
Process

Advantages

Disadvantages

Examples

Sand

many metals, sizes, shapes,

cheap

poor finish & tolerance

engine blocks,
cylinder heads

Shell mold

better accuracy, finish, higher

production rate

limited part size

connecting rods, gear

housings

Expendable pattern

Wide range of metals, sizes,

shapes

patterns have low

strength

cylinder heads, brake

components

Plaster mold

complex shapes, good surface

finish

non-ferrous metals, low

production rate

prototypes of
mechanical parts

Ceramic mold

complex shapes, high

accuracy, good finish

small sizes

impellers, injection
mold tooling

Investment

complex shapes, excellent

finish

small parts, expensive

Jewellery

20

Permanent mold

good finish, low porosity,

high production rate

Costly mold, simpler

shapes only

gears, gear housings

Die

Excellent dimensional
accuracy, high production rate

costly dies, small parts,

non-ferrous metals

gears, camera bodies,

car wheels

Centrifugal

Large cylindrical parts, good

quality

Expensive, few shapes

pipes, boilers,
flywheels

CHAPTER 06
Casting Process Application
Casting Process

Application examples

Sand

engine blocks, cylinder heads

Shell mold

connecting rods, gear housings

Expendable pattern

cylinder heads, brake components

Investment

Jewellery

Permanent mold

gears, gear housings

Die

precision gears, camera bodies, car

wheels

Centrifugal

pipes, boilers

21

CHAPTER 07
METAL MELTING POINT TEMPERATURE
METAL

MELTING POINT Temp. (C)

Iron

1535

Tin

232

Lead

322

Zinc

419

Magnesium

650

Aluminium

660

Copper

1080

Silver

960

Gold

1063

Nickel

1452

Cobalt

1490

Platinum

1773

22

Molybedenum

2620

METAL

MELTING POINT Temp. (C)

Berylium

2300

Pitanium

1800

Uranium

1800

Bronze

925

Brass

200

Pig iron

1120-1300

Cast iron

1300

23