UTHE PENGUIN HISTORICALVIKING Published by the Penguin Group Penguin Books Ltd, 27 Wrights Lane, London W8 STZ, England Penguin Books USA ic., 375 Hudson Stet, New York, NY 10014, USA Penguin Books Australia id, Ringwood, Victoria, Australia. Penguin Books (NZ) Lid, 182-190 Wairau Road, Auckland 10, New Zealana Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England Fist published 1995 Published simultaneously in Penguin Books 13579108642 Text copyright © Chris Scace, 1995 The moral right ofthe author nas been asserted Design and maps copyright © Swanston Publishing Limited, 1995 ‘Alright reserved, Without iting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored nor introduced into retrieval system, or transmitted, n any form or by ary means (electron, ‘mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwse, without the prior written permission ofboth the copyright owner and the ‘ove publisher ofthis book Printed and bound in Great Briain by The Bath Press, Avon | GP catalogue ecord for his book is avaliable from the Bilis Library 'SBN 0-670-86464-1/ Penguin Books Canada Lid, 10 Acom Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, Canada MAV 382 Foreword Roman civilization is one of the great unifying factors in the history of Europe and the Mediterranean. The extensive empire ruled by the Romans stretched from the sands of the Sahara to the mouth of the Rhine, and from the Atlantic in the west to the uphirates in the east. It has lft us its legacy in the form of Roman law, which still under ties many westerninspired legal systems, and in the Romance languages—French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Romanian—derived from Latin, which are still spoken well as the res, and the state hot only in former Roman territories but in countries of the New World a Old, Furthermore, Roman cities lie beneath many of our modern ¢ religion of the late Roman world—Christianity—remains the dominant faith throughout most of Europe today “The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Remeis an introduction to the Roman Empire based ‘on maps, The Romans themselves made maps of their empire, though litle of these have survived apart from the so-called Peutinger Table (a medieval copy) and fragments stich 2s the marble map of Rome. Itis other sources, then, which have bee pile the present volume, and they are of broadly two kinds: historical and literary on the il (what the Romans std about themselves), and archaeological and architectur fone ha al on the othes Bach of these sources has its own particular role, The details of historical events them- selves are known to us mainly through written texts in Latin or Greek, ‘These include works of famous historians stich as Livy and Tactius, and social or official documents such as letters and lavs. Coins and inscriptions provide abundant further evidence, and can often be dated precisely, Archaeology, on the other hand, can sometimes be tied into the history but essentially tells us a different kind of story. We may remember the Romans in terms of kings and consuls, battles and emperors, but for the majority of Roman inhabitants, those who ploughed the fields and tended the olive groves, by far the best testimony comes from archaeological remains of ordinary houses, Jence, however, i intrinsially better then the others; it workshops, No one source of e is by using them together that we gain the fullest insight into the world of ancient Rome Chris Searre, Cambridge, 1995| { i "HE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Contents Part I Part Ms Part IV: Foreword ty o Empire The Origins of Rome ‘The Unification of aly ‘The Wars with Carthage Rome’s Conquest ofthe Fast The Over-Mighty Generals Caesar's Conquest of Gal Grossing the Rubicon The Givil Wars Shades of the Departed ‘The Imperial Regime ‘The New Order The City of Rome under Augustus Claudius and the Conquest of Britain Nero and the Year of the Four Emperors The Western Provinces Three Western Cities \Vespasian and the Jewish War Trajan's Wars The Roman Army ‘The Imperial P Hadrian's Travels The Bastern Provinces Three Eastern Cities Writing and Literacy Trade and Transport The Roman Amphitheatre Roman Spain Guard ‘The Troubled Cer The Yeat of the Six Emperors TThe Parthian Wars 2 20 a 28 30 82 M 36 38 46 48 50 54 56 58 oo e 46 n a 6 8 8 86 88 96 98 Part V: The City of Rome under the Severans Mystery Gults Roman Africa Thee African Cities The Empire at Bay The West Breaks Away The Rise and Fall of Palmyra Restoration and Fall Diocletian and the Division of Power The iatianity Constantine the Great Technology and Engineering A Fragile Prosperity The Fal of The Inheritors spread of C! ‘Western Empire Kings, Dictators and Emperors Further Reading Index Credits and Acknowledgements 100 102 104 106 108 no ng 4 132 1a 136 1s 130 132 1M 136 138 159 vnrue PENGUI \ HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Timeline: 800-85 Bc ‘THE ROMAN STATE, nc. EO ert eesti escuela memes, pert BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION {ht iment (a pt LITERATURE.& PHILOSOPHY ASIA, AFRICA & THE MEDITERRANEAN = ra 84 Bc-99 ap ‘THE ROMAN STATE Zaire rac (heer seacoast Epa lector Piha marten me. ee BUILDING & ‘CONSTRUCTION LITERATURE & PHILOSOPHY ie Sea Par Tanetases ASIA & AFRICA“THe PENGUIN ‘Timeline: 100-363 av “THE ROMAN STATE, faces antec Sapo nen BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION LITERATURE & PHILOSOPHY 364-540 ap st it etic a Stats taioae 50 da Se ioe Cig cg Shae BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION Anette, ay orate ot Mist vere Sri st counts TINELINIS, LITERATURE & a ASIA & AFRICA Saran“Tir PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME I: From City to Empire The city of Rome began life as @ modest village inthe region of Italy bnown as Latium. Nobody could have predicted that this lindistinguished setlement—merely one of several local centres gradually developing into cities during the 7th and 6th centuries Fc—would eventually become mistress not only ofall Italy, but ofthe entire Mediterranean world. Cur knowledge of early Rome is based on two sources of evidence: the ‘rational histories written by Liy and others several centutes ate, and the Bindings of archaeology, Lagend held that the Romans raced their ancesty back to Aeneas, the hero who escaped from the sack of Troy caring his father Anchiss on his back His subiequent travels took him to Carthage, whee he met and {ell in Tove wth Dio before forsaking her and seting in Latium There bis son founded the ety of Alla Longa, and it was from the Tings of Aa Longa that Romulus and Remus, the founders of ome, were directly descended, Mach of this isexdentfavention. Troy, we now know, Wis sacked inthe 12th of Ih century We, whereas Carthage was only founded inthe thor Sth. The klea that Trojan refugees sought refuge in central Tealy is probably also pute fieGon. But dhe sory of Romulus and Remus founding the city of Rome may incorpororate elements of truth, For twas inthe Sih century that to existing setiements, one on the Palatine Hill the other om the Quitinal, cotesced to form a single wile. This corre pond in time approximately withthe tational foundation of Rome by oma in 283 ac. Early Rome has been given especialy vii form by the ftscoveryeaty this century of eval hut foundations on the Palatine Hil and by boval (both iniurations ad cremations with Thuturns") ithe Forum lg and onthe Esquiline Hil, Some ofthese burials date back as far as the Toth century 8, Tong before Remulis's supposed foundasion scold onestrton, ‘aang dic and sey sadpte Ts roma cma cal “raed ee ‘Seren dee ie emt ini of nds emer ‘cry hi ot cpt donated bt Sosoptage cor tb. ay a el reo tt cf tpt cia pce ‘ge of trom "Dh onside it naj ot ie ceva ey. Te rod ing ‘met fot Ran "rind bride contd of "tetera ced stones narod PARTE FROM CHYTO EMPIRE “The nascent setlement of Rome soon found itself at war with its powerful neighbours, the Sabines, According to trdivion, Romulus enticed the Sabines to feast during which the Romans seized the Sabine women as Thc wives. This again, probably legend which incorporates a germ of truth, since Sabine influence was strong in early Rome and the eventual Comipromis, by which Rome was ruled alternately by Roman and Sabine Kings, may reflect Rome's origin in the coalescence of two ethnically dit ferent communities. rom Village to Cty “The four eatiest kings were shadowy characters, wile leaders rather dha powerful monarchs, and the setiement tact was small and wnaltingused Major change began to take place during the 7th century, when dled roofs tnd sone foundations appear, culminating in the draining of the Forum trea and fs laying out as 4 public aquare: a formal cy centre, This coindd fed with the appearance of new rulers dhe Berscans [According to legend the frst Eiruscan ruler. Targus Priscus, took com trol of Rome by peaceful means, gaining Use acquiescence and supporto the leading famies He may well have hae muh to offer the early Romans Sinee the Etruscans had a flourishing network of ciystates inthe region 10 {he north of Rome, and Rome sod at a crucial bridging point on the Tibe inhich gave the Etruscans accesso Lativm and beyond. Rome never became Uhh Etrasean cigssate in the sit sense of the term, but it took om many Etruscan trappings It was especialy important o the Etruscan since the I ter had established a major zone ofafluence in Campania to the woth and the Tiber bridge was the strategic artery of communication between the Ihomland and thes southern outposts “Tne Etruseans gave Rome writing (an alphabet they in turn hal taken fron. the Greeks) public buildings (including the Temple of Jupiter on che Capit) and new poieal, socal and military organisation. The tration al ymbols of power, the fase (bundles of rods and axes, which have gre) thelr name to lasism) were also Etruscan in origin, Under the Etruscan Linge, Rome became the undisputed leader of a large section of Latiuan ‘extending from the Alban Hills ia the eas © the Tiber mouth in the wes The Roman retained thei own language, however, though Etuscan fan Ties took up residence in the city, and a umber of Firuscan inscriptions have been found there, Yet Ht was not without dlifculty that dhe Romans ‘eventually freed themselves froma Euruscan overlordship, “The Birth of dhe Republic “The Etnuscans ruled Rome fora file over @ century, the traional dates tre 616 ne for the accession of the frst Etruscan king; Targuinivs Priscis, td 510 nc forthe expulsion ofthe last, Tanglnius Superbus—the proud (Beacen them eame a Latin king, Servos Tullius, somintaw of Tarquiniss Priscus) Lit tells ws twas the rape of Lucretia by Sextus, son of Tarquin the Proud, which incited rebetion by a group of Roman aristocrats led y Tacs fonivs Brutus ‘The Tarquins were expelled from Rome, and a new ‘constaton devised, whereby power rested inthe hands of the senate (the Srsembly of leading elizens), who delegated executive action to a pit of Conais who were elected from among their number to serve for one year "Tins was boon the Roma Republic{HE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME orate eof abe ttt pees heel fie ewer which dried be snl ee ite ecm rt ‘ie erm "agi ba mace way a dg ef ‘tan oe osttrndem Se and 1m realy, the story was les simple, forthe Fiascans did not so easily reine iquish conteolof thei crucial Tiber bridgehead. Tarquin the Proud sought Telp from Lars Porscrna, ruler of the Haruscan city of Chsium. According to Livy, the Romans beat off this attack, notably by Horatus’s hero stand at the Tiber Bridge, Most likely, however, Porkeana did reeaptune Rome, but failed vo hold i for long. The Latin cites banded together with Rome to fhrow off the Etruscan yoke, and wos a major victory at Arica in 506 BC. Henceforth, though Etruscan cultsral infuence remained strong, che Latin cites were politically independent, “The victory at Arica didnot mark an end to Rome's troubles, snce the new constitution was not flawless and there remained pomerful external enemies Internally, one serious threat was the internecine feuding of dhe leading families, any of whom commanded the support fof large numbers of clients and wsed them on ‘occasion to subvert the power of the state. ‘Another was the struggle between the leading families (the paticians) asa whole and the rest oF the population, especially the underprivileged troup (the plebeians). After some years of con- fic the plebeians forced the senate to passa wrt ten series of lavs (the Twelve Tables) which rec- Dgnized certain rights and gave the plebeians thle own representatives, he ibe. ft was. ony Tater in she Sth centry, that plebeians were given the right to stand for the consulship and other ‘major offices of sae Expansion in Tay [iy the Sth century ne, Rome was an important iy, but by no means major regional power. The transition came about only through piecemeal expansion in a series of minor ware. Their earliest, fenemies were theis immediate neighbours to eas land south: the Aegui and Volsc. By the end of the Beh century these peoples had been defeated, land the Romans pushed forward their own fron: tiers, establishing colonies (setilements of Roman citizens) in strategic places. This practice, extensively followed in Tater years, enabled Rome to hold on to conquered territories and rewarded its citizens with fertile new farmland. “The first resounding Roman relay success was to the north of the city, Wnere in 506.8 alter a tenyear siege they captured Veli, This was the sout- fernmost of the Firuscan eles and a major metropolis, in every sense Rome's equal. Any feelings of elation must have been shortved, howerer since she yeats later Rome itself was sacked by a new anid more distant ‘enemy, the Celts (or Gaus). Celie peoples from Central Europe had Been tstablshing themseves in northern Tay during the course of the 6th and Sith centuries, and in 301 p62 Celtic warband launched a raid deep into Etruria. They returned the nex year in even greater sien, defeated the Romans at the River Alli, and captured the city, The citadel on the CCapitoline Hill eld out fora few months but eventually cpiulated. The (Gals withdrew with cher booty back to northern Teal, leaving the Romans remo PART EFROM CITYTO EMPI to pick up the pieces, rebuild the ltyand restore their damaged prestige (One of ther fist aets was t provide Rome islf with better defences: he SerealedServan Wall 6 miles (10 km) long, which was the only iy wal that Rome possessed until the Emperor Aurelian bill 2 new one over 5) years later. Butt was some years Defore the Romans were able to return t9 the offensive ‘Whether the Romans entertained any longterm imperialist objectives cr merely conquered in selédefence is open to question, but dhe results were iimpresive in either case, ln 345 they exe int coniict with the Sammie powerful tribal confederation who controlled the central backbone of ouern Fey. This Fist Sarmite Wat (343-41) was brief and inconclase but was followed by more significant Romnan gains inthe Second and Thitd ‘Wars (327-04; 208-80 nc). During the same period Rome strengthened is hold aver Latium andl renewed operations against the Faruscans Victory in the ‘Third Samnite War extended Roman territory across the Apennines to the Adriatic Sea. This made Rome 1 major regiowal power fd attracted hose attention Gam the Greek cities around the coast of Southern Hay. They ealed in the help of Pybus, king of Epirus, an ambi tious adventurer who arived at Tarento in 280 with a wellrained army ine included war elephants, the firs the Romans had encountered Pyrrhus won bates at Heractea and Avaesam, but with such heavy os that they gave hin litle real advantage. He was eventually defeated in 275 ail “Tarentu fell othe Romans in 272 Rome and the Mediterranean Rome sow controlled the whole of the Malian peninsula, either through alliance oF ditect con- aquest, The next wars were fought Against a muuch more redoubtable opponent-—the Carthaginians—and the prize this time was not merely Waly but the whole of the West and Cental Mediterranean, Rome's principal advantage lay in the enormous reserves ‘of Talian manpower. on Which it could call. Car thage, on the other hand, was a maritime power vith 9 redoubiable let igh hie ora at of en coon aid Terr ate ai St hefner ef sei fone 6{TE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME igh te For Rama, etna oe Ticcone of eee Tira milo Ind fowpoad Tempe af (Coan Pa ot ede nin 4 and nye a oe, A ojo tesa! seam epi of Va Inte ‘ekg ito Pane Tia onic epee leer contced hr palace iow the stan of aon ith but of ae ni fom ie ane of Rom ig he aera or noe ‘eats te part of he loon be at raha ed acre ston poe ces, ‘ties fom pve eo ‘och bly that oe “The First Punie War (264-41 nc) was fought for control of Sicily. The Carthaginians had long held the western end of the island and had sought from time to time to conquer the Greek elles of eastern Sicily, such as Catania and Syracuse. The cause of the Fist Punic War, as of many great ‘conflicts, was trivial in origin but revived old rivalries and alerted the Carthaginians to the growing threat from Rome, Despite their seafating Skil the Carthaginians were defeated by the Romans in a number of naval Cgagements and by the end of war Sill was reduced to dhe status of a Roman province, becoming indeed Rome's First overseas posession ‘he Carthaginians were slow to accept thee severe, and in 218 struck back inthe Second Panie War, with an invasion of Lay itself, led by Hannibal Thin time it was the Romans who were worsted in thei ehosen clement, the land battle, but despite crushing vitories at Cannae and Lake Trasimene Hannibal could not shake Rome's hold on the Taian penis, and was tunable to attack the city itself. In the end the Romans turned the tables by Invading Carthaginian teritory. Hannibal crossed back to Africa to defend his homeland but was defeated i the final bate of the wat, t Zama, by the Roman general Scipio "Aianus” in 202 “The victory over Hannibal removed Carthage as a mitary threat, but di rot bring the Romans any great measure of peace. Instead, they found themselves embroiled in new ware which took them further and further lfc. In the west, they became involved in a whole secession of wars in Spain, seeking to protect an expand the territory in the south of the cou tay whieh they had taken from the Carthaginians. In Taly, close to home they renewed the conquest ofthe Celie lands inthe north, whieh became the protinee of Calle Cislpina( Gas shivside-ofthe-Aps) But the greatest wars of the 2nd century bc were fought in the Balkans and the Fast Mediterranean, As the century began, the Romans declared war on Philip, king of Macedonia, and in 196 defeated the Macedonian army at Gynoscephale. The Romans did aot initially seek a lasting foothold in the Balkans, but merely wished to neuiraire 2 miitay threat. A quarter of century later they were back fighting a new Macedonian King, Perseus, and by 146 aca conse to realize they had no alternative to direct rue. Greece trae nm te and Macedonia together became the Roman province of Achaea. In the fame year the Romans at lant destroyed Carthage, their old enemy, in the Third Panic War its territory became another new provinee, Africa, Shorty Afterward, in 198 hc, they gained yet another overseas territory when the Tas king of Pergarnum lft is kingdom to the Romans in his wil “Thus almost by accident, Rome became the ruler ofa great Mediterranean tempire. The provinces brought wealth to Taly, and fortunes were made {hrengh the granting of valable mineral concesions and enormous slae- yhin estates, Kalian traders and craftsmen flourished on the proceeds of the hrew prospetity. Slaves were imported to Hay, too, however, and wealthy Lundawners soon began to uy up and displace the orginal peisant farmers By the late 2nd century this process had led to renewed conflict between eh and poor and dernand fom the later for reform of the Reman const teion. The background of socal snease and the inability of the traciional ‘republican constituon to adapt ca the needs of a powerful empire together Ted ta the sse of series of overanighty generals, championing the use of elther arstoratsor the poor. in He lst cent “The Fall ofthe Republic The beginning of the end of the Republic came when the brothers Greets challenged the tradional constitutional order inthe 150s aud 120s nc. ‘Though members of the aristocracy themselves, they wu 0 par‘THE DENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME owe: epi iter eld ater Te ‘pony sng “init more spotty te Rea ‘hey tr oe oe cet fe chan ps ‘ih fle tomy ‘tory The hen of ons nthe furl charat ie ie td Ve fot peter elmer scouts aie es a z rm Hay, ap Ui eR aad mod el out public land to the dispossessed allan peasant farmers, Other mex sutes followed, bu many senators came to view the Grace as public ene ‘nes, and both the brothers met violent cleaths. ‘The next champion of the people was Gus Mars, bilan military com smander who reformed the Reman army and saved Tal fom the invading CCimbri and Teutones in 102 and 101 ue. He departed fom established practice by recruiting his soldiers not only fen the handed citizens but from landless cizens, including the growing urban proletariat. These were people who, once the ware were over, looked to their commander For ‘more permanent revard inthe shape of land oftheir own. Thus the siti ‘ion developed where commanders and their atmies banded together in pursuit of polideal abject, dhe commanders seeking power nl the sol Aer ears The temporary scendaney achieved by Marius was eclipsed by that of Sulla in the BOs ne, Sulla mae his name i two crucial wa: dhe fist in Halt, the socalled Social War of 1-89 ne, where the Talia allies, though they lost the war, largely won heir demand Fr fll Roman citizenship and che second the defeat of Mithridates, king of Ponts, who chose this moment of Roman weakness to overrun Asia Minor and Grocee, Sulla was a staunch proponent of aristocratic privilege, and hk shortived monarchy saw the repeal of pro-popular legslaion and the condemnation, ssnally without tial, of thousands of his enemies After Sulla's death the pendulum swung back someveat in favour ofthe people under a success new commander, Pompey the Great. He became |mmensely popular for clearing the seas of pirates and went on to impone new political settlement on the warting kingdoms of the Kast Mediter: ranean, notably making Syria a Roman province. When he returned to Rome in 62 uc he found himself face by two astate political opponents the Jmmensely wealthy Marcus Liinius Grass, and the young but prosising Gains bis Caesar, Rather than coming to blows, the three men reached a political accom dation now kaiown asthe Fis Trlunvirate, Unde the terms this arrange, gens: ca Poe pare nacieet rere sented Totnes iene soe ict Seco Shans ‘ment Caesar became cons in 89 ne and was then made governor of the two Gallie provinces, one—Cisalpina—south of the Alps, the other— Transapinacovering the southern part of modem France, He embarked ‘om a campaign of conest, the Gallic War, which resulted in a ge acre sion of new territory, and then need his bate hardened army to overthrow Pornpey and take mipreme powcr for himself Caesar's career was cit short ‘by his assassination at Rome in 44 x, but rue by one man was becoming at Increasingly inevitable prospect. Ic was a prospect brought to fruition by ‘Octavian, Caesrs adoptive son. He and Mark Antony, Caesar's rend ne lieutenant, defeated Caesar's asarsins at the Battle of Philippi in 42 te. ‘They then established the Second Trinnwiate, joining forces with Marcus Acmilius Lepidus to divide power between them. The arrangement did not Iast, however, and eventually resolved itself imto direct military conflict betiveen Octavian and Mark Antony. Octavian's victory atthe batle of Act left him sole ruler-and in 27 ac the Senate grated him the tile ‘Augustus, making him the fst oficial emperor of Rome, »—————eEG—Gee {HME PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANGIENT ROME The Origins of Rome cmtudus herve dwith a wisdom more divine, both availing himself of all the advant of the sea and soiding its owing i disadvantages, than by placi «ity on the bark of a never failing river auhose broad stream flows with wmoarying current into the s Gicero, Republic “ewig "sn ond ce om ‘pace ns Te fs eed he "har ap he Capit ‘he sll Oyen 296 lbeagh ce ‘oman pests tht ‘oem conti ie yy Dre early centuries sax Rome grow from a cluster of hilltop farms into a walled city with temples and a paved forum. “Tradition held that Rome was founded in 754 3c by tin boys, Rosnulus and Remus nh were abandoned by thir parents but suckled by a she-wol [Archacology ha revealed thatthe ety actally began fife inthe Sth oF St een gva serea of small farsteade on a group of hills overlooking tbe iver Tiber. Beween the hills were mary valleys where the local people Doried thei dead ia cemeteries of cremations or inhumations Barly hous cau as the scaled “Tut of Romulus’, preserved asa pattern of post thoes on the Palatine, would probably have had walls of wate andl daub, hd thatched roofs. This early settlement may well have Nousshed, sitmated seit overlooking a convenient crowing point on the Taber and astride the important salt route running land from dhe river mouth, Ime eructal development came in the later Tet century ne, when an Tirnsean dynasty, the Tarquins, cook control of Rome and began is rane formation from village inte ety. The Forurn valley was drained by the cana tration ofthe Cloaca Maxima, and was converted Into a public square with 3 travel paved surface. A wooden bridge, the Pons Sublicius, was thrown ow the Tiber, and an Euseansiye temple o Jupiter Capitolinus built arte Capitol There may also have been am ager or ety wal, witha defen: She ich beyond it though the oldest defence which survives taday (the so- falled Servian Wall) dates only from the century Be Roman historians maintained thatthe Romans evicted their lst scan ting, Targuin the Proud, in B10 nc, and became a republic governed by a fair of annually elected magistates, the consuls I was a momentous sep, aie fine in a acquence which was to take Rome in les than five centuries Fro small Kalan ten to mistress ofthe Mediterranean UUPre-urban Rome, 9eh-Bth century BC ieee fad pce ‘ates nae ee cece Ie oe et ba ie (et PART I FROM CITY'TO EMPIRE cae cats ate ‘raed tn ‘a tn from 2rThe fest ty, Teh-ath century BC“THB PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The Unification of Italy The Roman conquest of Haly was slow and hard:fought, but by the midale of the 3rd contury Bc, they were masters ofthe penineala aioe rom thecal days ofthe Republe, Rome i etaned stn ears power, ihn tai et ‘rac was gin te eer Taeguard is sceurty. The First major ain was the capture of Vel, the south fernmost of the Etruscan cites, in 890 her Any elation was shortved, however sss years later a Celtic saiding party dewenued from northern Healy, defeated the Romans atthe River Alia and cap- tured and sacked Rome lise. This proved cry a temporary setback, and during the rest of the 4th centory B¢ the Romans steadily expanded their potiteal and military influence through central Tal. They {Gal his by an astute mintute of ware and diplomacy ghsing only where dnecenary, They also adopted policy of founding Roman colonies at strate- ie places o consolidate their hold on newly conqucced teritry se bag aly yin bh oul ae Bron th it he Roman ad ‘The then defeated ‘Sunmite Wara of 327-804 and 298-90 ec. This extended their power eas the Arita sonthards to the Bay of Naples. heir next major war was dain a foreign invader, Prius, Keng of Epirus in northwest Greece, In 22 he land in southern Maly with an army of 25,000 men and 20 ele phat, the fst the Romans had encountered. Despite several victories, Tharhs was unable co make significant headvay and withdrew back (© {Eps five yen lates, This lef the Romans free to consolidate their hold ae omthern Katy, and east thee eyes across the straits to Sicily where, in Sor ney came into direct confit with the Carthaginians (® pages 24-29) Romans gained mastery of Late in dhe Latin war of 340-58 no, ane Se erate allies the Sante in the Second and Third | Fatima] vase 8c PART I FROM CITY'TO EMPIRE rth expansion of Rome, 500-200 Bc Seu Ligurian poet ant Irn aly a — mere (Sacer ne mnomey Seen | ec pike meet ea Lia = Roca fa ats Tyr eh ental ni. searey sini he 10, ea Ean saa he Seu are Mie oe nee!THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The Wars with Carthage Rome's expansion into southern Healy brings i into conflict ith the uher naar power in the Central Mediterranean: Carthage. By the Sra century me, Carthage had become the centre of a maritime fmpne stretching ong the coasts of southern Span and Nosth Atica and Theluding the western part of Sicily. The major enemies of the, Carta inks bad for many years been the Greek cities of Sicily and southers Teyana Sli ha become a frequent batdeyround between the two ses. Rome was scked into the Sian quarrel ip 264 no when Haan mereenar eat Meaina called for their help agains the Carthaginians. To counter the powerful Carthaginian nayy, the Romans had o build their own feet. They were successful against the Carthaginians on land at Agrigentum (268) and at sca off Mae (260) and Eenomus (256), but their svasion of ov: thie porn bse, ica was a disaster, and their fleet was destroyed at Drepana in 249. ight “rund eral ynore years of wat folled before Use Romans won final vitory in sea shea et coy in he Ht nie Wa ae Romans control of Sly, ut not crane Cattaneo eng eco ive Re deem en 218 Te ero th atin foro abo seco? prt amy rm other Spin as the Alp in nrtern Kay sf Cans ec Roman armies set agaist hi or 16 years he campaigned sete Cre marin contend souher Hal winning eshing scepiee bate a Lake fonshtnte Sets. Tyatmene ad Cane. Havel cout not eapure Rome Sl, Howes, ‘gine ih the hight ain com mc of southern ty feed peeve was unable to beak the Romans holo the pein. At Ts Tees, $08 he ws loved w renurto Alc « defend Carthage ise agains 2 tokio Roca i at ye Roman eer Sei Fa fered it ght the Secon Pe Wat fo a ed and contre Roe’ san vt ing asthe gona pepe eu: 2 Smee | eee % oor, | ae eee en ue lla PE Nese oe ‘jase 8 src, A Saif | |e Second Pri War 204-418 SR try 88 | aa commen tran. 28 HE a stecrgsortea % Formic 7 caterer 1pia PARTI: FROM CITY TO EMPIRE El acme »‘1H ENGUIN HISTONE. ATLASOF ANCIENT HOME } vas cy no C10 NE : > a Rome’s Conquest of the East =a ¥ |_| [are ese Metrancan ‘world, 100 8C \ In the space of a century, Rome became the dominant political and Pom province i feausin military power in the eastern Mediterranean a= he aie ‘From the end of the 4th century ac, the eastern Mediterranean was domi- | tiene pile ¢ rent‘ ete sas wich alse he Cetera a y caret ts empire arb dey Maton the Polen Ke eae Pp the cd el sn she Se eta, Pergo the he Sei unger pe setting fm he Aegean weAparison, btn psec ole pty Rome entered nest polis tthe ne ofthe Second Pane Wa, ‘when King Philip V of Macedon made an alliance with Hannibal. To cow Tain Philip's ambitions on the Dalmatian enast, the Romans went to war in 214 and again in 200, winning @ crushing victory at Cmoscephalae tn 197 “This was their ist success over the formidable formation of spearmen known as the Macedonian phalanx. Five years later che Romans became Tnwotved inal more dscaat war when the King of Pergamum appeated for help against his eastern neighbour the Seleuekd ruler Antiochns 1H ‘he Romans crushed Antiochus and army at Magnesia in 190, Atria” wet min of heouple The legions were back in action ia Macedonia 20 years ater, this time ih eth is Pips son Peres tthe ae Pin 168 he Kans won afin tke eye vty and ede Macedonia wa oman province Greece ws dean ate aided in Ht, after war in which the Romans destroyed the lesng Greek “Co ad Ta chy, Cv, Rome aie i terBory eyo the Aegean In 18% pcan heen ge st King of Pergo bequeathed his kingdom othe Rosa ees itbecame the prone of Aa 01 Romans established further Somerton prorinee of Cilla in an elfort to stamp ov pracy Itwas Hot und he wars Mom lin vrs™ he Is centr, ower, that Rome cx Hs pera nose around the The East Mediterranean world, 200 8c. gia endo a ecto, eve region, rom the Back Sea to Syria Ki Prpnen sed ent rome an Kaypt- cas a Suction oy Soren Polen tan i on Me we ‘ges Meditert? hoi ‘Prim Gale :“Tht PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The Over-Mighty Generals Tn the last century 8ca series of generals built up military and political power, pushing the Republic towards dictatorship. PART FROM CITYTO EMPIRE ‘The Tole of orto Pini Pras sett ne eos oy temple her ard $0 Toe "nui scorn ‘he fet of these overmighty generals was Gaius Maris, who won renown Tor hin vicory over King Jugurtha of Noma and wet on 19 save Rone from the threat of invasion by the Germanic war bands of Cimbri and ‘Teutones. Maris also reformed the Roman army, making ita more dic plined and redoubtable fighting force. His place as leading general was akon by Sulla, who distinguished himeei i the Social War of 91-89 96 Sgainst Rome's former Italian alles. In 86 pe Sala moved east to defeat King Mithridates of Pontus, who had taken advantage of tne Socal Wat to invade Roman territory in Asia Minor and Greece. When Sulla returned 0 Rome in B2 nc, he quelled the poical opposition and had himseif made dictator with absolute power, 1179 He he abdicated andl retired to prite Iie and led shortly aterwards, This let the field open for yourges sal, including Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Grea). tn the 70s 8 nthe pice Pompey campaigned in Spain against the rebel general Sertorus, and in buble the following decade he reached! the peak of bis power: In 67 Bc he was rime igven an extraordinary command against the pirates who were hassying Mediterranean shipping, and fyshed them from their Cilician strongholds. He then went on t0 nile a final defeat on Mihridates of Pontus near eeu tier tn the ep of aonb Be wl ari cs Sa in Ska tapct enc de aerate ee ene a alin Smeets mre et y eat onthe Neu Es mahi he ea rasa, one St te Stewed lagaomt the Rosa Dprovince of Syria, and Judaea a Roman Hlependeney. Sect te ea - fea eee erm se rs ate = "e e7hoc | MACEDONIA, eee one ipa achceaige rE er Se, a eae Serger Bae “The Roman Emir, 6086 T apltare Telarnig “Thang eee nena : Uvenann Raman coe pape eee a é te a " ; ses % : i, ee 3 tometatomn Sane ‘Sim ‘= _ me porn Fp RlTHE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul In cight ears of dogged fighting, Julius Gaesar brought the diverse and independent peoples of Gaal into the Roman Empire. ‘The conquest of Gaul is one ofthe best known episodes in Roman history, thanks tothe detailed account written by Julius Caesar, commander of the Roman forces His Gale Wore allows us 1 Tollow the progres of the Roman invasion year by yea, uni eventually the whole of France and Belgium had heen tratsformed inte a Roman province Jullus Caesar was a rising star of the Roman political world when he was Appointed governor of northern Raly and southern France in 89 nc. Not content to remain withix the boundaries of his province, he quickly ‘embarked on an ambitious campaign of com {quest At frst, he posed 38 an ally of various ng them in their stragaes hors or foreign aggressors (of his command, however, tune mannsracon ofthe Despite the populas image, the peoples of Gal whom Caesar sought to sub cation a Ala whee wer fa row disorganined barbarians They had coin ME endl trade, and sophiniated craftsmanship in bronze and gold. They put up A fierce struggle, and on more than one occasion came close to inflicting serious defeat on the Roman legions. Six years of determined compaigning, however, including wo celebrated Ate A acon rg nia, ese By the winter of 58 seemed ugh storia bnkoesnte Goch a st comgured Ba the genes tt of Roman on wate 0 Tener come, for the following year the Gaul ose up in revo, led by 8 young Aepenndnsspeeh Gale hen, Veeingtors. The clin cae a he ge of Asi tates akon ome here Vercingetorix was evenly freed into submision. Gan was Won, eee rete and after a further two years' consolidation Caesar was ready to embark on. ‘nial the next stag of his arer_—the cir of mpreme powcr in Rome vel Coriorotites Venere Seta ec Mare Cantabricum Bay of Biscay s8-50B¢ en roves ae pin eR 7 coolf a PARTE FROM CIEYTO EMPIRE d Gallia ‘Transalping a Mare mt Mediter! aH{THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Crossing the Rubicon “L foresee no peace that ca last a wary and the nearer the strvggle—and there is bound to be a siruggle— approaches, the more clearly do we ser the danger of it... Gnaius Pompey is determined not to allow Gains Caesar to be elected consul tuntess he has handed over kis army and. provinces; Caesar ‘on the other hand is convinced that there is na safety for him if he once quits his ‘army, Letter from Cicero, With a powerful army at his command, Caesar was able to defeat his opponents end make himself the ruler of the Komen world ‘The conquest of Gaul sw Joins Caesar at the head of Targe and seasoned army, and in 49 nc he led it eros the Rubicon fo Haly. It was an act of wat since no commander was allowed 10 take his soldiers outside his province without express senatorial permission, and the River Rubicon was the boundary of Calpine Gas. Caesar marched south to occupy Rome, while the senatorlal party opposed to him fled across the Adriatic to Dyrshachium, There they asembled thee own army under the command of Pompey, who was now Caesar's archsnval, Caesar Tolowed, and Tal siege to Dyrrhachiusn. Pompey broke throngh his encirclement and withdrew across the Balkans The two armies eventually met at Pharsalus n Thrace, where f fon Bjne 48 pc, Caesar won an ‘overihelming vetry Poinpey fled to Egypt, where he) yeas teacherousiy murdered, but this id not mark the end of resistance to Caesar. Late in 48 Gaesar sailed for and Pompey, 49-44 OC (ears oman oe x ee PARTE FROM CMY TO EMPIRE gypt where, in she Alexandrian War, he defeated the ring monarch and placed Cleopatra in control, Then in 47 he marched his armies back to Italy ‘through the eastrn provinces. The survivors of Phartalus had regrouped in North Alvica, and in 46 he won a further victory against them at Taps, The ls spars of opposition were stamped ont in 43 We when Caesar deste ced the army of Pompeys sone at Mund in Span “The victory at Munda removed the last of Caest's ences in the provinces, Senatorial opposition to the rule of one man was sll deeply entrenched, however. and came to a head in February 44 when Caesar had himself appointed perpetual dictator, making him In effect the monarch of Rome, A month Tater, on 15 March, he was asasinated by A group of senators on the eve of his departure for a campaign against the Parthians. Ty rie came | nef"RIEFENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLASOF ANCHE HOME The Civil Wars The murder of Julius Caesar plunged Kome into a new civil war as his heird and rivals struggled for supremacy. Conitol of the Gaesisian party was disputed becween Mark Antony and Gctavian (Caesar's adopted son). Octavian wanted vengeance for Caesars death, while Antony favoured reconciliation Exentualy, however, Octavian persuaded Antony to take the field and together they detested the arny of Caestr's assassins Brats nl Caius at Philipp in 4292 aniaierie 0c, “Antony and Octavian agree! to divide efetive power ‘between them, Octavian taking the west, and Antony the eas, with a smaller thied share fr their colleague epi, Octavian spent the following years bul ing up his position in the west. In 38 8c he ere Mieen eta nce a determined effot to capture Sicily ‘ecm, Repo fro Sextus Pomey, son of Pompey the Great ienapton eel ho had sumed the iad io aise fom Lette spit Nc xo hacrase Rome's grin supplies 100k iret tet he two years to win and Octavian was then faced “tA by withthe ask of wevtraing Lp when the iy and Ocaion ager auempied to stage x coup against him. + ‘comited snicide. One Octavian had consolidated his hold on the ‘west he was ina position for a final showdown vith Mark Antony. The later had fallen under On this sie the commander and soldiers alike were full of andows, on the other was 12rThe Battle of ‘Actium,2 September 31 BC ene Quist ==) alent general dejection; tesco vin ton the one side the rowers were ston ‘and sturdy, on the ther weakened by privations ... no ‘one was desertinge from Caesar {0 Antony, while from Antony to Caeser == Geen someone or other deserted daily..." ‘Vellius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History ” PART I FROM CITYTO EMPIRE Ihe struggle for power, 44-31 8¢ aman nr et Ca, 46 the influence of Cleopatts, Queen of Egypt, who was misirusted by conserae tive Roman opinion. The bresch came in 8 ac, when Octavian drove Antony's supporters from Rome and declared war fon Cleopatra. Antony advanced to Actium on the east side of the Adriatic, were the Final sea hatte was fought on 2 September 81 se. After a brief struggle, Antony and Cleopatra Ned the scene, Yielding outright victory to Octavian, ‘The ci wars ended with their suicide in Egypt the following Sa year Octavian was now the ‘ Sole ruler of the Roman World four years later, in 27 96, hhe was granted the title of ‘Augustus, becoming the first Roman emperor as“THE PENGUIN IISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Shades of the Departed The funeral monument ofthe Romans reflected their belief an “afterlife and indicated the social satus ofthe deceased. ‘To the Romans the spirits ofthe dead were known as Manes There was 2 omon andersandng chat they remembered wi ection ther es ith Thing clades, and_needed to be nowsahed with offerings of food and tink, and even blo, Some graves hal special tubes oF openings leading own to te bur for this pspose. Quite whee the dea Ted ws open 1 ‘iri interpretations, Some thought they dexcened Suo the depths of the earth, where they were received by a kindly Mother Earth; others that they lingered ear the place where they had been bred; while thers Inve that dhey ascended ine te ese ‘he main source of evidence for Roman butal custom i the burial them scien andthe Fanerary monuments (ogetber wil thir inseripsions) “Shih wore erected ove ther, ln general, only wealthy people reeled ed funeral memorials of stone. These frequently cst 2 porte of the ‘Geceed (often of several individuals buted in the se Fail rave) and Sinimeriplion aes tothe Dis nibs, he spits ofthe dead arial hint iy ts was ety Frbden by la, and the principal ene Arses grew up along the arterial roads leading from the ees, ch 28 the ‘Vin Appts sod of tome. Here as around other ce, thete are a wide rate {er of tombs from major monuments to simple graves. Spetal mention Shu aluo he mae of the catacomb, undergoudcomplenes of rockcut {rmves anonated wih eligons communes of Jes ad early Chsians She found not only t Rome bt loa Naples and Syracuse “The wadiional Roman burial site was divided into several tages. The boy emt wane en anced and lal out for bra, ah a eon placed in maeltgit emte Se mn he copie to pay Charon the Ferman who would cone the “Sina are deceased over the ier of Sx. On the day of de burial. de compre woul ‘a oS on anal couch rth ich) or arp bi in the cs of he or ped lr Pe) and ete in proceso cutie te yor setdement othe place coe arf lapenal Baral could take the fo of ether renin or nhma ‘inte asin, Ty Replica times, exematon was the dominant rite a Rome and tariad bre hroughout most of the European provinces, but under the early empire it ‘eas sely replaced by the eastern practice of nbumatin unl bythe end ‘ofthe 2nd centry AD, even Roman emperors ‘were generally ntusned ih abana ok efor a nao ofa tone “pig taneoe, on tet of ams sa aferd "tbe od sepa a on fo “Klas oe a6 PART FROM CITYTO EMPIRE ‘Cremation and ihumaton | ‘Burial rites in the Roman Empire, st century AD TE essen [Ei oomin ‘aad nvm rns ‘nb aca Mls et i pa Mado wtf! smegma bed nl nde ‘fay old ih same of the fet pes ofioman sexe ‘oe a nation sap of td nd od ‘aang one cen sarap ps ‘he etema a Boe"THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME II: The Imperial Regime igh a of ape, ts ell bra ata “so eyed fw soe of the Ren Emp in Mew ander ua et ‘rey ike m8 Tha bay by e "fon test The Emperor Augustus gave Rome a stong, centralized government capable of raling its vast territories, tacifully weting his power in respect for Republican form. Wealth flooded in to Rome; traders traveled throughout the empire and beyond. Titerature flourished and great buildings adorned the cities. Only in moments of erst, shen the suecession was unclear, was the anderiing power of the military laid bare. During the last evo centuries 3c Rome had hecone the cxpital of 2 reat empire, butt was only atthe very end of that period that the position of emperor was estab Thea: Sila champion of the aris tocracy, had been absolute ruler of Roe for a fewr years in the extly Int century nc, fois Caesar had achieve! a snr postion in the short period prior to his assassins tion, Both these had been short lived experiments, however, and it ‘was only in 27 ao that 9 consti tonal arrangement was reached which gave Augustus supreme power on a regular and agreed Basis And it was omy ine which showed that this power could be siccesflly handed on, leading to 4 tong line of Roman emperors from Tiberius, Augustus immediate sc Cesor, to Ronnulus “Augusto, dhe last of the western emperors, almost alt a mille later ‘Me rise of imperial Rome was not jus question of emperors and armies, however, but was accompanied by an enormous accesion of new wealth (0 Ttly. The most populous areas of the Mediterranean world hal previously lain in the east, in Egypt the Levant, and the lands bordering the Aegean (Greece and western Asia Minos). This isnot to deny that theve had been Important Greek colouies and Etruscan cities in Kaly and Skily, nor to Jgnore the importance of Carthage and its dependances, but the rise of Rome marks a decisive shift westwards in the economic and polical centre ‘of gravity. In one acre, twas a passing phase; by the later Roman period, fnd throughout the earlier Middle Ages, it was the east once again which was the centre of wealth and power. Bur during the last centuries nc, and the fist to centuries ao, Haly achieved new level of prosperity which is mpl reflected in the remains of cies anvils, and in che produation of Txtry metalwork and jevellery. Furthermore, lallan merchants and entre prencur, simulated by home demand and sheltered by Roman presi, travelled far afield in dhe search for new commercial openings, establishing stvll colonies as distant as Arikamedu in southern India. ihe eA ci Angee ‘fi apn Pe) Mia nv. The ee itso fay, ‘Spry Anus std Teton Aether of nao yong sot ‘Gu clings st Angad Gate and snd bi oe bt PART UTI IMPERIAL REGIME “The Augustansetlement By the Int century net may have become more oF less inevitable that Rome should fall under the power ofa single rule, The old Republican insite ‘ons were no longer able to cope with the inceuant jockeying for power Dpenween overmighty general, nor could they easly meet the demands of ‘he rapidly growing empire. At the end ofthe day, However, the postion of emperor, and its successful continuation down the centuries which fol Towed, awed much to the wisdom of Augustus. Above all, he succeeded where so great a man as Jlius Caesar had filed: from both the sate andthe Roman people a large, veining acceptance [eas the victory over Antony sid Cleopatms atthe battle of Aetium in $1 BBC which gave Avgustus spreme power. Learning from Caesar's example hawever, he did not seek to enforce his will on dhe Senate but sought a sol tion which maintained his pasion under the cloak of Republican forms. his peronal testament he Claimed he had restored the Republi, and in sente, paradoxically, that was tre, August’ constitutions arrangement, hell isin anuary 27 wc and then refined four years later, gave him ‘overall control ofthe aany and most of the important provinces (notably thoee with milisry garrisons. [also gave him the power to propose oF veto legislation, to overrule any provincial governor, and to sit alongside the elected consuls For the fust nine years, fom 31 to 28 ne, he was elected ons swell, but that Wak not essential o his power ba and later emper lors could pick and choose whether they wished to he consi, or allow thei sipporters that honour instead. ‘Augustus took particular care to consolidate hie postion at Rome, and turned the ciy into a capital worthy of a great empire. He claimed to have Found it briek aad left t marble, ane he and his family beanie fe with ‘many new monuments. These included structures of an essentially propa fandlst or dynastic nature, such as the Ara Pacis Augustae (Alar of the AAugustan Peace) or the huge circular mausoleum where he and his close relatives were esentually buried. One notable omission, however, was an imperial palace, August chose to concentrate instead on balding public“THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME & Aone on of Agu’ shot, ‘ed a eof he i cot Thess ea remind ‘sh of ee ce, ‘ae a sf suc ul he iat (ret fo at cn apna tee ere dei tn, ‘Search ding te lo of "ie hal pc ey “aon 98-11 The ‘lee coor hed “deg fr the imide be et uae fap worth as mac pce a ic andr sar sa The apc acne dbo and wo tae “ert ey cary ‘on Capri, Gain generally known by his nickname, Caligl ‘umm auceceded withont serious opposition, but his excesses did raise resentment among the renatorataisineracy. Bodh his predecessors monuments, Rome by this ime bad outstripped Alexandtia to become the largest iy ofthe western world, with 2 population of around a ik Tion people, and Asus took particwar pains to build new aque- ‘ducts and reorgatize the regula shipment of grain at sae expense ‘on which the urban poor depended. “The imperial succession Perhaps the greatest of Augustus's legacies were his taetful han- fling of supreme power and his long fe. When he died in an 14 hhe had been emperor for over 40 years, and the idea of ‘upreme power in the hands of one man no longer seemed & ugerous innovation. The accesion of Tiberius was smoothly handled, and the postion of emperor was unchallenged even ‘when he withdcew fram Rone to spend ml of his lst ten years hha face! conspiracies against their esas was onl to be expected in an autocratic state—ut Caligula was the fist vo fall prey to such an attempt. Whether he was really madder or badder than other ‘emperors i open to question. Te death of Catigla brought 10 the fore the power of the practori- ans, the emperor lite corps of bodyguards. However much the senate ‘nay have hoped forthe return ofthe Republi, the praetorian guards had vested interest in the insitation of emperor, and appointed the unlikely ‘Ghaudius, lame and stammering, in Caligula’ place. He reigned for 14 years a period in which the imperial household, and the court officals in particular, became increasingly powerful That continued under his succes or the notorious Nero, Again, the story of event is strongly coloured by his eventual downfall, but there no doubt that a reign which began well ran into inereasing opposition in ater yeas. His brucal suppression of con Spiracy and failure to retain senatorial support undermined his position and Ted to open rebelion in Gaul and Spain in AD 68. Deserted by his guards and oficial, Nevo took his own life [Nero was the last of the JulloCauians, the dynasty of emperors who haat ruled Rowe since Axgustos. They were all related to each oxher, st least by thavvage, but itis srking that none was succeeded by his own son. Only rds hada son surviving at the time of his death, and he was passed ver in favour of Nevo. The guiding principal in determining the imperial fnccession was adoption-—Tberius was adopted by Augustus, and Nero by (Candi. ‘The death of Nero plunged Rome into 2 period of criss, as successive emperors were proclaimed by their supporters, briefly seized power, ant then fll before stronger contender, The year 9 sno fer than fs tt them: Galba, Otho, Vielllus and Vespasan. The major new Feature was the tole ofthe frontier armies in promoting their own nominee, and press ing hs claims by force where necessary. Thus Vtellus was very much the creation ofthe Rhine army, and Vespasian came t power throng the sup port ofthe ester legions “The emperors of the later Ist century AD consolidated Roman rule at home and abroad, Vespasian was followed by his sons Titus and Domitian, the ‘nly ease of direct fitherson sueceson inthe whole history of the empire ots if te Tewpe of Fanon at Patria eof yt ha el te Rose Td fre a of Acton in The nd inde te Me ried nt rt borer some ftir tip ome fd woe pie peoal oto at cer ed ‘pha ae allow eit "perl emission. until the fate 2nd century. It vas shoredived departure, When Domitian was ‘murdered, the elerly Nera was chosen by dhe senate, and ein tar howe Trajan, by adoption, a8 hisson and succesor The growth of empire Augustus inherited an empire built up aver two and a ll centuries of Republican goverment since the acquisition of Sily, Rome's fr overseas province, during the Fist Punie War (264-41 be), There was litle planning Dehn this eri expansion until the institution of emperor tell creat ed the opportunity for centmlized strategic thought. But emperors were expected to be ribary men, and alongside any grand strategies they recog nized the pressure from thee subjees to prove themselves siecessful gener als. New conquests also brought slaves and booty, and provided many ‘opportunities for Roman bureaucrats and entrepreneurs to enrich theme schenat the expense of the defeated peoples, Augustus himself greatly expanded the empire. Hs vietry at Actiam in $1 1 was followed ly the invasion of Epc (whither Antony nl Cleopatra ad Ned for refuge) the following year. Raypt was lige and prosperbus cou ty, But under Augusto it heeame part of the emperor's private domain, 3 province under his personal supervision, Kalo provided uch of the grain needed to fed the groming popilaton of Rome Augustus's major foreign wars were fought withthe am of rationalizing the"TH PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Ri Arabi Pa we "Ses ye pees ‘Ton fs 108. ts papal iy, et a mor ra "ogc te oats sr fen fort res eon i enced “cy fn heck oe thy imperial fronters, He conquered the northern Balkans, so as wo carry the fontcr toa suitable natural barrier, the River Danube. Rivers were chosen 2s boundaries in the east and west as well, Tn the eas, it was the River Fapheates which marked the boundary beeen the Romans and heir eas tem neighbours the Parthians Angus waged no major wars on this font. Iwas in the west that dhe greatest trouble ly. When Caesar conquered Ganl he had! made the Rhine the frontier of his new province. That lft an awkward salient of unconquered texctory in the Alps, etween Gaul and Taly. Augustus sought to remove this by conquering the Alpine tribes and carrying the frontier forward here, a in the Ballans, © the Danube. The het step was to move the Rhine frontier forward to the Elbe. That seemed to have been achieved, and the Romans were poised to advance sill further into central Europe, when rebelion ithe Balkans caused the withdrawal of troops for operations Were inte Thoee yeas later im A % thece Roman legions were destroyed by the Germans while crossing the Teutoburg Fores, ad the territories beyond the Rhine were abandoned. Augustus left his siocesors with the advice not to extend imperial territory, bat to consolidate what they aleady held, There was nonetheless a steady acuistion of new provinces during the Ist and early 2nd eentaries aD, d= sen partly by strategie considerations and parly by the quest for military flor. Sometimes, new provinces were created peacefully by absorbing what had hitherto been client kingdoms. Such was the ese with Mauretania in ‘An and Thrace in ab 46, Bu other provinces were acquired by direct con ‘quest. The most notable instances are Britain, invaded by Claudius (an emperor desperate for alltary glory) in av 43; and Dacia, conquered by “Trajan in the two Hercebyfonght Dacian wars of 101-2 and 15-6 PART HTH IMPERIAL REGIME ‘The Romans tended to portray thelr foreign enemies as uncivilized barb ins, bur the wth was tater aterent. ‘The Britain attacked by Cau was \ already organized into Kingdoms with coinage and towns (though not the lind of marketplace coinage in use in the Roman world), Dacia was stil ‘more sophisticated, a poterfu Kingclom with ruler who had already sc: lie and practical. The grea arched aqueduets of Nimes and Segovia belong to this period, as do the artifical harbours at Osta and Cesare ti these, ss much as the monuments of the emperors themchves, which convey the onfidence and power of Rome a its apogee.“THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME. The New Order The Emperor Augustus imposed a new unity on the Roman world, ‘but victory escaped him in Germany. PART lleTHE IMPERIAL REGIME “Augustus kept for spacer of the Roman world, Four years later he reached a constitutional set Ihsnself all the more tlement with the Senate at Rome which gave him the le “Augostas and igor proves Sade him the rs Roman emperor Unter thi recent te provinces tere vided into two categorics.‘Thoke which were condidered peaceful thse Cat contd ere ltt in the conte! of senatorial governors wie in frontier aha other not be safely rovinces where military aetion might al be needed, Aust chose his adminiuced bean fn nominces to govern thetn. He alo retained cota of Egypt, the ered OY ‘wealthy kingdom which he had conquered the year after Actium, and which annual governor... tse to pone not ofthe ran fr Rome's wban populace. He nearly aliways — Augustus's foreign wars were undertaken to strengthen the frontiers. restored kingeloms — Northern Spin was brought under effective Roman re, wile in the Alps chard conrad ta. ve Balkans the Foner vas cried noriward to the Dube. The i ‘most serious setback was in Germany, where Augustus resolved to create a their defeated pew frontier on the River Elbe. His stepson Drusus fought a series of suc- Aynasties.. linking cel campaigns betwen 12 and 9 Bc, and by AD the Roman armies (under Drons'sbrether Tiberns) were together his royal Feige to invade the kingdom ofthe Marcoman and allies by mutual ties Complete thi congue of cea Europe tthe at af fiendship and moment rebellion nthe Ballas ced ie y af friendship and et be se and thre esate in OCEANS Jntermarrige en ee ee deagie ATLANTIC OCEAN Suetonins, — tered thvee Roman legions in the Tete Lifeof Augustine burg Pores. The Roman frontier was In SI ne Octavian defeated Mark Antony at Actum and ecame undisputed | palled fick to the Rhine, where it was to stay until the fall of the western ‘epi Four centuries late. Mare Internum edivertancan Seq 6 ”{TIE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The City of Rome under Augustus Under Augustus, Rome became the greatest city ofthe western world, graced sith impressive new public buildings. 1p the eo ofthe 16 centay 9, Rome ha a popalon of sound mie “Since the city was — jion people, from wealthy senators to craftsmen, shopkeepers and slaves. nt odornad oa thi Seales att Sgt craaroceas hs wot Uap pect wih ya vant Rapanui ome to amine ron each er dignity of the erp maga setup apie force and fre bade and bak OF empire demanded, —tensres never Squrdcs. To reer foag he had the Ker Tibet coerce Seg a wed ssrting whe Mographer Seton ad or ; stasme tee ile wh ruDbah an narowed y ating binge? flood cand fire, he 80 Gracy Angus ook personal rexponty forthe crt dle he beatified it hat he mony abo ote gran othe cys por coud justly boast Augustus also spent enormous sums on the aggrandisement ofthe ety that he had found aking ita wonthy capital fr so great an enypite He toate tht he found Rome brik and left it marble, ad the claim was not iMfounded. AL the it built of brick and Year of the metropolis, many of the existing buildings of the Forum leftit in marble,” Romanum were faced in marble for dhe fist ime during is reign. Neathy Suctonius, Life of he built his own new Forum to serve as a lawcourt and administrative cem Suetonius, Life of Ten his vebulding of the cy, Angus was assted by members of his Augustus — fanity and by trusted friends and Heutenants such as Stalls Taurus and hove all Marcus Agrippa In the Campus Martius region to the north ofthe ‘ip, Agrippa was responsible fora whole series of new buildings the orig hal Pantheon, the Baths of Agrippa and the Saepta Julia. North of these [Agustus erected an enormous sundial, the Horologiue, wich an obelisk brought fom Egypt as it poiner. Neatby standing within a park, was the circular Mausolem, designed to resemble an Etruscan buvial mound, vere in AD 1 the aes of Angstis himself were nally laid to rest abi finn, "Romeo cro driest of “let comple 3 ‘etna rte oper ep cob ees ee (il is coe of te ‘rT of pal hse or of ee crew he plot ‘ar tio he Avene cmt the "oc tht ht ba eee is ‘gw aya, ‘ing ac ear ander doe “ Abort Hara Solari Anata {Oey ming on ocak ram ale commenting te Ss row : : oles cant canned Poop ne) ee "reo Pp ems Meee oat nya esse coe ai Sate ak toi! ow mpi ae) Senge Aig XIV ne (orimiyerseg ee % 2 Pasha | SATEEN 5 Fons Cee 1) eae me |. PART Hl THE IMPERIAL REGIME ee Sci : ‘The city of Rome in the age of Augustus, 31 BC-AD 14 mie tins this pemewe seo yj aeerenne{IE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Claudius and the Conquest of Britain ‘The Romans invaded Britain in A043, and went on to most of the andl under divect rule by the end of the Ist century. Britain was relatively ate sition to dhe Roman Empire. Jus Caesar tal made two expedition to southern England in 55 and tc bt dough he recened the nominal submision of several southern feaders dere wis tho flows, and Britain ny beyond diet Roman cto fr another cen yes ples at Roane raiher than any milly or economic necessity welch eventually Ted the Esnperor Chandi to invade the istand in 48 td's reign, following the surder of Caligla in January 41, had got ff toa shaky start, and he bly needed amar vitory to shore up his sore inne he (reste. The invading fore costed of fur legions and wa commanded trode Auls Plutus, who became the int governor of Roman Baia. The (sn4sdtaymccme tain army put ashore a Richhorough, forced is way across the Medvay atotctnicof lane nq ye Thames and captured Colchester, capita of the powerfl ser Mantel Kingdon ‘eee Bet yang ae loin ess the Romans steadily expanded her contol over eye set of southern Britain and into Wales. In 47 they suppresed a rhe TucrLnedtjon among che Teen who had carr ale themselves wih Rome; four cere ater they defeated and exped He ative leader Caatacas The ht Jpop ‘rks option a southern Bran was he revo ed by Bows qhees tthe Teen in 60-61, which was ony suppressed ar serious reves “The quart pelty chieftains thate tee non AL the Romans tempted contol nother England shrough thir Sles the Briganes, But it 6 an anc+Roman faction gained control ofthe indeed have we any ibe, leading to miliary intervention which brought the area under direct Roman rue, From 79 the Famous general Agricola embarked on the com “quest of Scola, and four years ster won a great victory aver the natives at affective than a3, Shon Croup. At this pont, however, wonie onthe Dante Foner thal they have no forced the emperor Domitian to withdraw toops from Britain and give up the attempt to conquer the whole land. Agricola’: conquests were steadily bandoned, and by dhe end of the century the fromtier had been pulled reaely will wo 0” yeh 40 the Tyne Solway isthmus, where Hadrian was ¢o build his wal ree states confer lo (> page 86-D) ‘ repulse « common weapon... more common purpose danger; accordingly they f indbividdwally and fight are collectively congpuered. Tacitus, Agricola Ram lit ble edged thine of sad et edn ey hate ben led ro coma gf hi i rere manos theft 2 Agricola's campaigns in Scotland, AD 79-84 Nr e204 lone ty poe 5 pom ftps * poorx Xref Gor (et eton) The invasion of AD a5 Stipe ergs 9.24 ee a Ra 008 cain, ome aa 6 perro Oceanus Germanicus | Ea North Seale co fe (feet |“THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANGIENT ROME PART HS THE IMPERIAL REGIME Nero and the Year of Four Emperors é Nero's unpopularity brought the rule of Augustus’s family tan end, and plunged the empire into civil war. y [Nero (SIO) was the lt ofthe Jui-Cladians, the dynasty founded by Augustus, He was only 16 when he succeeded his adoptive Father Cladus, ‘but he was guided by able advisers and he fist years of the reign were later regarded ata golden age. As time went by, however, there was growing com flict with the senate, and in 66 a wieeranging conspiracy against Nero was discovered and brutally suppressed. He also became unpopalar among the 8 ‘wealthy for confiscating property, and was suspected by many of having intenionaly started the Great Fite which destoyed the centre of Rome it G64, The nuspcion was untrue, but Nera didnot help matters by buying wp the land to build his Golden House, a lvsh garden villa set in the heart of the capa, [othe . Viet, | |3vietus . Vespasian,] jae [anes % te The end came in 68, when fst Vindex in Gaul and then Galba in Spain ‘broke out in open rebellion against him. Vindex was quickly defeated, but [Nero fost support at Rome and was deven to suielde in June. He was sue «ceed by the elderly Gaba, who arrived in Rone in the suum of 68 bat eas murdered in the Forum in January the following year. His murder ce Otho seized power at Rome, but the Rhine legions had already dlecared in four oftheir own commander Aulus Villas Otho had Mens Arsen solely few troops thi dnp in Kala hacen dete bythe st ese "altel ein Svadng Vuela force at the Fst ate of Cremona eset aap Viellur now ook contre of Rome, but By) 1 ¢14s08 cxgrionad unisatsor July another rival emperor had been proclaimed {0 ‘tary ren al othe ext: Titus Flavis Vespusianus (Vespasian), cer eters commander in the Jewish War. The Danube “mcr Powndcet legions declared for Vespasian and led by pe Ota cn from Anonin Primus defeated the Vitlians atthe fa fd end ster Secon Bate of Cremona in September 69 ‘tochotf gnomes Tn December the Havianfores fought their ‘near: Whew Gala yay into Rome, dragged Vicellis from his re smcae oO ng place and Killed hi, in star in the sootufen Vice facet Forum, Vespassan became undixputed ruler of | aston marcy the Roman worl, the orth a st emperor tied eae oo the evenly 6. pro apts ‘to. Bh canter Ra ‘rot ao Ne ‘Ste ed Rock contd need ot “han lof on of esi heart eae yng a re aay er, ‘snlmion mich Se cranes money ae S vestinhsan “te Nee a a S veep de ‘ot iz peri ce ental ces a a Lave for ear ter,THE PEN! JIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The Western Provinces Tlay the whole ‘world has its Graeco-Roman caeure. Smart Gaaulish professors ‘ae training the lawyers of Britain Juvenal, Sative XV ao ih te pi of | rbd when ee ‘abe i the se prt oe empanadas ‘Vln i te ‘orb ey a segie teat tte oe aa aoe Foster re eee eee Sense Romess wester provinces included a wide range of cultures, from the urban south to the rural Celticnorth. “The southnestern provinces of the Roman Empire were the rich Mediter ranean regions of Spain (> pages 843), southem France, and Tay itself there ct life had been established lang before the spread of Roman rule, Further nor, in Gaul, Britain wel th> Germans, were the les urbanized lands of the Celts ad others. To all hese regions Roman rule brought cet= tain benelits—notably peace and witer trading opportanities—and the ‘western provinces steadily took on more and more of the crappings of Roman culture, New cites were founded with grie-plan street layouts, classi- fal temples and rmniipal baths. Amphiheatres were builtin or beside the Imajor towns, supplemented by theatres in the more literate south laborate aquedutts provided fresh dhinking water tothe cities, while roads and bridges ensured beter communications Te provinces soon became closely incorporated in the imperial system itself the Emperor Claudius gave leading Gaulsh citizens the right to ‘Deeame senators at Rome, and the spread of power from Tally to the pro- ‘inees continued in the centuties which followed. Betain and the Ger Imanies also took a leading part in the politcal life of the empire through the size of their military gartsons three to four legions in Britain and eight {later reduced to four) along the Rhine, supported by substantia avsliary forces twas the Rhine legions which backed Vitli's bid for power in {AD 69 (> fuges 52-3), anc the army of Britain hich supported Clodius ‘Albinus in the 190s (& pages 96-7), Tae mos telling legacy of Roman rule, however isthe fact that many of thei centres have remained important «0 the present day, including the modera capitals of London, Paris and Bonn, cow tie emia esha fund te ine bi drat i eat fi ge Roose end mao none nc ihe ‘sre wd ae tied ts te ey. PART THE IMPERIAL REGIME es Flere a Rome'swestern | iy, provinces, Ist-2nd ‘eontury AD aang B=! a I = " be fails tone 7) Mave Inder cotGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Three Western Cities seh oie te on i Pompeii omes its fame to the blanket of ash that rained down from ‘Vesuvius in August 79, entombing the inhabitants, sealing bread jn the fovens and election graffi on the wall, and leaving the most fully pre Served of ancient Roma cities. Since the 18d century, excavations have ‘pte gneovered large areas and revealed priceless information on city life There were the customary public balldings: che forum or marketplace, « theatre and gymnasium, andthe amphitheatre where gladiatoria displays were held, The sumptuous villas of the wealthy were adorned with peti Siyle courts and sophisticated wall paintings, white dhe shops, bars at fms the bakeries and brothels, show how ordinary people ined QW AY —— ws PEON “London, founded after the invasion of Britain in ab 43 at an bmportant crossing ofthe Thames, soon became the capital of the provinee In the fo! Towing decades it was furnished with a forum and basilica, a governor's palace, and (in the early 2nd century) an amphitheatre. The city walls were bull i190, completed by the addliion of riverside defences in the late Srl of early 4th century. Landon was never one of the great Roman cities, hhomever new evidence suggests that after a peak in the eary Sn century there was sharp detine in population, though it remained a centre of gor femment unt the collapse o Roman ele in che Sth century. “rier was Founded by the Emperor Augustus and developed into the leading city of northeast Gaul ‘The gri-plan street layout probably dats from the Ist century AD, a8 does the sone bridge across the Moselle, but the greatest buildings of Roman Trier belong othe Sel and 4th centuries, when the city rose to prominence as an imperial residence first der the breakaway Gallic emperors (260-74) and der Constantius and Constantine (298-337). The city walls and the ably built during this period. There was also a great imperial palace, and a circus or race track, and adjacent 10 it the enormous Kaise Baths. Ait height, the city may have had a population of 80,00, leh ort the srt he oma sy ss proablyb ing Porta Nigra mauuience ball“THk PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Vespasian and the Jewish War "As for Titus, his imagination duvelt on Rome, wealth ‘and pleasure: it would be lang before these dreams were realized if Jerusalem ‘wer destined not to fallin the imusediate future,” actus, Histories sco te see of ads ‘nip 7 Te Ror Sar ee Slog ‘a atached for He coma apart “Sent ying Spur apace mente far, “roi po das comnts rte on fants Roman oe Roman control of Judaca was resented by religiously committed Jews, and in the spring of 66 discontent turned into open revolt. “The rebels seized control of Jerusalem, and at Beth-Horon they defeated the force which Cestius Galas, the Roman governor of Syria, led against them. This success allowed the rebels to seize control of lage areas of Jaca and Galilee, Realizing that «determined campaign wis now needed to suppress the revolt, the Emperor Nero despatched an experienced mil tary commander, Thus Flavius Vespasianus (Vespasian), with a force of three legions and numerous auxiliaries. In 67 Vespaian recovered Galilee tnd restored control over the coastal cls of Judaea, andthe following year ‘captured Jericho and Emmaus, leaving Jerusalem increasingly isolated. Vespasan was preparing for the final assault when news came that Nero ad been overthrown. Military operations were largely suspended while the sir ation at Rome was unclear. Thea, in July 69, Vespasian himself was pro- ‘aimed emperor by the eastern legions, and a few months later he depar- ‘ed for Alexandra and then Rome, leaving the completion ofthe Jewish War to his son Tiss. In September 70, after a seven-month siege, Ts captured Jerusalem, The rebel cause was now hopeless, but groups continued to hold ‘out in the fortreses of Herodiumn, Machaerus and Masada, until they 100 were taken by the Romans. gh sh al foe snus Pacey, ‘owe ty Tonpl ars ii ci oe Jerusalem under siege ToRc re eee aie mimeo cee ane solemn, ochre oan eee Sous, 4 Skea ; PART THE IMPERIAL REGIME ithe Jewish War, 66-74 BC «(CCC | fice veh 8 oe ta6e"HE PENGUIN HSTORUALATLASOF ANCIENT ROME Trajan’s Wars The Emperor Trajan (98-117) was the first Roman ruler for several decades to conguer new territories and establish new provinces of the empire. Hi wo great wars were fought against the Dacian and dhe Porthos, The Dacian kingdom lay north of the Danube inthe ates of modern Romania Under its powerful King Deceblu, Dacia had become a threat to Roman supremacy nnd had defeated Roman armies during the trig of Domitian {Gi-00), Tajn determined to putan end to this atuation by Forcing Dacia Jnto submision. Daring the fst Dacian War (101-102), Trajan defeated the Dacians in heavy fighting, and Decebalus came to terms. When he rok these 105, Trajan embarked on a second campaign aimed 3 othe ing ethan dhe conquest f the whole kingdom, which Became the Roman province of Dacia By 114 the emperor was back on campaign, fighting against Rome's great ‘eastern rials the Parthians, That year he conquered the mountain kingdom, fof Armenia, and the following turned nowt fern Mesopotamia into another Roman province. His most dramatic succes came in 116, when his army occupied southern Mesopotamia snd advanced as fx asthe Persian Gull. The new conquests could rot be held, however, and Trajan had Alveady been forced to abandon sonthern Mesopotamia when he died in August ur. ih ele cami omen raft ‘pope Tria madre “Kom by Tao conmemaste tree Black Sea 7The Dacian Wars, 101-6 atone The Dacian War | -@ Docent rong Tr vores ‘spe foron sen doen Oa eer Roney = |S mes Fein War sonetes* | oo = & ao tenor bh toa : X we os ~ | “appearance of the Remon ‘ymca Doct der . chat en = i PARY THE IMPERIAL REGIME kan | AN ARABIA 2/The Parthian War, 114-7 fenton ge"THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The Roman Army Rome grew to greatness on the sivength ofits army, a disciplined {fighting force that proved superior tall its opponents: From the las centuries BC and throughout the early imperial era, the back bone of the army was the legions, inuntry units of around 8000 men, all Dighly trained utd well syuipped: Bal legion was dlvded into centuries commanded by junior officers or eenturions, Six centuries made up & cohort, and ten cohorts a legion. Legionayies fought mainly with short ‘ord and throwing javelin, protected by a reciangular shield and body frmour, The real serength ofthe legion lyin its professionali and disc pline, which enabled It to carry out cemplex manoeuvres the heat of bat tle. Legionaties were also responsible for balding reads, fort and bridges, land were adept at siege warfare aswel asset plece bates. Alongside the legionaries wee the allimportant aniiaries, non-Roman sok ‘ders recruited from the native peoples of the empire. These operated in ‘cohorts of 500 or 1000 men tinder the command of a Roman officer, some ‘of them specialist units (sch as Syrian archers) fighting with their own pre~ ferred weapons, Auxiliaries served fer a longer period and were less well paid than legionaries, but on discharge were granted Roman citizenship, “The legions, on the other hand, were secruited ony from Roman zens Tn the eal Republic thy had been aken from landed cizens nd peasant farmers with slicent proper to ford to provide ther own equlpment Aone maden np ofte Maray changed all a the late nd centry NC, allowing lands vecenmame{eetiman yen (cluding the growing ban peta) to ols. In 31 MC tthe ian eer trt Sa of the cil warn 4 huge fore cf 6D Roman legions was under arma sets Angus reduced thee to 2, satloning them slong the fonts where tian oe tey were nos needed. That sil left 2 Roman army of around 300,000 riers en, half legonarcs And half aires, representing huge ongoing femriaieadtbedes Crnmmentin terme of public experdare cette Under de eat emp, leona were pad 90 seeres a year, and Signed up fora pera of 20 years They were foxbidden to mary ding pened mamencion ther srice, hing many cid of cree form lang felaonship, and sfafemmscosatcn Their Megate children could by the 2nd centry win eiiznship them ‘Sie cd et Selves by joining up as this faers had done, Doman Seen ens raised soldier's pay in the late Ist centry, and Soe ‘Septimus Severus again @ century later. Severus aso pete ‘allowed legonaries to marry and to live with their ‘i 4 str families ouside the camp. Sich concesons may have strengthened the soldier lyalty or spy fecognzed exiting realy, bat they ade the Homan army ess mobile and esl, Daring the course of the 3rd and 4th centuries the army was reformed to counter new enemies and changing oategies. Up to this ime, forces had been thinly spread along the foes, leaving no reserve army for emergencies ‘orspecial campaigns. The ary had also heen dominated by the legions of Snanty, Inthe mide censury thls was a changed by the establishment of a mobile cavalry force, and under ‘Constantine the army was formally divided into frontier troops (oF Kitna) and a field army (comittense) both consisting of caalry and infantry. The field army continued to be a powerful and professional force throughout the 4th century and into the 5th, though increasingly composed of GGermanie mercenaries rather than citizen reels taney to nee feceuas See. inv Sectors ee eee Som hae in seer area "fede fort Res ctoymactorisaeopot | Yebisees defo aj Cla ot ame ‘ie Dace Wa of 1h he lowe con be pps iene oo rorbasts | [—] cee he hi boar om and rere ‘ni rte eerie oqer spheres | [1 winrbn Seat eh oes i cable roto — Bae sath ie The Roman legions, AD 24-150 Fomstortee — Ronnlagne eh mE ton [my wom teTHE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Il: The Imperial Peace ponte te Pbron (oepi teal te pto ean by Ange ed Fd App a7 a aden enti ono {retanng ie porch re eg ee big pr ct than tf "Pont nth Vat Pre an pre of ona ater ce al ‘ag teage pel te sof ed conte on bdr oma of oe ‘ecw dep, hte oan nu otra te ‘amare maser sath proct dy roi tq el pm f The 2nd contury was a period of relative stability inthe history of the Roman Empire. Trajan’s wars carried Roman rule across the Danube into Dacia and southeast into Arabia and Mesopotamia. Under Hadrian, some of the eastern gains were given up, but this tll eft an empire greater in territorial terms han it had ever been before. Secure within its borders, the Roman state flourished in relative peace and prosperity. Yet this was no happy commoxwealth. Despite the pageantry of the monuments and the paternclim ofthe emperors it remained « world of harsh class Aivisions, ith slaves, peasant farmers and the urban poor ching out a meagre living alongside senators and the rich. ‘The Frosters Consolidated The history of Rome in the 2nd century i much more than that of of in vidual enperors and thei policies, yet dere are significant changes fom reign to reign which reflect the responses of central government 10 new problerrs and circumstances, and some ofthese bear the stamp of individ tal rulers Trajan had been a keen miliary man, and however much the conquest of Dacia was a rrategie necessity, the eastern campaigns atthe fend of is seign clearly were not. Hadrian sensibly reined hack dhe mil tary machine and set his sights on consolidation rather than conquest ‘This was shown mont clearly by the construction of linear bartiers on ce. lain frontiers, The most famous of them are Hadvian’s Wallin northern Britain and the German frontier between the Rhine and the Danube oth were enormous undertakings. The German frontier work consisted of a sutstantial timber palsade running for almost 350 miles (550 km) Hadrian's British frontier, thowgh much shorter in length—a mere 75 ‘niles (120 kts) made up for this in ite even greater solidity: a stone-bult Sete up to ten feet wide at the base ane originally 12 feet (4 m) high, 2 least in its eastern two thira+—the western section was inially built of turf and only later reinforced with stone Hadriae’s consolidation of the frontiers was perhaps good policy, but it ‘marks transition inthe history of the Roman Empire. The great period tf exparsion was over, and the role of the army and the emperor was no onger io conquer new territory hut to defend what they slrendy con ‘wolled, This halt some extent heen the ease since the death of Augustus 8 century before—he had warned his successor to keep within existing boundaries aid not to embark on any risky foreign advernures. Yet piece- real expansion had continued, culminating in Trajan’ wars of the early {nd century. Hadrian's frontier policy marked the rejection of further ter ‘torial expansion, and gave it physical expression in structures of timber land sioxe. The atmy became more and more a defensive force, there 10 ‘repel foreign Invaders and put down rebellions rather than to embark on aggre wars of conquest. The momentum of expansion was halted, but it was dificult co maintain stability, and as time wore on the Roman ‘enipite found itself increasingly fighting a rearguard action against pres- Sores foun without, This presure would ultimately ead tothe fll ofthe Roman Empire in the west“THB PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLASOF ANCIENT ROME ee me sient occas ere caterer eile Government and Rebellion Hidrian spent much of his 21-year rege travelling around the empire, gaining « level of firhand experience unrivalled since Augustus, His journeys wok him to both eastern and western provinces, and were & mitre of busines and pleasure Ti the Roman world the centre of govern ment wis the emperor and his entourage, wherever they might be, and supplicants oF Tidgants wishing for an audience or com: manded to appear before the emperor ‘might find themselves fing a lengdty and expensive voyage, Ht was only by visting the provinces themselves, therefore, that sn emperor could hope to gain an accurate Impression of their problems and needs. Haran’stavele mark a sage in the grad tual transition from an empire of eon ‘queted provinces ruled by an Kaan arie- toeracy, to a commonwealth stretching from the Syrian desert to the Atlantic Ocean. 1s significant, too, that Madan himself, lke Trajan before him, was of Spanish exuaction although, unlike Trajan, Hadrian was actually born at Rome, 1 vas on Hadrian's third voyage that he hic upon the scheme that was directly to cause the only major war of his reign. Passing through Palestine, he deeided to refound the city of Jerusalem as the colony of Aelia Capitolina, “Aelis™ beng his family naine. Jerusalem and its temple had been destroyed by ‘Tims hal a century betore, but sill eld powerful associations for the Jewish comrauniy, andthe ides of a pagan setsement on thelr saved site ‘urred them into armed rebellion. Led by Simon Bar Cochba, they waged a fourgearcampaigh of open warlare and guerrilla fighting which was serious ‘enough o demand the presence of Fiacian hinnsel By the tie he returned 19 Rome ip 135 he was relatively old man, and his final ea were devoted to the question ofthe secession. He himself had ‘been adopted by Trajan, ofially on the later’ deathbed (though there ‘were soiae who csuned that Trajan’ widow bad manipulated the story and the adoption had never aewally taken place). Hadrian too was chiles, which once again left hin free to name 4 suecessor of his choice. He chose Anioninis “Pits, an upright and wealthy Talian nobleman of rather con servatve views, As part ofthe deal Antoninus in sur adopted Marcus ‘Aurelivn as his eventual successor, This system of adoption served the Roman Empire well, rom Nerva's adoption of Trajan in 97 to Marcus ‘Aurelius death in 180, Ieensured that each new emperor had proved hime self capable of governinent hefore he assumed power. I removed the ‘agaties of heredity, which could produce bad emperors as wel 2s good—a point wich was brought home when Marcus Aurelius was succeeded not by sn adopled emperor but by his own son, the unstable Comaodus. ih sh el pel dee ng Emperor Mes ons 1110 es rom memiched me al a spas ote ase PART IIE: THE IMPERIAL PEACE ‘The Antonine Age The accession of Antoninus Pus in 138 marked the beginning of the Antonine age, a period liter locked back to a a Kind of galden age in the history of the Roman empire. Antoninus himself reigned for 23 years and eas followed by his adopted son, the famous philosopheremperor Mares Aurelius, Both were considered estimable rulers in their own rather differ fent ways, Antoninus Pius comes aver to us as a benign and paternalistic fig ture. In sharp contras with his predecessor Hadrian, he never let aly once alter his accesion, and even in easier Ife may only have been overseas on fone occasion, A number of warswere fought on his orders, but all of them at a distance. The most important was the re-occupation of southern Scotland, which had been abandoned in the eine of Domitian. in 159 Antoninus ordered the constuction of a new val, the Antonine Wall, run between the estuaries of Clyde and Forth. Built of cart and timber rather than stone, it was nonethslest a major undertaking though the area conquered was hardly in itself oF world significance. Wars were aso fought Jn Mauretania and along the Danube frontier, but Antoninus was fortunate to face no major crisis and deat alone were sufficient to deter the Parthians, Rome's eastern neighbours, from breaking the peace."ofthe ton de fe Finis meoiacon ‘heigl White the reign of Antoninus Phas was relatively untroubled, his saccestor Mares Aurelie ws Tes ortunate. He assumed power jointly in 161 with his Adoptive brother Lucius Verus, but within a year of theie accession Verus had al to leave for the east to ‘counter a serions Parthian invasion, In 168 the Romans achieved a major victory, capturing and sack- ing the Parthian eapital of Geesiphion in southern Mesopotamia. When they returned to Rome the foe lowing year, however, they brought back more than just foot—they brought the plague. An epidemic of ‘unspeiféd nacuse (though probably not the bubon- ie plague of Black Death fame) sayed throughout the ‘empire i the year 168, carrying off thousand of vc tims in Rome and other major etes. Perhaps sensing this weakness, Germanic peoples chose this moment to coos the Danube and attack Kal. ‘This was the start of the Germanic wars which were to preoceupy Marcus Auselius forthe res of his reign {Lacs Vers dying in 169). They mark, in a sense the end of Rome's unchallenged greatness, the first time for over 200 years that any foreign people had Invaded Tay, and 2 foretaste of worse things come ‘The principal protagonins om this occasion were the Quad and Marcomanni, Germanie peoples living north of the Danube. Their descent on Hay in 170 cceated a crisis which took several years to setle. At length order was ‘eatored, but not before large areas of the frontier zone had been devastat fe, Meanwhile Marews Avene was committing his philosophical thoghts toa notebook, ented simply "Fo Himsel™ eis cis tht has come don to tus as the Madiatos, presenting a gloomy picture of stoics in the face of hardship and adversi. The End of « Dynasty The last years of Marcus Aurelius were occupied by renewed attempts 10 conquer central Europe, a project which had been abandoned by Auguste Almost 200 years before. Then in 180 he died, and all choughtsof advancing {he frontier were shelved. Commodus, the new emperor, quickly showed signs of insecurity and megalomania, Leaving tt powerful office to cary fn the work of government, his regime soon became unpopular for its cor ruption a situation which was not helped by the idiosyncratic behaviour of the emperor hime. He displayed a great enthusiasm lor glaiateral spec tacles, im which he was not only audience but atealy participated, aking the rote ofa secur, armed with sword and shield, against the reir with bis trident and net Hi behaviour may not have been ae mad asi reporte fed to us by the Roman historians, but i alienated the elite and eventually posed a threat even to Commodus's own cout officals, He planned £0 ‘make @ grand entry into the amphitheatre on New Year's day 193, dressed (once again) asa gladiator. Instad he fel victim to assassination on the ast day of 192, being frst polioned and then strangled in his bed, His death ‘marked dhe end ofthe Antonine day. Roman examin ron the opps of Cn cine "le go he Mien boy Coma gi de ‘pte Gk ply Memeo ond yom Siti ‘he (abc) bl he 2d ma om wa dl in plete ay tin aor See Anh he tr Nv ‘hor ofemoaber oy ‘mae, ne tere ia i ‘od ee Inaperal Rulings The 2nd-century emperors were great builders, wing the resources of the state on a range of impressive projects, Some of thet were forthe private enjoyment of the emperors themselves. Hadeian, Antoninus Pits and (Commedus all had their peefersed couruty vill, in addin to the oficial Imperial palace on dhe Palatine at Rome, Greatest ofall wis adrian’ pale lal residence at Tivoli, series of massive pavilions set In ornaiental gar dens and richly decorated with sculptures and ezaings. Hadan was expe- fialy keen on Greck art and many of the sculptures were copies of Fanos Greek masterpieces. Antoninus Piss too had his county ill, a Laurent fon the coast south of Rome. Though much less survives that at Tivol this {oo was set within an extensive estate. Commodus in tar chose 4 spend uch of his time away from Rome, though not far aay, atthe Villa of dhe ‘Quint on the Via Appi, some 6 miles (10 kin) trom the city centre“THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Rome remained the heat ofthe empire, however, and continued vo receye ‘uct atention i terms of new public buildings and monuments toimper al glory, Victories abroad were marked by the construction of triumplal aches or comaiemorative columns, The Arch of Constantine is now known to be largely the work of Hadrian, and Marcas Anrelis followed Trajn’s example n erecting 8 great colizon with spalling frieze to commemorate [e vistoris inthe northern ware twas Hoan, howewr, whe devote the freatest attention to new building at Rome ding this peviod. He complet fd the reconstruction ofthe ety centre which had been begun by Domain, ‘nut he ie famous above all fr the rebuilding ofthe Pantheon, One further series of imperial buildings at Rome deserves particular mention: the tem ples of the deified emperors. Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus [Aurelvs were all deified by the senate aftr their death (Hadrian only after scime opporition from the senate). ach then received the temple owing to 8 god. Trajan's, completed by Hadrian, asin his Forum. The columns of Hadrian's may il be sen inthe side ofthe Stock Exchange in the Piazza «i Pietra at Rome. The temple of Antoninas and Faustina (his empress). emodeled in the 17th centiry a6 the church oF 8 Lorenzo in Miranda, ill sands inthe Forum Romantim, and gives some idea of dhe immense tale ‘which these monuments tothe imperial dynasty assumed. Innpesil building was not confined te Rome or Laly. One of the largest pro Jeclsof the Antonine period was the great bath bullt on the seafront at Carthage, Hadrian on bis travels round the empite also donated buildings {nthe places he vseed, notably the Library and Forum at his muels-beloved Athens. And over and above these civil cosstructions we must reckon the fenormous elfore put into military camps and fontier works, such as the ‘nll of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius in Brita Literature “The early decades of the 2nd century caught the til end of the greatest period of Latin iteranire withthe bistorieal wetings of Tacitus and the lter| Sates of Juvenal, Only light later than these are dhe famous biographies ofthe fra 12 Caesars by Suetonius, who served as secretary to the Emperor Hadrian until he wae dismined for misconduct. These were almost the as great Lain writes inthe clsial mould. The later pat of the century aw ‘Apuleia's come novel The Golden Ase An anonymots and enigmatic poem called Pevigium Vous (The Vigil of Verus) may also belong to this per fod. But Greek had enjoyed 2 resurgence and was now the main literary lm guage once again, atthe expense of Latin. Marcus Aurelius, though a [Roman by bith and upbringing, chose Greek as the most appropriate lan ‘guage in which to write his Madtations The greatest Greek waiter of the age hhowever, was undoubtedly Plutarch, a native of Chaeronea in Greece who wrote esa, dialogues and parallel ses of mous Greeks and Romans ‘Roman Society inthe 2nd Century “The historian Edwatd Gibbon began his Deine and Fall ofthe Roman Empire ‘with the words “Ila man were called to fix the period n the history of the ‘norld during which the condiion ofthe human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, aame that which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accesion of Commodus. The vast extent of the Roman Empire was governed by abotute power, under the guidance of ‘rte and wisdom, The armies were read by the frm but gentle hand [PART THE PAPEL PEACE of four suecesve emperors whose characters and authority commanded involuntary expect." ‘There is some ruth in this picture. Ie-was in this pevid, for example, that the state established (and encouraged wealthy priate cizens to establish) alimentary schemes, where money was lent @ landowners and the interes ‘se by local towns and cites wo feed an cloth the children of needy fami lies. The state aso stepped in to help cities which fad borrowed money to ‘embark on public building projects, and become bankrupt asa result. Yer the picture of the age is not altogether 2 rosy one. Outbreaks of epi demic disease in the 160s and after were one unpleasant feature. Another ‘war the beginnings ofa division of society into. hneties and unions Previously all Roman citizens had! been equal before the law. The major dlistinetion had been between citizens and non-citizens, With the extension of the Roman franchise, however, new social pressures came into being ‘hich called fora division between vich citizens and poor. So during the 2nd century a proces was set in tain which gradually gave more legal pri: leges and indemmnities to the rich, the honetins at the expense of the poorer citizens the unites. An example isa lw of Haden specifying Punishments for those convicted of moving boundary stones (Le sealing land). Men of standing were merely to be banished, but the rest were wo be sentenced to a beating snd two years’ hard labour. Stil harsher treatment ‘yas meted out to marginal groups such as Christians who refuse to sacri Fie to the traditional gods, Social changes were coupled wth economic dectine in some regions of the cmpire. Is doubt indeed whether Rome ever really adapted tothe con- ‘cept of a fixed teritoral base unsupported by the windfall profits of expan Sonist wars. The capital tel eantinved to prosper, buoyet up by its pos tion atthe heart ofa great empire. Other Kalan cities were becoming less prosperous, however, and the centre of gravity was steadily shifting away from aly towards what had once been the dependent provinces, Gat dhe Rhineland, aad Afr ula, underwent an economic boom in the 2nd centr, a¢ the expense of traditional Italian indusrics, As the ecomom ie geography of the empire changed, so did its politics, with provincials becoming ever more prominent and powerful This, and the growing pres sires on the fontiers, were tobe hallmatks ofthe following cea.“TIE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME, Hadrian’s Travels te i four ac co servant erotic “ithe ener pra, tbeaaers Cnopie fraued babe Beinn pre ‘ema ran oer om His villa at Tibur was marvellousl) constructed, and he actually gave to parts of i the names of provinces ‘and places Lyceum, Academia, Prytancum, Canopus, Poecile ‘and Tempe, And in ander not to omit anything, he even ‘made a Hades.” Life of Hadrian, from the Historia Augusta Dre reign of the emperor Hadrian (117-138) was atime of consolidation and retrenthment forthe Roman empire. Hadrian began bis reign by abandoning Trajan’s eastern conquests (save for Arabia which had conse peaceflly under Romas rule in 100). Then in 121 he embarked on the frst of seves of journeys which took him to prac- tally every corner of the enpite ‘One of his major concerns ma the security ofthe frontiers and to this end fe strengthened the defences in several areas, incading the albimportant Rhine and Danube. Hadrian's mos famous frontier work was the construe tion of the wall in northem England which stil bears his name, built 10 divide the Romanized Brits from dhe basbasians beyond (> page 586-7) “Hadrian had a great love of Greek culture and much of is teaelling was in Greece an the Hellenized eastern provinces. He spent at least three win ters at Athens, endowing the city with a Hbrary, forum and arch. Hadrian alo vsted Egypt, travelling up the Nile afar as Thebes. His last eastern journey was However from malltary necessiy rather tan tourism; for his plan to refoond Jerusalem (destayed by Tits in AD 70) as the Roman city fo Aelia Capitolina sparked ofa serions revolt among the Jews which took four years of ferceBighting to suppress oceaxus ATLANTIC OCEAN egy ata at in i Fa ‘Fh ne ones es dec act trent se ant opel caine ina pede Epa tons i tg ek Pane" ae Siac jo ieee sero by mot Mgt eer PART II THE IMPERIAL PEACE{HE PENGUIN HISTORICAL. ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The Eastern Provinces Avon: th Soy moa fo Dp ner Ant Sapte eel ‘meteor eof oe omnia Owe fr Ls renga mel owl Pot te we gh tyme stadia ey "Foner np ath ama Ow teri ate soot ae ig te ele om tM ss, ie rh ioe sl emp igh Ron pra To me of age Cabal Sra Cladat medal semaine ara ce for nC of iad Oss gh tet a Bore stb tb nd oty wane 28-1) come When Rome took control of Asia Minor, the Levant and Byypt in the Ist and 2nd centuries 26, she acquired some ofthe wealthiest territories ofthe Mediterranean world. “This ws a region where sophinicated shan eultores had been established for centuries The common language here wes Greck ater than Latin, but Teneath the Hellenic! veneer were nla af ode local wadions al languages. Thee included exotic religions such a she ent of manyrease to Artemis at Epes the sun-worship of Heliopolis (Bealbek) and Emes, Sout the phason religion of Fyypt—not to menon the uncompromising ‘monothei of the Jon, who were not ont be found ts Judaea but lsd at Alesandsia and other centres. “The Roman peace allowed trade and agriculture to flourish in this mult sani, polyglot word, Buildings and monoments ofthe early centuries AD bear siple tetinony tothe prosperity of both indivdnals and commani- ties. The major ies of Antioch and Alexandria exch had popslations num bering hamdreds of thousands, and even lesser centres such Aphrodisias in Asa Minor of Gerasa (Jerah) in the Levant were embllshed with theatres snd fountains, Egypt occupied a special place inthe Roman scheme. The frst given by the annual Nile flood enabled ito produce substantial agricultural supe ‘x, and gran from Fgypt was shipped each year to Rome to feed the urban populace, Sa important was Egypt within the empire that Augustus forbade {ny senators from visting the province without specte permission fom the "rmperor who ruled tas is perso AI'domain and was worshipped ‘here ata pharoah, ‘The security of the eastern provinces were badly affected by the Fee of the powerful Persian empire daring the Sra century ad, bat the imperial capita iself was moved from Rome to Constantinople in £390 and the east eoatinued to flour Inn while the western provinces oF Britain, Gaul and Italy itself went nea decline. Iewas only the Islamic invasions of the 7th century which ought an end to Roman hegemor yin the region Cities and provinces of 5 — ‘the East, 2nd century AD) x fl — ert am 1 sen | i | | ‘panera =| onerer,.- 4 a items tansy a \ oe ae mag, , Gotan Cyrenaica See eueaae, Suny a | UKRAINE, \ \ nussia i Pontus Euxinus \ Black Sen"IE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Three Eastern Cities ‘Maren fi mt tg ov of Roa pnt (Baya ro earner "deny ih ered th mabe clas a Tac hat les ap 12.0 soir Ce Uh ag of 25.00 ot py forts pc. Ephesus under Roman rule was the leading city ofthe eastern Aegean and ‘capital of the province of Asia. In the carly ceaturies an it was extensively rebuilt with colonnaded sees, large bathing complexes and other fine pub ie builiogs including a riety decorat ced library. The lfe-blood of the cy was the thriving port inked to the sea by a narrow duannel and to the cy centre bya suet eged with eolonndes and ie by of lamps at night. Another source of wealth was the cult of the goddess Artemis, hwsed in a splenic Temple jist outside the city and focus ‘of vel pigeon trade, PART THE IMPERIAL PEACE, koh resco tg rie a + i wae termed rein ous & ‘Giese eres iy ieee yd Antioch on he Oromes va theca a the pine af Sn ancy nee or me ce ‘wealth alkoxy. Ms prosperity derived from wade and from the agricultural gone produce ofthe adjacent pain, notably wine And olive oil. Unlike many major Roman ‘ics twa some 15 miles from the sa, but iuwas connected bya good road 10 is own harour town of Seleucia. The cy wall re testimony to the fat that form the Sed ‘entury AD Antioch was vulnerable to Persian attaek, fut i remained an important centre of commerce and government. The sophistication atlaue fF Rotman Antioch is est lustrated bythe uxusions vila of Daphne, a southern suburb note forts natal beauties. _- Alexandria vas the second largest city ofthe Roman world, wih a =a population of around half a million people, Pounded by oe tye "Alexander the Gres in 3818 isto at he westerns edge of dhe 8Bie0 Nile Dees and was the point from which Egyptian gran was eel shipped 19 Rome. Ita aso thriving eulual cents, home to Hero, inventor ofan elementary steam turbine, and to i ‘Bemis’, the geographer and astronomer Claudius Peolemaens From the 3nd centusy it hecame a major centee of ‘Christian theology and seat of one of the four Pa tarehs. Though a great city, Alexandria ‘was nota peaceful one, but was notorious for isos and steet violence. gh mach of Raman ‘Aeris brad beet ‘hemadene cin onal Veatch of te age oe iy, Ard he are sete toe nr fo Tm Seal at ‘ewig carts“TIE PENGUIN HISTORICAL, ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME, Writing and Literacy “Here are my jokes ‘and witticisms, my loges, my sorrows, complaints and vex dations; nano my style is simple, mow more elevated. Pliny the Younger, Letters eh hil pai Fo ‘Poop bow epee, woman bo oF eo a it omg coisa Sie ine il ae sh opie Sse nlc els twat i i eae Sula Lidia athe ft See aR ‘lee ti ees Tate mn 8 ‘monumental Writing was a hey feature of Roman society inscriptions, literary works, personal eters and bureaucratic record—even as raft om the wall: How many Romans could read or write for themselves is rather a difcal ‘question. The wealthy were taught thes sills bya private teacher as pat of theie childhood education, The les privileged had wo rely on other means ‘of learning, peestading «frend or relative to wach them, oF (in towns and Cites) attending a school Education was rarely free, ut it seems that even fmong the poor there were some who could mad and write. flighlown prove and ae rhetoric may have been the preserve of a small elite, but a Avan Rama ire genie onal po ‘mee ade “nd eb Tie nrg as maf ‘arte foctd the h o ‘yt Newman wa Tr, ‘cepa Above ih the conta ae fo Oxy "arora epee (9a 17 Mayet ‘rs boro ono siemens Ly So iat of aye ine cow: mays of the ‘tere scons rence i pe Maron atone 3 nln a th wy bt le RT a ee PART Ik THE IMPERIAL PEACE the exeryday sting of workmen's accounts or simple letters was relatively Widespread, at feast among the urban populace, as was the ability read ble porters and ineeriptons Several different materials were sed for writen documents. In the eas, and ven in Tay, papyrus was widely employed. This was made fom the pith of an Egyptian marsh plant, pounded im layers to make a form of paper which onld then be wsten on in ink. Several papymis documents of the Roman perio ave been preserved in the dry sans of Egypt. They include the old fest surviving gospel Iragment, part of Stfli’s gospel, writen probably in the 2nd century ap. An alternative wo papyrus where that yas either naa able or wo expensive wis parchment or vellim, made from the skins of ext te, sheep and goats, Wooden syns tablets, with a receswed surface covered in coloured wax, were another possibly. Here the writen mestage was insesibed in dhe wax using bronze or iron ajlus, Sys tablets cold he ve ‘sed by smoothing out the wax read to receive a new messige (a scratches fom the underying wood often reveal) but were not only for temporary weit Jigs but for wills ad gal contracts Wooden leat tablets (thin sheets of wood) were also written on in ink. They ‘were so thin that they could be folded, and an address written on the outer face, Alternatively, they could be ted together at the edges in a concertina like arrangement. Parchment and papyrus documents during the carly Roman period (as in classical Greece) were stored mainly in the form of rolls, up to 16 feet (5 m) long, occasionally with rollers st ‘ther end. They eould be kept in boxes o# on shelves, but ‘weze clumsy and eumbersome for easy reference. A major innovation (thongh one which we slow to catch on) ws the invention of the book or codex, in which lees of parl- ment were bound together dawn one edge. Books made their fst appearance in the 2nd cemtary Ab, mainly for (Christian text, bt ites not un the ls century tha they came into general use ah yn of ed andra Seale tee[HE PENGUIN HISTORICAL, ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME. Trade and Transport Efficient road and sea communications allowed goods to be traded throughout the Roman Empire and far beyond its frontiers ‘The Romans are famous forthe rou they ball wo connec he farsang provinces of thee empire. These allowed the armies tobe deployed Tap and hep own the econo hy ating the tnspor SE god rr torn to tna The Romans eed oth wooed an J touraheced carts pled by hore or exen. These may een have been 2 le sbout keeping to one se of the oa, though whether Fight oF eit dpe, Arie and emperors rele mainly by ed, at forthe transport of bully gods wes transport wae More ogee efi: fr the Fait of rcs tid down by the Emperor Dilan in 301 we Test that wan cheaper to ship grain fr Spi to Sra than nove 75 mies inland Large mors Aes winof of Roman shipercels ard the shores ofthe MitrrancaD ts Neo nimi» yen the eke marine trae el 8 hs, Ang the Sr sti mot sponta eomnodiin were ne, ove al = ra eaefhetlr Pes Wine al lve i tale lange pstry ample packed on asst in ram, thowgh nine end ao he eared in asks, Grain sevthieheinsmrandl Nada particular pace in the Roman economy, being shoving teed shipped rom Fgyp and Asc (nevden Tonia) o Rome ‘nthe forromd ng to provide the monly corn dole forthe wan che Most habitants of the empire survived, as they had alwayy dione, on the produce oftheir local area. The ‘exception was the ich, who used their weaih OO=ANUS to puchateexotie lames. These included 17-4NTIC OCH Sis fom China, incense from Arabia and. spices rom Southeast Asa, Some of ‘elon omof Roman goo eaelled slong the scaled vant Roce through Cental Asa, ors by faa cnemctty sea across the Indian Ocean. In ‘femmumlctinee exchange, Roman merchants traded old, lasware and other manufac- mie cent ren, which turn Up today a far ace trfee. fil a8 Maayia and View, 2IRoman trade with the East Sse eer {Trade in the Roman Empire, 2nd century AD Sen ome"He PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT KOM The Roman Amphitheatre The Roman passion for gladiatorial games led tothe construction of vast amphithentres. Their impressive ruins con sll be son ross Europe and North Africa - ~The gumes played a major par in Roman life, expecially in aly and che Tchanced to sto yeaern provinces, here icy were he seve for requent and ten body in ata midday displays The mow failiar are the eontess between gladiators tained Shon, expecting, ghtersnot unlike the boxers of tay, hut armed in much deadlier fashion tuo expecting Ty ex and ident (te ears) or ord hkl and helet (he seo fun, ait, and some Trege were the clase combatants, but there were ater kinds of gator, Felaxation,.. Iwas often hea armonred. Notall ose ting par were waite or prepared just the rverse. in CXmitls condemned to death—inelang Christianson ocalon—were sornetimes complet ight each ater or exposed naked wo ld analy ‘he morning. men n't arena. Thousands of animals perished n these ypectaces—a8 many ‘ae thr to the 4100 in the great games held by Taj Un 107. Mow claborate of all ‘were the seaight ooght if we may blew i) in Hooded amphicheatres Or on pec lakes bl forthe parpone PARE THE IMPERIAL PEACE, et ts ers pod, ‘oe ond wor oiler tee pel anid ef ome ‘elms mane bat ‘Steg dab sory ‘ingles ene fou Mate Tens hora apart tate the bge fal be ome he por apn 0 0-9) a pad 89 som ‘ea 9-6), cold Feldman 30.000 senna see lions and the bears, at noon they are ENN re meal semana throm to their se~ aent-consnenatry et docs no mean tht he Roman spec {ators... ‘Kill him! ere any more bowdiay than modern viewers of okt Ss a lev “Lash him! Burn Son series This was violence at dance, in a catefullycontolled context “ Gludatorial combate were eventvaly ned bythe Emperor Honorius him.” Ard when oae42a), tutte eraion ofthe Roman games ves on inthe bulights the show stops for of Spain and Souter France intermission, ‘Let’ dave men hiled smeanighilel Lets ‘lib sods ae gly ren by ce ‘rma ning imal rade = thie not have nothing going on!” Seneca, Moral Epistles oceans cS fei er 2 »[HME PENGUIN HISTORICAL. ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Roman Spain The therian peninsula was one ofthe most prosperous regions of the Roman Empire, with great cites and a thriving export trade, mnt mi Sone bridges such as the one that spans the ‘agus at Aleantar. Several toe puteysntines Atte end of the Ist century, Spin pred the fet Roman emperor of (emit frbucpring jrosincial origin in the person of Trajan (x 98-117), born probably at Sth ovoid Keatca neat modern Sele, Teaun's mecesor Hadrian (7. 117-138) wat Fa se tected also of Spanish origin, Families such as those of Trajan and Hadrian drew wit branch of thei wealth rom he agricul produce of southern Spain, pat fermen hay cll frm the expor of wine anole ol. Spin wy alos exper of ncaa hei Ke Wig pia Bah ace known A gar, which ws proceed in ft Sn at cies along the southern coast The mont obviously profitable of Roman sumac mars om Spain's resources, however, were. ts metal gold in the notthwet copper set hewn aler and aver in the soutrwea. Inthe Rv Tinto area remains ofthe screw ese ps a waterwheel wed to drain ‘he deep workings wil sie, pro rm viding vivid evidence of Roman hydraul:capabilides (> pags 128-9) N 4 einen pi Roman Spain, 62nd AD promesttowtir)| "ath oaer ft seus prably bil daring the gna Ta The ret (39m ener i ae prov et fopspaterntd satelprovecal | etree tt str the leer tte PARE li THE IMPERIAL PEACE Mare Internum“TIE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OP ANCIENT ROME, Guarding the Frontiers The peace and prosperity ofthe empire depended on the defence of its frontiers, which were gearded by forts, watehlowers and raapart, Uns the mide decades of he Sd centary, Rome had no mobile fet army held in tesrve and itary unis wer concentrated i camps and fonsalong the rontes evant defence of thw font mich ge the ovines the security which allowed thelr economies to oui and pr fide axes forthe pera sear. Nt spring then, maining and Scengthening the fonts we 2 major preceupation of govemmen AL fr his was achive by bing x chit of forts and vatevowe inkl by amily ron to loth api deplopment of rede Unies Malan (117-8), however, cru sections af the fone ean tbe fried in more sania mane ery the bling of contnaoa apart or wl The moat famous and eaborte ie Hacvan’s Wall he Tonle (1) fone wal anni from the mouth of the River Tye tothe Solway star. dnd extended down the Comin com by forts and watchtower In ental scion Hadrian's Wall rine acon ogged trai, and stata steehes of the val Sat foiled tar resecanailbe een, On the European maintand there was generally no need for such a contingons barrier, since Ttunae Anse Solway Firth PARTIE THE IMPERIAL PEACE {he frontier ran along the Rhine and the Danube, which themselves formed a slcient obstacle, Forts, eamps and wateltowers were built along thei tanks, and strong frontier work waa costae ese the upper tet «of the two rivers. New rontier defences continued to be built during the late Roman period, expecially along the Danube where pressure from the ‘north was intense. These include a series of boundary earthworks, the Devils Dykes and Brazda Ini Novae dt Nov, built by Constantine (300-37) to protect tributary peoples beyond the Danube from the Goths 2/The Danube frontier inthe 4th century le oe | Hadrian's Wallin the 2nd century Oveanae omarion North swag. Se see é oe \ ee“THe PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME IV: The Troubled Century a The century following the death of Commodus was marked by @ remarkable series of shifts in Roman fortunes, greater than the ‘empire had ever experienced before. A period of firm government ty the early Severans was followed by @ gradual decline of entral ‘authority. Coupled with the appearance of more powerful enemies tn the imperial frontiers, this led toa erisi i the security and ‘stability ofthe empire which lasted throughout the middie decades af the 3rd century. Riven by internal faction and assailed by {foreign enemies, the empire broke up into a number of regional ‘powers. For 4 moment it Tooked as though all was fst, as though the Roman empire was at an end. But a series of capable military | emperors managed to restore the position during the course ofthe 270s, laying the greundwork forthe major reorganization undertaken by Diocletian after his accession in 284. eae son ae “The murder of Commodus on New Yeas Bye 192 brought to an end dhe Antonine age, but while Commods himself had been unpopular with both {he Senate nd he pratorlan guard, his demise didnot at once sher in rate wa at peace The assassin withthe support ofthe Senate, made the elderly ‘meer reeled Pertinay emperor. He was «respected satesman and distinguished military ae ae ‘commander, but he to lacked the sipport ofthe praetorians and was mr ea, ‘ered by eleinents of the guard in March 198 “This marks the high point of pratorian fortunes; never again were they to ‘exerci such power a Rome. Ther immediate move was to offer the pot tion of emperor to the person who would pay them the most money, and the choice thus fell spon the wealthy but ineffectual Didius Jlianus. He hhad na support inthe provinces, an the frontier legions scan beyan to declare for their own candidates: Pescennius Niger tn the east, Clodius ‘Albin Britain, Setimiss Severus on the Danube. Severus was the even> ‘ual winner, angely by being bolder and more thle than his eompesior. He marched om Rome and eay disposed of Didivs Julians, but ha hard Fighting todo before he overeame Pescennins Niger ancl Clade Abin It ‘eas nt until 197, over fou years alter Commodns's death, that Severus had Undisputed rale over the whole empire With one short break, members of dhe Severan family were to govern Rome for more than A yecrs, This marks a further step inthe growing impor- tance of the provincial, especially those from the Affean and easter provinces, Severus himself was born at Lepeis Magna in Gyrensica (modesn [ilya)- His rival Chain Albus came from Hadrumetum (Sousse) in mod rn Tunisia. By this me, a lage proportion of the senators at Rome were ff Afvican origin, Most of them in fact supported Albinus rather than Severus, which caused Severus to instigate a purge of 29 senators once he Ina defeated Albinus Severs's African origins were plain forall to hear in hs Afrcan accent, which be newer los. ‘To African was mined» Syrian element, ince Severus was marted to full Domna, daughter of the High Priest of the sungod Elagabal at Emesa {modern Homs), Tis Caracalla (211-17), Severs's ecesor, was ball» Atfican, haf Syrian, and he in tarm was succeeded after a brief interiude by his mother's sister's grandchildren Marcus Aurelius (Elagabsls) (218-22) and Alexander Severus (222-35), both of whom were pure Syrian, "The Empire under the Severans Sepsimins Severus relied heavily on the support ofthe army bath wo bring him to power and t retain it He naturally paid particular attention to mil ‘ary malters, waging a series of war, raising new legions and improving the soldiers’ pay and conditions forthe first ie since Domitian a century eatl- fx Legionaries were now allowed to marry and to lve wit thie ves ancl Families n cian accommodation ontsde the military eam major wars aginst foreign enesies were in Britsin andthe eat Sever Fought two separate campaigns against the Parthians, in 196 and 197-8, and feated two Nev imperial provinces (Mesopotamia and Osthoene) in the Parthian hordeslands beyond the Euphrates, These were the Sit significant auditions to the empire since Trajan’s conquest af Dacia some 90 years before. The wat in Britain came nest the end ofthe reign, and was nothing leas than an attempt to revive the plan of conquering the woe of Sean [Neither this nor the Parthian wars may be cosiered to have Deen a strate fie neces, though they brought booty and glory to che army, One farther Sbjective of the Brtsh war, we are tol, was to remove Severus’ trouble tome sons from the hothouse pois of Rome. Another area where Septimius Severus took serious military action was North Afica, hls home terior. Lepels Magna recelved a suite of impres sive new public buildings befiging the birthplace of an emperor. Severus iso campaigned aginst the desert noma and ordeved the construction ofigh he pra ud So be a ef ng ow Rama ee ae nian of te pero "Te ras hago shpat bon feat hemp ei hy ah pea forse ‘iii ir ‘new sytem of roads and forts which pushed the Frontier significantly fue ther tothe south, He also created the new province of Numidia, The impor tance of Arica went well beyond its close links with the imperial fay. 1 continued to be one ofthe most prosperous provinces ofthe empire, pro- ‘ducing huge quantities of el from vast alive groves, and continuing to be a ‘major supplier of grain for the city of Rome. The economic success of the African proxinces i amply demonstrated hy great bulling projeets of the nd and early Sed centies, such a the amphitheatre at El Djor In Tay, on the other hand, the Severan period was characterized by contin ting economic decline. Politially, Halians were becoming steadily less {important a provincials took more and mare ofthe key postions, ‘The influence ofthe Senate, to, vas falling, a8 members of dhe equestrian order {many of thera xs wealthy as senators, ht iingished! from them by being ‘nompolitical) were given plum commands. The realities of power were reflected by Severs’ stationing of one of his Ure new legions in Hal, a8 i ‘tere jst another province. The legion was based a Alban, a meve 20 ales trom Rome, a a visible proof of the emperor's authority over Senate and capita ee tpetatemey ‘igi re cntanta Sraioeee “cine ‘ea i oan ee Tmo irae i PARTIN: THE TROUBLED CENTURY Rome isl, however, was neither neglected by the Severans nor alandoned ssn Imperkal residence. Quite the contary. Severus added 2 nev wing (0 the Palatine palace, « wiumpbal arc ie the Forum, and may hive begun construction ofthe baths named alter his son Caracas. The later Severais aso built at Rome, Elagabalus, for instance, erecting an enormous temple ‘om the Palatine to te sn god he worshipped. ‘The Severn Success ‘Septimus Severus died at Yorkin 211 and was followed by his sors Marcus “Antoninus (nicknamed Caracalla after his lxourite ype of cloak) and Gets, ‘The two were constantly at ods wit each other and though each ule up 4 substantial following at Rome, it was Caracalla who eventually wom the Struggle, having Geta murdered after only a few months of jeine rule Caracalla spent che rest of his reign on a grand tour of the eastern provinces, The notoriety he gained by murdering his brother was reinfoxeed by his unexplained massicre ofthe young male popiation of Aexandia ‘when he vised the city in 215, Like hie father, he increased the Fay of the soldiers on hom he depended, and like him too he mounted a ajor war gains the Parthians. The fist foray, in 216, way an snguaed sce, 30 far as it went, though by early the following year the Parthians had fegrouped and were poised fora major counteroffenive. Caracal dil not live to face the treat, since he was mmdered by one of his badrguart, an with a private grievance in spring 217, He left so great monuments to his Siejeareeign, one physical, he other constisitional. The physical monument was the enormons Baths of (Caracalla, the greatest of Roman bathing complexes, which was dedicated"TIE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME ate Dean motes own oman ie of oi in grand pe o ‘iin cde te ts oft ciple ad of ei, ti ine {0 Sd pene {in 216 but further added t0 during the 220, The consteuional reforss for whieh be is best howe isthe granting in 212 af Roman citizenship tall, the free male inhabjants of the empire, Te vas not as radical a move a it seemed, Many provineials already possessed Roman citizenship through {rants by earlier emperors. It did femove a major constitutional distinction Dewween Tallans and nondtaans, but the important difference in bw wa ‘noe Ghat between rch andl poor, hametons and hin. Caracalla was succeeded by another Afican emperor, Macsinus, a Moor wo had trained a a lawyer and then joined the army in search of beter prospects. He was an innovation in one important respect, being the fis ynon senator to become emperor. But he didnot reign for long. He failed to defeat the Parthian counterattack in 217 and was forced to seek a mii ing peace. Then, early the following year, the Syrian legions restored the Severan family o power in the person of Caraeala's niece's son lagabalus. "lagabalus was only 14 years ole 3 the time, sad veal power rested wth his ‘mother and grandmother, both Syian princeses, the latter of them the si ter of Severus’ empress ula Domana. While they and thelr fas ran the Dusiness of government, Hlagabales devoted himselt to his role ax hereditary High Pres of the sun god of Emes, The scred back sone of Emesa, sy hol of the god, was brought to Rome and installed in a special temple on the Palatine. Elagabaluis inset engaged in exotic rituals and wrange sexial practices in the service of his god. When these became such an embarrane tment tha they posel a threat to the regime, he was done away with al his ‘more acceptable (though sill very young) cousin Severus Alexander made ‘emperor in his place, PAY IV-THE-TROUBLED CENTURY 1c was during the weak reign of Severus Alexander that the fist signs ‘emerge ofthe serious external pressires which were to bring the empire almost to its knees in He decades to come. One of the mos important of these evens was the establishment of a new imperial power on the easter frontier” Since the lat centuries BC the Nea East beyond the limits of Roman rue hal been laminated by the empire ofthe Parthians by AD 226, the last Parthian king, Arabanus V, was overirown by one of his vasa, the Persian ruler Ardashir. tn the 6d cemuuy BC the Persians hae conquered re Tands around! the Hast Mediterranean, including Asia Minor and Egypt nel Ardashir in show of bravado non Isl claim to these former terior ries. In 280 he invaded Roman territory. forcing the unwaslike Severs Alexander to stage a powerful counterattack. Iwas enough to hal Ardashir in his racks, but failed to win any great vetories When eo year ater (255) Alexander prelerred do a deal with the Germans on the Rhine frontier rather than Fight them, his soldiers decided they had hat enough. ‘They ‘murdered Alexander and his mother, and proclaimed as emperor one of their ovn commanders, Maximinus he Thracian "The Side towards Cris “The army had always been a major powerbroker in dhe imperial game, but the policies ofthe Severans and ther rejection of senatorial ahority had made the office of emperor more dependent on the militry than ever before. The relationship beeame even closer during the middle deades of the 3d century when the contin threat of foreign invasion made conta ‘of the arty and military competence the essential prerequisites for sue ‘cessful reign, The Roman empire wis now elealy on the defensive. Those emperors who failed met speedy and silent en. ‘The drift towards military autocracy is well represented by Severs Alexander's suecessor Maximinus. He was neither senator nor equestrian, bbutan ordinary soldier who had risen throgh the ranks, Face with the heat of German invasion, he spent most of his reign on the Rhine ad the Danube, and ignored Rome entirely. is place was wit the army, not couse ing potitcians in the capital. His only vii to Haly sx emperor wa atthe ‘of his reign, when the Senate pu ap two of their own eanliates to oppose him. Hven on that occasion he did't reach Rome. but ws murdered while besieging the rebellious city of Aquileia (atthe head of the Aditi) ia April 238 ‘The emperors eho ruled Rome from Philip the Arab (244-9) to Galliens (258-68) presided over a situation ofinseasing ers. The military rrgale| ‘was made all the more difficult by the need to defend several frontiers aly. In the west, 2 German confederation kitown as the Aleman threatened the Rhine and Upper Danube. On the lower Danube, the principal enemy was the Goths (another Germanic people, recently 3 led in the Ukraine). Inthe eas, the Persians vnder anew aggresive rile, Shapue 1, mounted pesiodic invasions of Syria and adjacent provinces. The hadi was reached it 260, In that year the Emperor Valevian was eapauted by the Persians and ended his day in captivity. No longer able to ontol the east, his son Gallienus was forced to rely on help from the rulers of Palmyra, who use thelr position wo establish a quasindependent state, At the ame time the westcrn provinces broke away to form a separate Gallic ‘empire, and the truncated body ofthe central empite was afflicted bya ash of pretenders, » i i a“Tle PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME, Agsins all expectations the empire was slowly put to rights by ‘series of soldieremperors of Balkan orgin, refereed t0 as the lyrian emperors, Clad IT (268-70) defeated the Goths. Aurelian (270-75) suppressed the breakway Palmyrene and Gallic realms and reunited the empire 38 2 rngle nit. Carin (282-3) mirned the tables on the GP Pens by invating Mespotania sol sacking the important city of Ctesiphen. But dhe Roman empire did not escape from its ordeal unscathed. Lage: sulfered invasion and destruction, and there was wide PART V-THHE TROUBLED CENTURY Persecution was suspended in 260, an admission of fire on the part of the authorities, and forthe next 40 yeats the Christians were fein peace {Christianity was by now recognized to be more than just another Oriental cult but it was stil ery much a minority religion in the empite as a whole, “The attemps to stamp it out were harsh and violent, invoking prison, tor: ture and death, hut they must be judged inthe context of the rd eeneury ‘ris. Christianity could all too easily be sen as yet another force Fr dive sion in a realm which the emperors were fighting desperately to hold together. Few could have predicted that, within a century, it would ave Ihecome the oficial sate religion spread economic diloration, Saints and Maries Cwristaniy was by no means a new religian in the Bed ceneury but Above he som clipenegan at this ne to Feauute increasingly prominent in the afsts ofthe themida oh empire. The fits great Christian persceution was that ordered by the Sow ieee Feat supers Des in crane a pare og th eto (Megane! oo tm hy eet er al pg ts he me ee “mein Ic ofempre sn rp jai ace he ea Saag : Christan rere ponent on he cm ire j | | | | eee ee pati tamous pbc marine fom te 2nd enary nar of ese cee ie ‘inept fat gilBldina and her clleagues inthe aphieate at Lyons ia 177; oF of erent ae fie de Tey dont Rerpeiun and Fliiy at Carthage in 208, to celebrate the biethay of agin tcc myeraterten pets Severus aon Gee, The percculten of 250, however, ws on an allogeher amin fer he oceceee-manyarefar diferent scale, and was followed by a second imperial edict in 257, forbide ‘ing publi worship, ad 2 died in 258 which yas directed against Church leaders ane Church propery ‘et despite these persecutions (which were enfowed 1 difering degrees in dierent provinces) Christianity continued to vin new converts, and the deaths of martyrs, although a deterrent, added a touch of heroic lustre.“THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME PART 1: THIE-TROUBLED CENTURY The Year of the Six Emperors Seetett aS Dre assassination of Commeds shatered the politica subility paar ofthe preceding contry tnd planed the empire ito cl war, serecte tee ‘histor at 30m The boodthirayeecentrces of the Emperor Comms (180-82) mae cite hes ‘im unpopular with ariocray and cout offi lite and be was event calc ally murdered om th last day of 192, His sucesor waste Pete ot Rowe ene Fertnay, but he too wat anassinted jut three months later Powe ten scent wry owed to arch senator called Didi jullanas fora huge bie 1 iyi aos the practorian guard, The commanders ofthe frontier armies were unwill. ee acct wate of aa and in Ap 108 two al emperors mere proclaimed Pexcnnive Niger i the eas and Sep Severs othe owe hecemalutarsy ante, Severin arched qui on Rome atl orertow lions, Ae SGESIe Te ont et pane to sete sain in the apa Be then tech eat Stim Soont_ como Niger, His army come Ue Sen of Marna an deena Ng Gypxaiaeatloes Forces at Cyicas and Nicaea. They pressed forward Unovgh Asta Minor, sine Mie Sorting Niger nfl, dove encounter laa eae ee mmm aad where lesa Se Cre hl ete he Pesan 50 yeaa i —— . — sever snc rink few months conoldaing his hold on the eaten proniees aed sail eT "0" tmountng a hor campaign agin the Perans pape 38) © [he wars of succession, AD 193-7 Before reaming o Rome he went to confront anotier set fl é I — tonnes Sof conatoma Gris ror of Britannia Seer had i SeepuSoone = see tecome nt bythe end af 195 they were openly hse, ; Rome a loving ear Abin had ie myo 5 . = Butain ahi comand, but Ele to win over the power Caran 4 legion Severn dented hin olde Lyon in Febery 1, ringing an (wo our yn oc unre [i Events of 193 Jac Pract and or tay soph ae yn Eee erm rricane | Sega” eas Day aa nd“THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The Parthian Wars Gisit strife among Rome's eastern rivals, the Parthians, allowed the emperors Severus and Caracalla to expand thei territory. Rome's eastern frontier ran up against the empire ofthe Parthians, who tha progressively taken contol of Iran and Mesopotamia in the flee Crassus at Carthae in 55 86, and ad inicted heavy canuaties om Mak Antony's retreating arny in 96 nc. By the 2nd century AD, however, they were no longer the force they had been, Trajan successfully invaded Mesopotamia in 114, and tie contol the whol entry Hal cent fy later uring the joint reign of Marcos Aureivs and Lucas Ved, the Romans invaded again and sacked Ctesiphon, the Parthian eaptal of Are vamtemporny Mesopotamia pont of oper ect, See Dig te rig 0 Spine Seer (15-21) the Fain es wk tof Spier, ier by interna polite divisions and proved even easier prey. Severus Caan etter conducted a short campaign in northern Mesopotamia in 195 to punish the ‘rpomy mde hin, Parthians for supporting his val Pescennius Niger (page: 95-97). Nisibis mc pute fr yas capted, and anew Roman province of Osthoene established. Two sribrferl ears inter he an back again, sacking Cision forthe second nein 50 See rset years and taking a further chunk of Parthian territory ¢o form the Roman titapanpef 316 province of Mesopotamia, {Severus} constructed boats on the Buphrates and proceeded forwarit partly by sailing and partly by marching along the river Later, upon capturing Clesiphon, Ihe permitted the soldie's to plunder the entire city, and he slew a vast umber of people, besides uaking as many as a hundred thousand capti Cassius Dio, Roman History ow Dar pa, the sot hat of pate seccapred ye Romane Wie td become sre miriam Te cad elas rapent cong tc er afc Tie Parthian Wars, | issci0n _ HE esi = et te 98 The next major development came wnder Severus’ son and successor Caracalla (211-17). Caracalla spent much of his reign waveling chrough the easier provinces. His main objective was a further invasion af Parthia, he began in 216 with a srprse attack on Arbela in Media, beyond the River Tigris. Although the Parthians were yet again weaken! by real ‘laimants to the throne, hey struck back in 217 and forced the Romans 10 ome ta terms. By that time, however, Caracalla was dead, murdered on the Fond from Edess to Carrhae »“TIE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME PART IV-THE TROUBLED CENTURY The City of Rome under the Severans As copital ofa great empire, the ety of Rome sas the ste of massive bulng projects i the fist three centuries 80. Among the mos spectacular were a series of bathing establish ‘mens, hegianing with thore of Trajan but best represented ‘ofa diferent Kind was provided by the Cotoseum, the largest amphitheatre of the Roman world, capable of seating some ‘50,000 spectators pogrs 82-3), Nearby, in the heare ofthe ‘ty, were the Impeval Fora, a series of temples andl adminis leave buildings built by successive emperors to complement and expand the faite ofthe original Forum Romanum. The emperors slso also built for their owe comfort, and Septimus Severus (AD 198-211) added his own palace to those of his predeces- sors on the Palatine Hill. lnpesial monuments of a eiferent kind were the deified emperors and the great circular imperial mausolea Above he apne of otic mapof Rome es temples 10 th orto te Aen i what by Angas andl Hi, ie tonpe of Bnet by Angusts ane Ha omiioanmStner, Throughout this period Rome was unwalled, confident and secure atthe Thema wet madera year of powert empit. Ie was therefore sgn of more woubled times nbulingefieametoend when in 271 the Emperor Aurelian ordered the construction of the great Tieton fact ichiad ret of defensive walls ad gates which bears his name. Inthe following | ‘ec dnl) years Rome receive new bins fom Diocletian ad Constantine. but 2The Palatine Hil, carezorzemie: vet ty the middle of the dih centry the centres of power had waned elewhere | 6235 ' area : Soe eae ae = SM erica ear ew cians et re rt ee eral ete cee | Soe aot earee Fepta eae acc en erect SSA co atoms eat | ips i esa of hei, teapots (21-7) a age ond seas ‘ eee eae en ese ree nae ad mae at ‘fra cot no 100 gape 100 | wo‘He PENGUIN HISTORICAL. ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Mystery Cults “And now comes in «a procession/ Devotes of the frenzied Bellona, and Cybele, Mother of Gods/Led by a giant eunnch, the idol of his leser/ Companions in obscenity. Long ago, swith «sherd,/ He sliced off is genitals: nw neither the howling rabile/Nor the hetiedrums can outsrick him.” Juvenal, Satire VI se epee cota cece Seeman See omega sa aneieee The traditional Roman gods were gradually overshadowed by Oriental “mystery” cults and their deities: Cybele, Isis, Mithras—and Christ “The religions belief of ancient Rome were ited and vated At thelr heart lay the traitonal pantheon of Roman gods, Beaded by Jpiter and Juno Daring the later Republic, these came increasingly tbe equated with Greek dees of nar function, Jun, for example, being considered the Roman equivalent of Hera and Dana of Artemis The Romans also apt tet number of Greek gods, inching Apala ‘The mont sgnieant newcomers Roman religous ie during the late eputiie were not howerer Greck gods or stil, but cults of « more dir fant Oriental ong, These reflected the growth of Roman politcal inf {nce in the east Meiterrmean; but the ete of these introduction, the fal of Ole or Magon Mater, tok place wen dhe Romans ha hardy et foot east ofthe Advise Thi was 204, during the second Punic Wa, when the Black stone of Cybele was rong from her sanctuary at Pessinas in Anatoia and inalled in temple on dhe Palatine in obedience toa prophecy which foreto she wold hep the Roars agains Hania Other Oriental cults followed the introduction of Gybele co Rome. One seas tha of Atari, feriliy deity often referred to simply asthe "Syrian fovides” There were alo Egyptian deities, notably Iss and Serapis, the lat fer developed from the cult of the sacred Apis hulls at Memphis. These ‘vere Brought eo Rome through commercial contacts and though generally Uliscouraged by the state, they spread throughout the empire inthe early These cults drew their popularity from the fact that they offered. ther adherents the hope of immortality and a more personal and spiritual belief than the official state teligion, Each cult had is oven special fea- tures. The worship of Cybele, for example, was famous for the ritual of turbo, in which the individual stepped down into a pit where he or she was bathed in the blood of a bull sacrificed above them. This was Clearly a ceremony of purification, though sometimes peeformed on Iehalf of the emperor and the sae i a open rots hf, oe 1 Topleof Cnon a Dae arpa Sy atl 170, sb rt a ona hating seta oi ding he "Chon ned ert bts Ste on th i oon Crt a copay inert wd eon hater ‘eile er eyo "Neto bu te ‘nl re a omar of Ys Neer A ala “more ded acy, ‘at gman of be soe stn rir bodiment lt oof he Sin ‘av gaunt eme2 1 epee isis Rode ‘tan arn te, ‘acme pt pat ieilrarege is ted en itera fe iy el ho “hard otha bane Foe (te ogo das iro ido ‘St ect Bre PART I-THE-TROUBLED CENTURY “Mysteries sacred truths reveled only 10 the inated, were a feture of ‘many ells, and made conversion an emotive experience. This true of two other eastern religions which became widespread in the early empire ‘Aurelian (270-5) built a huge temple at Rome to Sol Invietus (the Unconquered Sun). This cult re ‘mained a key clement of official worship nil, 2 sion of the Emperor Gonstan- tine in che early 4th cenuny, marked the final stage in the victory of Oriental religion ver the waditonal Roman gods (© ge 124-9), Right ree fom Rome ction Rae sno» et cae ge ‘et of toca of Cb cievinoans Meg See "Pere te rabet and be ‘fh cling be coe ets ld agli ee of Sle tlt et secret th ie Arc inne le ‘onkppes sa ay of nt cingTIE PENGUIN HISTORICAL. ATLAS OF ANGENT ROME PARE IV-THIE TROUBLED CENTURY Roman Africa 210tive oll extraction Teale oso of oman “ ‘Mi who et ‘The North African province, from the borders of Egypt tothe Ai comaiear dws Atlante coast, were among the most prosperous inthe empire. (roc Thiel prt ing — | ‘oi ga The ote ‘Wii the Sahara Desert to the south and the Mediterranean tothe north, Se ee Throughout ils the African provinces were fertile lands with sufficient rainfall for farming, ‘ther end. This we edt pres the Inhabited area itis backed up by irigation where necessary Ove and cereals were the pring si, Ter srimcotsmarly PaetoPm and bos were wy export. Roman Novi Aes was cod osud cee Sn to Haypt ae sop of grain for Rome, and nich wa he alan ‘ane og aly te he fertile, but, since the of olive oll that onl the poorest households wee unable wo afford i anipa ‘ide eal me ate greater pat of itiy Ha ter oes The eat ces Ty ost In the old Carthaginian see hart es, Tands of the eat Tyas (EI Dj) and. Lape Magna were prosperous eae aie eter uncultivated and oft producers, but the greatest of all Aric cites was Carthage covered by sterile North Atica posessed one notable advantage over the European or sands... ib is more Levantine proviners of the empire, in that its long land ronticr wa les threatened by fori encmics and demanded considerably fewer oops A ih bythe 3d etry, Abandoned than em of forts and altar rads vas bl, nonethees, to frm a prec Roman Africa, Toe en ems Setiled.” the seid agains nomad raiders and pial bares were crete st Brdcentury AD | "ove pf © prone eptat ‘only by the Colosewm at fon Africa yor North Afica isshown by the fact that only a single legion was stationed Noort ioe there, compared wid 14 or more on dhe Rhine-Danube frontier from Tne nd fem of fe Komen ‘fic Roe no Ins ond fod mosie for pub ag oss eet My of em Tota cle red ‘we and Grnorfame Icon of or’ ‘Sonam andthe ky ‘man's ‘air at ee msATLAS: ica IN HISTOR NCU ities rican Citi Af ee Thr FTI Vi HTT TE Oy obi i Ts Hy AE ee ee oo WT a i Wi Ly att iy Wy yy ais f/ Wy Ll MT, Hii Hy Hy Lt ii) He Ti Linh Ape TH lf id Thi eile tire soldier Tor ‘ally ‘ive Er Say wn Trajan, anes, a 3 10 by over a a i are ENTURY co ROUBLED aur colonia, a — cramps finest is one of the. eo The: is neath a aie cn"THE PENGUIN HISTO ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The Empire at Bay The middle ofthe 3rd century sar the Roman Empire threatened “Three hundred and twenty thousand Goths have invaded Roman territory The whole republic 4s fatigued and exhausted.” Life of Claudins IL, from the Historia Augusta by internal strife and foreign invasions. In the eastern provinces the main adversaries were the Goths and the Persians. The Goths were a Germanie people who had recently settled around the northern shores of the Black Sew Frou dhe 2405 w Use 270% th they posed a continous menace to the Balkan provinces and Asa Minor ‘They defeated and Killed the Emperor Decius in 251 at Abrits, but did not adempt to seule within dhe imperial frontier. In 255 they mounted mar lkime raids on Asia Minor, and in 268 lnunched combined land and sea as sacked, and 260, when they took the Emperor Valerian prisoner at Edessa In audion to foreign attack Valerian’s son Gallienus (259-68) was alto challenged by a secession of rivals Some aimed at total power, while others Formed breakaway sates inthe east and west Germanic peoples broke through the western from tiers on several occasions, most seriously in 260 hen they invaded Gaul and raiding paris reached! a8 far 4 Tarraco in Spain. There were ‘major invasions of Italy in 259, 268 and 271. The Romans ought back succesfully on all fronts, however: within few years the Persians had been driven back beyond the) ‘Tigris and the Goths beyond the Danwbe. BY the end of the 270s the empire had been reunited and ie frontiers restored. in the great invasions of ihe cao the{THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATIAS OF ANCIENT ROME The West Breaks Away ‘Alarmed by Rome's aiture to defend them from attach, the ‘western provinces breah away and choose their oun emperor Besct by invaders on his northern and eastern frontiers, the Himperor Callens (1, 258-68) was unable to hold the empire together. Many provin- tials preferred to put ther uth io regional leaders, who cowlel be seen to be defending their frontiers, than in a distant and ineffectual central authority, The most siecessful regional ruler was Postumus, governor of Lower Germany, whose revolt inthe atari of 260 led wo the creation af a Gallic Empire which survived as @ separate state for almost 15 years. The core ofthis breakaway empire was formed by the three provinces of Gaul (Lagdanenss, Aquitania and Narbonenss) plus the two Germanies with their powerful frontier foes. By 261, Britain and Spain had also gone over to Postuimus and even Racta was briefly ia his contrl ‘The Galle Empite won support from the people of these provinces by com centraing on the defence af the Rhine frontier neither Posturnus nor any fof hin iceeswors made an attempt to march on Rome. Instead, they recog ‘zed the datinctive personality ofthe westers Roman province and sought to make this a source of strength, Prosperous and sesuiicent, dhe Galli Empire survived the death of is founder, though Spain seceded in 269 and the lands east of the Rhone were conquered by Claudius It (x 268-270). Four years later the fast Gallic Emperor, Tesi, was defeated in a hard- fought bathe at ChaloneaursMarne and the princes of Gl, Britain and Germany were reabsorbed Into the Roman Empire by Chui’ successor Pi Gala cond ihe cey arty lsd th a ils he on srapout te cau Avie ar he {Ub dnc te meh mys bd hs oct ft oe urged Ts re poder woe boa for songs ad ‘Se amie cq! dre heck wal pt ay lat ‘on heh ih indy, psy anal meta ah PARI IV. THE TROUBLED CENTURY Aig hci all of Le Mane ‘Lec om so af of sneer. yer on ot tc mba pao her ee raed oy se ipod oy: cf he Cale poms (260-6 ef on me cea ‘whe a recon tt i oe ‘were tn be ‘Stas ep epee ‘The Gallic Empire, (160-273 | ears (fo top 2 . mom — mjervnt ‘oceans Mare Internum Medizerruneas Sea Satna‘THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME The Rise and Fall of Palmyra “Tn the manner of the Persians [Zenobia} received raorship... but in the manner of a Roman emperor she came forth to pric assemblies, wearing ‘a helmet and girt swith a psp itt Her face was dark... her eyes were black and porerfat her sprit divinely great, her eauaty incredible.” The Thirty ‘Tyrants, from the Historia Augusta As Rome lost its grip on its eastern provinces, the powerful trading city of Palmyra assumed the leadership of the region. During the fest two and a half centres ap, dhe ety of ‘operated as a sembindependent power on the finges of Roman Syria, but its great ‘opportunity came when the Persians overran the eastern provinces in 260 and captured the Roman Emperor Valerian at Edessa (m pages 108-9) Valeran's son Gallienus was distracted by woubles on the nonhern frontier, by dhe need to deal with a Series of sit claimants, and by the secession of the Gallic Empire, and was unable wo counter the Persian threat n person, “This lott the Bel clear forthe Palmyrenes onder their ruler Odenathus to take the lead in defending the eastern provinces. At fits they operated as alles of Gaiemus, and achieved some noxable sucess: they recovered the province af Mesopotamia from the Persian, and-in 268 defeated them in front of their capital Cesiphon, “The greatest expansion of Palmyrene power came after Odenath's dest In 267- Although he was nominally eceeded by is son Vaballaths, the ‘real power was exercise by his widow Zenobia. Io 270-71 she embarked on a programme of conquest which brought Egypt and large areas of Asia Minor under her rule. Ie was a shortived triumph, however, since in 272 the Emperor Aurelian (x, 270-75) launched a determined campaign recover the eastern provinces and destroy Zenobia's power. He advanced through Asia Minor, winning victories at Tyana, Imanae, and Ems, ane Desieging Zenobia in Palma ise. She wat eaught Mecing to Persia on camel, and afer appeating in Avrelin’s triumph vas allowed to retire t 3 villa near Rome, The eastern provinces were brought back peacefully under Roman contol, but the Palmyrenes had not learned thelr lesson. In 273 they ied to assert thelr independence once again: the revolt was pt down and the ity destroyed Palmyra and the East, 260-73 (tenn 2 [2 cree ctr [| % | Businus atte Sea peek“THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME V: Restoration and Fall The later 3rd contiry was marked by & programme of recovery and consolidation begun in the 270s bu brought fo ovition inthe teign ofthe Emperor Diocletian. The following decades ere Inared by the firm government of Diocletian colleagues ond ‘uccesors, culminating in he reign of Constantine, the ist Christian emperor. Thereafer, though paganism lived on, Ghristanity was the official religion ofthe Reman Empire, and ‘remained so during the dectining years of Roman rule, uti the abdication ofthe last western emperor in 476 ‘The Roman word ofthe th century ws wey different from the empire of the Julio-Giadians tree hundred years before. Despite the modest eastem ‘conquests of Dioletan, Constantine's viewories north of the Danube, and Jullan’s ambitious Ferdian campaign, the Roman Empire was now very ‘och embated against foreign enemies. Furthermore from the middle of the 4th century, andl definitely from 305, it was divided into two halves, ‘each of which went is separate way Defence ofthe Reale When Diocletian came 19 power in 28¢it must have seemed that he was just nother Irian amy officer who would rule fora few yeats and then be ‘murdered by the woops to make way fr a suecesor. This had been the pat tern forthe past $0 years Even an emperor as trong and successful | Aurelian had fallen victim to asasination. Yet Diocletian proved himself ‘establishing a position of power which he held for dng not to mult or even a natural death, Dut ¥ol: ‘unary abieating to spend his ast years in peaceful retirement, Given the turbulence af recent decades, this was a remarkable achievement (On his accetsion Diucetian was faced by two major security concerns the security ofthe empire and ite fromtiers and the security of the imperial lice itself. The secur’ of dhe empire he addressed by increasing the size ofthe army. Many ne legions were created, but though these were sll the velleilled infantry anitsfaniar from ear periods they were ote suby stantially salle, seme of them composed of nly around 1000 men, 2 ‘opposed tthe earlier 5000, Bt the army as whole was anger tha it had been in che 2nd cen-ury, and perhaps numbered as many 2s 40,000 men, an increase ofa third. Iv adion, Diocletian spent much efforeand outlay fon the strengghening ofthe frontier defences. the state, and Divclctan accompanied them by ax refore which sought Coe that he army was egal paid and adequately opie, These ne axes were pit pay in oi, bt partyin Kind tla reflection ot the decline of te tonetary ceawomy which was haar ofthe late Roman period serait ntti oer Tera of ker pr socal appears of he ‘nail oper PARI: RESTORATION AND FALL The Expression of Power The frequent imperial asssinations had been a destabilizing factor during the Sr century. Diocletian sought we counter ts by introducing elaborate court ceremonial, which made the emperor remote and aloo. Hencelorth, ‘when emperots appeared in pubic an state oecasions, they wore a jewelled diam, jewelled shoes, and robes of purple and gold. Subjects who wisicd to approach them had to prostrate themselves at ther fect ad Ks the bem of thei robe. Gone were the days wien the emperor was shmply princgs oe sist ceae™, That had asye heen something af & ‘but mow the emperor cast off ail pretence and brcatne dems ods “lord and god! ‘Gone also were the days wes the emperor pretended ta vule in consule tiom with the Senate: he was now abeoite monarch, witha council of adv ‘ers appointed by himsel, Imperial security was improved sil farther by changes inthe onganization ‘oF the empite. Maty ofthe rebelions of the previous half century had been made posible by the fact that a provincial governor in an important fom tier province had oth evil and miliary forces this cominandl. This combi‘oy compe fat Comune ya he ‘iin big roi he nation made it posible for him wo defy cenural gonertiment with itl local ‘opposition. Diocletian changed all that by separating civil ant military uhoriy. The commanders ofthe army no fonger had evan functions as Well each province had both a cil governor and a military commander or ‘dus The boundaries of the provinces had been redaven once before by Septimius Severus. Now the Severan provinces were yet further subdivided, 10 that provincial goxemors controlled smaller territories and had eve Test indvial power. Brain, for Intance, whieh had niginally Icon 9 slngle province was divided into two by Severs, and into four by Diocesan, The provinces i tar were grouped into 12 larger tnt, er digceses, controled by ‘icas”direey responsible to the imperial administration ‘The most radical change in the postion of emperor was Diocletian's co- ‘option of colleagues. This arose from the recognition that the problems (ce Ing the empire (and especially the frontier threals} were too great to be handled by one ruler alone. Diocletian appointed his frst colleague, Maninmian, as "Caesir” unior emperor) in 285, and promoted him to “Augustus (senior emperor, on an equal footing with btself) a year later 1m 285, the number af emperors was inreased to four by the appoinunent ‘of junior emperors i both west and eas. Ths division of power —noven a the tetrarehy-—had important consequences forthe fare. Ic ination ined the distinction between eastern and western halves of the empire, which was to become more firmly Fed in the couse of the duh century, And wast lead after 295 to station where the two halves operated inde pendendy ofeach other, Constantine and Christianity Diocletian's reforms tthe pattern of imperial administration for decades vo come, The tetearely lel, however, som fll ite to inva ambi tion. When Diocletian abdicated in 305 he forced his xenior colleague Marimian todo so ako, and together they passed on the mantle of govern ment to ther junior colleagues Constantius and Galerius, who becatne dhe new senior enperors. They in tum appointed new junior colleagues, so that the tetrarehic arrangement wis continued. When Constantive ied in 306, however, cracks began to show. His sn, Constantine, was recognized bythe Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices, 201 1 301 the Eeperor Docc psd tis, iit a atempetochechifaton which he Albedo “wanted a lensed oar ice ae gen in davai tt by this pes he enrinswas merely a secon iy and ot represent «pleat ein Ieltonship to {earnest ty Dilan aa ie sees sill ao unto. 1 dvr heat Sarny median To Turley ary made 60 ne army nds ‘ene army modes 100 1 Likens, for wines Picene ‘eatin eis 30, harioe Maan earn 90 ntinaty ian string 8 beer. Galicor Taian storing 4 beer Pgypdan Malan watson 4 UL kei, for oi Sor unipe oles 1 New sas 40 seco qa an pound 12 fect eatin pound 8 ‘Like, fo ia seach ‘alan pound 24 Fi secoodquatiy Laan pound 18 iver sh bet quale 1Hkan ound 1B er yy wlan pound 10 0 VL For wage ‘a tbat, sit maintenance ily 2 carpenter avabove ey 50 val pine, eave daly % Petre painter, arabore dy 10 Ike, asabone aly ” ewan tater per ‘oly 6 heck room atndant Dertaiher ily 2 * awandard sued conaner we for dy gona PARI V: RESTORATION AND FALL western provinces as his father's sccestor, but only grudgingly accepted by the other tetrarchs At about the same time Maxentius, sou of Diocletian's eo Teague Maxima, declared hizsel emperor at Rome, and took posession of Tuly and North Africa, The omserjuence waka series oe wars el pale set. Htements which ended only with the overthrow of the inset Under Constantine, the programme of administrative and military reorm continued. He was responsible for ‘living the Koman army into frontier troops and mobile field rnits, a move which was evtiived by some observers since they felt it weakened the fron tiers. Constanine himself was a successful military commander, however, who won not only bi wars but also campaigned suecesfully against Germans and Goths. But his most famous innovation wie not al tary or adiinarative, it was religions the adaption of Christianity as he official sate religion. CCustans had had a ad sar the deh ceneury. fn February 803 the eastern emperors Diocletian and Ap on aro iio sf a rection f tbe cay Mi ht a aa sp og ‘ei et oft or ie. sore lle any lp qual to be rc oe. ofc cy et leer nd are cna mae Te opie, bl eel pra Dinette marty rae ‘ins een par ta ps apo te ppc Gtr ad ine a dit ordering the dessction of churches anc scriptures 1 vas followed soon ae. ‘wards by ole edict, cliinating in the command that everyne tote sre fo the pagan gous “This the Chradansvesed to do, and they died In ther thousandsin consequence. The persecaton con tinued in the eaterm provinces wn 81, but ae te inal ona it Beeame sande haphaard"TH PENGUIN HISTORIGAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Abort wal ping, frome ego dpc te Cini rigs art on te om the ie “tent tenaal eam ie peat te hen come et ih her h-otry hobo Ser “che a ab on "pron a Reno ‘seri a nT Tor ndof hc formal bya pif acer ot kc ero ‘ta doe fn nature, and never had mych fmpact in the wes. Te was one thing t tolerate, another actualy 10 adopt the Chrisdan rel fiom. Yet that wae what Constantine (id, alter his vetory over Maxentius at the Mivian bridge Just north of Rome in October 312. He caimed to Ihave scen a ion ofthe crow in the noanday sky shordy before the bat- tle, with the divine command “Conquer by this”, Whatever the truth, whether through policy oF personal conviction, Constantine henceforth became a committed (Christian, He took an interventionist line in the affairs of the Christian ‘church, presiding in person at Church councils wile at the same time admitting Christian bishops to his inner citcle of counsellors, ‘Temple treasures were confiscated and used to fund a major programme of church building, including the frst Se Peter's at Rome and the churches bull ver the Holy Places at Jerusalem and Bethlehem Paganism did not sddealy disappear, however, and despite edicts designed to discourage oF prohibit pagar practices, onm-Chrisians comtinued to hold high positions At court throught the eh centry (One fnal feature of Constantine's reign was the further eclipse of Rome fas centre of imperial government, Constantine himself had at one time planned to be buried there, but in $30 he dedicated a new capital at Constantinople on the Bosphorus, This was a Christian capital, without the heavy legacy of pagan temples andl institutions so conspicuous at Rome It also illustrated an importance shift in the imperial centre of {ravit, with the eastern provinees increasingly important as the west Sippe! ino decline. esa of ‘ine nde rel of "hepreie dr ends of Rn me PARI V: RESTORATION AND FALL. "The Succesors of Constantine By the ime Constantine died in 887 he had divided the empire among, his three surviving sons Constantine Il, Constantius Hand Constans. He had intended his step-rother's son Flavius Tullus Dalmatins to be a fourth (Cacsar, but Consantine’s sons murdered him within six months, Nexto ko was Constantine I, killed in bate against his brother Constans in 340, Constans himself was killed eeng from the usurper Magnentius in 339 (Only Constantius survived to die a natural death, in November 360, but even | he reached only #4 wal le was about 10 do bate with his cousin Ju ‘when he was carted of bya fever Constantine's sons may have bad ‘ew seryples in dealing with hee vals or indeed with each othee—but they all claimed to be Christian emperors Julian, however, was a saunch advocate of dhe tational religion and wed fn various ways to tur back the cock. He removed the x exemption which Constantine hl giver 19 Christan clergy, and renewed the practice of pagan scrfce with great enusiasm, He provoked Christians even Further by ari ‘waily closing the Great Church at Antioch and threatening to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem as a counterpoise to Constantine's ‘church ofthe Holy Septlelire. Actions wich a+ these unsealed even many pagan believers, bout flian did mot survive to ear out all his schemes He yas killed in his ambitious but Abertive Persian campaign of 68 Julln's suecesors were Christan, bot i was ‘not until the final years of the Ath century tha they began to tke further sep to rad cate pagan belief, In 884 the regional gower- regius ordered the closure of temples sgypt. Seven years later, the Emperor ‘Theodosius issued a series of further edicts prohibiting pagan sacrifice and withdrawing subsidies rom pagan priests The strength of feeling against pagans drove groupe of Chistians-—cven rmonks—1o attack pagan temples snd synagogues. Chsianity was so power fl dha a prominent bishop such as Ambrose of Milan could even Impose humiliating public penance onthe Emperor Theodosius hinselé For the ordinary people, thote working the land, the 4th century was 2 time of increasing repression. A law of 832 tied tenant farmes the land to prevent them avoiding payment of pol tax. This was one of many exam ples of the growing authoritariaiism of the late empire, Another trend vas the increasing wealth of the very rich, atthe very same time as the poor were suffering taxation and oppression. Wealthy landowners massed enormous estates and lived on them in palatal villas surrounded by storerooms and workshops which could take on the character of sal ‘owns. While some regions of the empire were in economic dificult rs, such as Syria and North Africa, experienced renewed prosperity the century drew to its close Knowledge of the official administrative and military structure at this period ‘comes tous irom 2 1551 copy ofa alicia Ascentury doeuen, the Notes Dignitatum (ist of offices, which details the chil and military commands of the empire and preserves dhe mame and even the insignia of individual ml tary units. Taso lists the imperial factories established by Diocletian to sup ply dhe army with weapons and other materials.{TIE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME ihe e One King Theor ote Ode ow owe in 83th reine apart map alc depiced seat net ince of ow ti ior dpe oes the Epo Hoa "essa Heh ston ith he gd Ie ‘i an of Ct on al shy cong” te “ori ey be spats Contotne ‘free he ae ge ber te ‘anion “omg ti ‘ec, Hanae rene ‘pe the Gots om ted aad ing Rome le "The Gothic lnvasions In military terms, the last decades ofthe th century were dominated by the mensee of the Goths, This Germanic peo- ple had seitled north of the Back Sea and had already raid- ce Asia Minor and the Ballan provinces ofthe Roman empine ‘uring the middie decades of the Sed century. By the later ‘ih century the Goths found temeches under considerable pplessure from a new nomadic ‘vey, the Huns, on thie ease fem lank, ancl sought refuge within the territories of the empire. Valens, te eastern emperor, allowed one group t enter, but later ao badly male turated them that they rebelled. In a great baile Fought at Adrianople in $398 the army of the easter empire suffered crushing defeat, and Valens enself was lle By this ie dhe empite was definitively divided into avo halves, east and west The division took is final frm when Valentinian 1 (364-75) gave com {Wolof dhe east ta his othe Valens (364273). Ye in 878, inthis moment of ‘iss forthe eastern empire, authority reverted to Valentinian’s son and Siceeswr in dhe wert, the Emperor Gratian (367-88). He installed his army ‘commander Theodosius [as the new eastern emperor. To Thicodosis fll the enormous tak of clearing the Goths from the Balkans, or at least bring ing thein under control. Thi was achieved only by allowing them to sete vethin the empire under their own king, normally as an ally of Rome but ‘electvely a at armed and autonomous people, Si Pin “The Sack of Rome When Theodosius died in $95 his young sons Areadivs and Honorins were installed respec tively eastern and western emperors. The Goths ‘hose this moment to break into open rebellion Under their new leader Alaie they advanced on CConseansinople and then embarked on an orgy of Killing and loting in Greece. The year 97 foun them in Epirus (northwest Greece), and there they sited for four years wl in 401 ey made a first invasion of Italy. That was turned back by Siicho, the army commander appointed by ‘Theodosius to take care of Honoris. A second Invasion in 407 was bought olf. They were back the following year, however, and in 10 after wo years seeking to negotiate with the vaillating om ‘crment of Honorius, they lost patience and ‘icked Rome, “The event seas regarded as a catastrophe by com temporaries, even though Rome was no Tonger the seat of imperil government in aly that had heen moved to Ravenna, safe behind its coastal ih te Geman pes ob alte Ra api the Send PART V: RESTORATION AND FALL marshes. The western empite was indeed already in criss, beset not only by Goths ut iy sva emperors and by rls of Vandals Alans and Suebi who hhad rose the Rhine and were asaging Gal, The Goths themselves lel Healy and were eventually ceded 2 Kingdom centred on Toulouse in 418. onorius survived five more years, dying of disease in 428. By that dime, Seta, ogee ih age areas of al nd Spain, were lective beyond Honorius's successors in the west fared litle better. The long reign of Valentinian II (423-85) saw the defeat ofthe Huish leader Ala atthe bate ofthe Cataluanian Fields in 438, but fled to turned back the rend to fragmentation. North Africa fll to the Vandals in 439. The western ‘emperors who followed Valentinian gradually yielded more and more power tothe Germanic commanders who eontaled their armies, eventual Jy becoming litle more than igureheads, The ls of al, Romulu Auguste own dsmisively as Augustalis, “the lite Augustus), abdicated in 476, withdrawing with acomfortable pension to Campania. ‘The abdication of Romulus Augustus marks the end of the Roman empite {nthe west, which henceforth wasa mosaic of Germanic Kingdoms ruled by Ostogoths, Visighs, Vandals, Frans, Saxons and others, Within these te ores, the Roman aristocracy survived, reading and writing in Latin as before (only in Briain was Latin displaced), and patting their administer tive sills tothe sesce oF new masters In the eas by contrast, the Renna ‘empire remained strong. lis emperors frequently intervened in western alfa; the most owerful of them, Justinian I (327-05), actually recon. ‘queted a substantial part ofthe lost western provinces, Mech ofthis trv 2 was Jost again inthe century that followed, but dhe Byzantine realm ‘hed. its Greekspeaking rulers continuing wo sje themselves “Emperor of {he Rosmans* unl he last of them died bythe ey walls ben the Ottoman ‘Turks conquered Constantinople in 1459,THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME ihe he ony Roma ony nba a a pe “The enowned eco Diocletian and the Division of Power nerd Ie eairetant cares ine ere Soca es ‘peri peed ae One of Diaclesian’s fis act was to name a colleague, Maximian, as emper ‘or with responsibility for the western provinces. That was in 285. Hight years Inter the division of power was taken n stage further when Digeletan and Maximian each appointed a junior colleague: Galerius in the eas, Constantius (ather Bf Constantine) in the west. Thus was established the tetrarchy, the system of government which divided overall responsibility between a college of four regional emperors, headed by Diocletian, Rome was abadoned as a major imperial res: The accession of Diocletian in 284 brought an end to 50 years of | | } dence, and new centes exited nearer the woubled on eee Gere Ter and Millan, Therstonicaand Ncomedia Say, Diocletian's reorganization of the imperial administration went _meh further than asmpledivision of power—he comprehen ‘Svely overhauled the provinces, eeating a system of smallez provinces grouped into 12 larger administrative units called. Uigceses, Another erucal innovation was the separation of tint and military power; goxernors of provinces and dioee- Ses had no military authorty and army commanels were ‘organized ina way which cros-eut peosincial boundaries. ‘Exmmea The aim was to femove ance and for all Ube threat of insurrection by powerful provincial governors ‘Avon thefowr tacts Diocletian also addressed the empire's economic, 4% nscale ms problem, ncreasng che weigh ofthe gold coin, ”-*7 ona Pelorgkaranants ing the Hint good sve: for a ceny fae Teme ofteenin The syd reorganizing te mins, A for selfs, Tiinvwrslacrat iene coinage was struck throughout the in A ca ct goof Sekt shasta empire, and each coin creed the name meee at Vans Gf the mint which produced it x0 that Sy tape It quality ould be torts source. In 301 he aten to curb inflation by freenng of wages ad prices, but this not Troll fo long. On the whole, how ver, Diocletian's seforms were 50 << "ccessful that in 305 he as able to Gung Me abdicate voluntarily oe on, “The empire reorganized by ek Diocletian, AD 294 a en ome [fom] tres | | (= ove oe [i Aha roa [tense ree Mower [EE] Tene me eon 2 ‘weThe Spread of Christianity Christianity first took holdin the east, but apart from an early rs PARE RESTORATION AND FALL ‘pearance et Rome itself, it didnot become popular in the west — inves, tin the rd century. + Sygrenman For many ars, Christy was just one of nal eligions Crean page 102-31 Gra achieved official otoriety in the righ, OS : four women oF Neto, who made the Christians the scapegoals for the “”“*N7%° Kay Ammonarion, a Great Pre of Rome in a0 64 The historia ems had Some most respectable cd ome$8 ers bore, ut Gants ql ts ° * Wy trough he caster province and by the Bs there 62 | Peper young woman, 7 yas even aChristian community at Rome. ira a= Spite of he 0986 yy seen ofthe It ena, the pan of ler oe and prolonged on altereating with persecition, which was to ¢ lorture. kat true comin sil the reign of Constantine inthe = TES ary century, had been essed Domitian cote ‘oer promise and (aa'ei-n6 ke Nero, id to have perce 01 AE was led away, The Chestians; “good” emperors such as Trajan (AD) 98 bier toes athens were 117) cose w ignore tem asa 8 pone, The serious ie cuts oyun Inthe Se entry, hen Che Mercuria, a very Reniymanell eatlshed sven sonong he Falng dignified lady, and dase on ame be soon ta eat tothe Prone se 0 the Epc Des (a 245) ; ive an eet ering a hen mother of a large empire to make serfice tthe tration Jronily bat just sot home, Unable todo hi many Cl devoted to her Lord, "altered torture and death ted he Lord. gecuton was tenet in 98 in a seh The ge cmp by alert bole the ofa, b ashaaned (0 go 0n jn S18 the Emperor Constantine made Chi orturing without — Sanity the state religion; he was baptized on his ‘deathbed in 387, Paganism was sill (olerated, but temple treasures were results and to be ihe Chrisie Conflsced and wed fo sports mar cechbuldig rogamme This chr a ae Aefeated by women, included fr St Peter’ in Ronse nad churches vette holy places of ie ea satay died Py the Teer: and ray where Cnsanine’s mes Helena edo “noes is Lvtthoug ive found the eos on yhich Chris yas eid Conssntine ook a per ‘Mari eral. Tae sword withou! sonal imerest in Christian doctrine, and supervised the church councils at oi cay Uae being put to any Aves and Neaea to combat heresy. The in between church ad sae was mop ey to remir a pewerfl ie rn Cr further test by fe ok Cr, Cri ey tee ! ie pone ‘The persecution of Christians Ritz oech Cheater under Decius esti met (a0 250), from “esac re 50), fromm Seer te Kusebius, radii syatte Beclesiastical Mmphmemml ic wee History Sept reste a — "rt ed 35,“THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Constantine the Great PARI-V: RESTORATION AND FALL The rise of Constantine, AD 306-24 Unuitting to share power, Constantine defeated his rivals and 2 eae) ge et oe aul euniied the enpires going ita new religion ond a ew cite. ae Se = "ents Sta [Jw = Se omtamnt ‘he gute of dived mle which Dien had established didnot longa ce HEY He heen oan | ye survive his retirement in 305, la the west, the struggle was between Siege i oe |e ‘Maxentius, who had seized Haly and North Africa, and Constantine, who Moatitae)/ eee had succeeded his father Constantius as western emperor in 306, In 312 Constantine invaded Tay and defeated Maxentis at Turin and Verona, then at the battle of the Mivian Brldge. This left im ‘undispted rer of the western provinces Constantine at firs agreed a division of power with Licinins, who con: twole the eas, but by SIG he fel song enough 4 attack his ra, seiring Greece and the Hallans, The ensuing ‘race lated ntl 324, when Constantine fina defeated Licinius: his victory reunited the Roman Empire under the re of one man, Comtoningttertoeie Consantine used his power to promote the religion tom iginrr Ted! we had adopied_Coviabanty. He lined 10 have pps murals seen vison ofthe eros of Christ the evening before soueblg mane te bale of the Mian Bridge, and to have wor his “pote yiewy through the power of that symbol. He made {Christianity he state etigion, contscang temple 2The ee ee ‘weasures and building many new churches. He also ook a personal interest in theology, pati ipating in Church council t Arles im S14 and Nicaea in 325, and being baptized on his deathbed in 887. Constantine strengthened the security of the empite, especially along the Danube (m pages 86-87), and reformed the army, making a distinetion between frontier tints and a motile field army, He was also a lavish builder: at Trier, his frst capital, and at Rome, ‘where he built baths and completed the massive Basilica Nova whose ruins still dominate the Forum, The senate also voted him the famous Arch of Constantine, o commemorate hi victor ih is eof Catt ows par of cll aut + oftheemproet a ame | ipl gg 17 over Maen One of Constantine's ost cman Tatng achievement eas the transformation of Ee theme the Greck cy of Byzantium ino a new capt, owe ‘Constantinople, in 380 ‘Gp aesTH PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME Roman Technology and Engineering hone paar widely acd ongon Sh “pie and ged ro ra cies cho hs late Romae eat ihe poster ps, tlt frig strut te Romi wor psc an elf of rec Tor per ad ler sat of Lampe Sib pron (ahem da Thal mpi aed sth ot, coe fom Rea “ioe Rik many ty of it were edo ewe rngeof pt the roi of mo hs Coldtrtype naar tl we combustion chabert Tein ok ornace Abe le oy ‘torpor pons The ma ro td oe ew eb rach tia bu af Roman technical skills were applied to large-scale projects— ‘roads, aqueducts and mines—and to everyday manufactured goods. ‘The empire depended forts communications on the newwork of allweather roads which began axa series of sratogc arteries in aly enabling troops ‘and supplies to be moved rapidly from one sector to another. The actual method of construction varied greatly from place to place, depending on the wailabilty of materials and the local subsoil, In marshland the road might take the form of a gravel causeway ona timber raft In the eater provinces, roads consisted of loose stone fill between carefully laid kerbs The finest roads ofall, however, were those such a8 the Gamous Via Appia, ‘wth a surface of polygonal pang slabs careful ited together. The laying-out of Roman roads was in the hands of trained surveyors, as was the sill more demanding discipline of aqueduct Roman aqueduct were designed to bring drinking water from distant sources to supplement local ‘nipples, Generally they ran in covered channels at ground level, following the natural contours, this in self demancled skilled surveying. I la where defies were to be crosed, however, that aguediuts became most impres five, striding on arches across river valley oF lowland plain s as to mai tain the gradient of flaw within the specified parameters, For motive power, the Romans mde use of wind, water, and muscle, both human ad animal, Wind power was lite used save for sailing ship, wind. mill for grinding grain were a medieval jmnovation, Water, however, Was tiscd for milling, both in smallacale establishments such as thove at rver ‘crossings om Hadrian's Wall, and in the batteries of water mill on the hill Side at Barbégal in southern France, dtsigned produce four on an indus tral sale, Muscle power was a more traditional source of energy. Animals Cx: Rigi: Roman ng ties nerd “spleen sat car tot (etfs Ts ns of "it ae of rs tet fod te Rona cope as at is Tate PART Ve RESTORATION AND FALL, ted the rotary mills at Roman Pompei, and the widespread avallabiiy of slave labout may have removed mich ofthe incentive for the adoption of laboursaving devices suchas the prmlve steam turbine deserbed by Hero of Alexandria Another dimension of engineering sill was the sinking of mines, notably for valuable metals such as copper and lead, The mines of the Therian peninsula were especially productive, and have yielded rare examples of the technology used by the Romans to drain water from che deeper galleries, Including terew pumps and water wheels Alongside these major engincering works the Romans slo developed con- ‘Sierable technical sil in the manufacture of malls lems sich ss pottery land glassware. Some of their glassware was of remarkable quality—the Pordand Vase is fine example—but the Romans uted glass even for every day objects such as botdes, Pottery was also produced in quanti, notably the many pes of amphora (often locally made) or the redalipped table wares of Gaul and North Afvca. Kiln sites throughout the Roman world show that Roman poters could achieve high temperatures in carefully can- trolled conditions, and the ubiquity oftheir products is evidence of both tele skill and succes, Lattin fom | si am, eet we ieee meen (eet cmeececliemnee Sicha aa Geet"THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME PART: RESTORNTION AND FALL A Fragile Prosperity Soaps em ofa al Affe the troubles of the 3rd century, the 4th was a period of eae oe renewed property in may parts of the Roman empire ete es ‘The refrms of Dalen and Contin provides wn anne fom tn lity atrophy et huden on Sel te over cic inthe nner prone tegen pone wand spire ural villas. The towns, by contrast, were in decline, and it scems that ard wally landowners abandoned inet ty Howes ive hr couty eit {Nate The lay heaton the Rhine-Danae one and he ext ‘Spy he slew weapons and ding Theat entre over Inet on fllored th Rine-anse ax though were nu to ee the omer st be rei expncd to rag ost Hier and ian (ater Ravenna) Inthe west “The best historical evidence comes from the middle of ind, the entry rom the short eign of the Emperor Julian. Between 356 and 360 he fought against Franks and Alananni in eastern Gai, restoring nd strengthening the Rhine frontier; but many of his gaine there were squandered when he withdrew troops for the abortive Persian ermpaign of 868, im which be was Kile. Jlin’s aaa irra ck the csk nd we Cama oaiivontan mefacy ete Ny woh of te ol pug tg aw thease ged He fled and Chistian Dish vinwxenngy, 2/2017 7 Ee on, oenmemeeae and Christan bh vent a pene vmlagoiie oP contioued to exercve great I aoe Ca ‘tafe “mania be et Seiexy = penta wa fm old any ~ see PALIN PONTICA (ci) Threat 1 toncomm @ ec erare Fl Smee aaa ey ‘cn fast eae 2 sarong [ASIANA ¢. Ferries ord Se eeu i 7 ie 2G Sams a. oe ee oa seh oes 1 ae : | rs cree reesei | a isa ae ‘sesetemeen toe [J xviica) ee. ” 2 yotlcn mh pmled . ed) Thternum cme prefectures: “ace un indies ‘Orrawean Sea a eg wesc = Speeds"THE PENGUIN IHSTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME PART Vi RESTORATION AND FALL The Fall of the Western Empire “All the devastation, the butchery, the plundering. which accompanied the recent disaster ‘at Rome were in accordance with the general practice of ‘warfare, But there was something which ... changed ‘the whole aspect of the seene; the savagery of the barbarians took on such an aspect that the largest churches were ... set aside to be filled with people to be spared. This isto be attributed to the name of Christ ‘and the influence of Christianity.” St Augustine, ‘The City of G ale ae Slice ee ‘The catastrophic Battle of Adrianople set in motion a chain of ‘events which culminated in the sack of Rome. 5 the Viskoths, seeking refuge from the Huns who were invading thee ' ‘rose the Danube into the Roman Epi. There they were tol 1 while, bt fn 378 the Kaxtern Emperor Valens le a army to drive them out. Ie was a disastrous error, atthe Battle of Adrianople the emperor was killed and his army destroyed. His suecestor Theodosius Icon ‘add 2 peace treaty in 382 whl allowed the Visigouhs to sete within the ‘empire, technically a+ Roman ais. In 385, however, they rebelled der thie new ruler Alri, With the aim of extracting further concessions from the Romans, they began raiding the Balkans, and in 401 invaded northern ' lily. The young Western Emperor Honoris and hi court abandoned their nual residence at Milan for the safely of Ravenna. Stiicho, regent to Honoris and himself of Germanie origin, dove the invaders back ‘The military situation in the west became eritcal in December sd the Rhine in force, The sacked Trier and ravaged then crossed the Pyrenees into Spain in 409. ho longer the imperial capital, the event sent shock waves through dhe eivilized wold, Alaric died later the same year and the ‘Visigoths left Kaly for Gaul and Spain in AMANITA ZTE Tay remained in Roman hon The Viigo exalised na inependent tng Aomnin Aquitaine i #10, omever, and tinge pr Spin were fo See tr'Vandal contol By the time Vanda rose to Aten and pred 7 CGthge tn 19, he Wenn Epc Savon the vrge a ial beatdown, Hos The Germanic invasions, AD 378-439 tonto Sas — tpg cen ean eta see ale xh (CC .“THE PENGUIN HISTORICAL ATLAS OF ANCIENT ROME PART V: RESTORATION AND FAL The Inheritors Byzantine econquest, AD 590-54 Tyne tr? 7 tras comes Pane amps ‘From Constatinapl, Germanic Kings raged for power inthe By the end of the 4th century the Roman Empire was divided into wo halves, east and west, each with is own emperor. The cmperoreat mes openty at war—presented a daunted Front to the Germanie peoples preg on their fone tiers. The west, the weaker of the wo ales, was dismes bere in the course of the Sth century, The Visigoths established 4 kingdom in Aquitaine in 418, and extended their power to Spi, Vandals raided Gaul tel Spain before crosng to Africa and conquering the old Roman province by 49 Anglo-Saxons raided Ano temaean op av souled casirn Britain during the 4th and 3th ite aac Cencures, changing the language and exabshing their GpehicRing cede own Kingdoms. Tn the late Sth century France came satel Omer wth increasing under the contol ofthe Frank, st Voile eonyor of he Bronte in 507 they defeated the Vsigoths and advanced their Pernt youders to the Pyrenees. Italy self became part of the Western Europe « AD 526 | erm et | yee re —e — COsurogethi Kingdom in 476 when the last Roman emperor, Roms abn Aa otto san xn ams et compan artayric ‘he easton from Roman province w Germanic Kingdom dil nt mash oe DEEN Hf an sae wea hs the a many eas te existing province wets = ‘ey cominicd hot la ud power wort and wortp as betore ont Tov a mdr of German te, The ne rues needed ese poopie to ‘ner tea Chin remained the domipnt rego ao toe {oak ons gowg importance. ane nl ener ri Here change wt iin he inion OF Sat Augustine (37) was eqied segin the emerson othe Ag Sovons Chany. ‘The Easter Empire (rom this time refered 0 a8 Byzantine) escaped te fit ofthe west nd continued to lowrish under eis of expble emp fom Inte ia half ofthe ih cent, the Emperor Jaina even reo ere Emer nin ered of some of the lom western provinces Nor Ain, where he ‘issn’ Yon ngdom el i 89 aly ad Sly, where te Dyrannes ened mosaic in the church of $28 Foecholdl for over 200 years; and Spain. The hold on Spain proved tenuous, critic eye, and mot tay lt the Lomibars in 568 By thee of the Tad. tench fotowing centr. Slane Balkans and Arabs fn the Neat East and Keven ly North Aes ha ripped Byam of ch of Is eto. From oraind ciel Be yo, the empire was js one of several sates jockeying For power in the | ei er ty Me ianean wot ofthe cay Mie AgesRulers of Rome, 753 Bc—AD 565 Rome’s LEGENDARY KINGS TiS-078. NUMA POMPILIUS e762 TULLUSHOSTILIUS 6420617 ANCUSMARTIUS 816-579 1 TARQUINIUS PriscUS S595 SERVIUSTULLIUS 535.510. L-TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS LEADING STATESMEN OF THE REPUBLIC 509 Laci Junin BRUTUS coe 286 SPURIUS CASSIUS cna 488-79 ami bp fay hc ABIL 488 Lucius Quince CINCINNATUS tr 91-50 TheDecennits conc of on S77 GILIGINIUS Solo Lane SEXTIUS cnn S57 MPa CAMILLUS dit 356 G.Mareas RUTILUS pio ator 312 APPIUS CLAUDIUS Cacus conor 217 QUABIUSMAXIMUS itr 215,194. P,Comnlie SCIPIO (AFRICANUS) cout 18 NcPorelis CATO enor 162 Aeris atlas cat 142 SCIPIO AEMILIANUS aL MUMMMIUS tian 183 TIBERIUS GRAGCHUS tne 13-92 GAIUS GRACCHUS inane 15M. Aenius SCAURUS frinpr aur 100 Q Caeiay METELLUS somal 51-79 UacineComelne SULLA dar 8 Ga. Pompelus (POMPEY) ‘radia 3M Tulls CICERO vont tOas Hist Tsai POMPEY: G. JULIUS CAESAR: S44 JULTUSCARSAR ator Jar Caer Oceans (OCTAVIAN): ares Antonie (MARK ANTONY; ML Aerie LEPDUS S027 OCTAVIAN os pel foes “he rae lec oly he mt important Rela tenes ar gue soar reper end seed ‘rues eo. The ame by ch aro bat Inown to history is glen tn copes. Mice, 2 abn and Angas, eg Mask Any re lcd ‘rate Th Homan nae Cant and Cis fn Spaeth ara of te eine the ed etary 1) when the Latin apt had no The te ued oul sb lt airacualpromincitin, vs EMPERORS ‘The Julio-Claudian Dynasty 27a iat Caesar AUGUSTUS (Octian) S7-AL Gaius Caesar Germanic (CALIGULA) 41-51 Tiherins CLAUDIUS Neto Cena {Hc08 NERO Claude Cesar Dranis Ceranicus 5-60 Seri Sup GALBA | | M.Sihies OTHO | The Flavian Dynasty 68-79. T.Fvis Vespnanus(VESPASIAN) 7881 TITUS Flas Vespsznas 81-95 T- Favs Doan (DOMITIAN) ‘The Adoptive Emperors S117 Manes lpi Taanas (TRAJAN) 17-88. Aelns Harlan (HADRIAN) 188-61 T, Aurelius Boni Arson Antonine (ANTONINUSPIUS) 161-80 Marcie Acie Aurelie Ver (QUARCUS AURELIUS) 161-9 L Anti Vers (CUCTUS VERUS) ‘aot en ith Mores Auras 180.92 [Aurea COMMODUS 195. Heine PERTINAX. 193 MLDIDIUSJULIANUS 1-4 G,PESCENNIUSNIGER 187 Decknns CLODIUS ALBINUS. ‘The Severan Dynasty S117 Mt Auetve Antonina (CARACALLA) 21-12 P.SepuniusGETA M. Opes MACRINUS ML Alves Aatonins (ELAGABALUS) aloe Vera MINES Antonis Goran (GORDIAN 1 M. Jt Philips PHILIP) 6 Measua Quint Trani Dec (RAJAN DECIUS) 6. Vibus TRERONIANUS GALLUS, P. Leis Valesanus (VALERIAN) P Lei gation GALLIENUS Gallic Emperors 259-68 Mt. Caio Latins FOSTUNUS 255-70 _M. Pavonis VICTORINUS 270-78. G Pn Envi TETRICUS RULERS OF ROME, 753 50-0 The Mlyrian Emperors 2834 M. Autos Numerog Numerisnas 208-70. Aurelie CLAUDIUS I “GOTHICUSY (NUNERIAN) {270-78 1, Domiis Auretinus (AURELIAN) 283-5 M.Auelts CARINUS 076M. Chnaiua TACTTUS R306, G Abel Valero Dicktinas 27682 ML Anelie PROBUS (DIOCLETIAN) 2RE3 AM. Anrelnn CARUS, ‘The Tetrarchy 286-905 M, Aurelius Vlei MAXTMIANUS, pee ee 5305.6. Maps Valse CONSTANTIUS $055, Bann Ving CONSTANTUS SMB-IL C.GALERIUS Valerio Maxinians per | 06-24 C.Vleriv Licinianis LCAMIUS SU7-37 Rav Valerie Constantin ° (CONSTANTIN D ‘The House of Constantine 1507-97 CONSTANTINE1 “The Great” alec fom 324 387-40 Fiviss Candi Consaninis $3730 Fave 387-1 Favs us CONSTANTS tt (CONSTANTINE I CCONSTANS 50-59 Mavis Magnus MAGNENTIUS separ te Wat 560 Fai Claus Janae JULIAN “The Apotate”) $85.4 Hava jovi JOMIAN) ‘The House of Valentini: 61-75 Pavia Valensnianis(VALENTINIAN 6-78 Flaon VALENS. S88 MAGNUS MAXIMUS npr 38842 Vateatninan(YALENTINIAN I) 9294 TUGENIUS aren ‘The House of Theodosius $-96 THEODOSIUSI see eirar 294-5 omme423- HONORIUS 495-402 ARCADIUS 425-5. JOHANNES 424655 Pacis Valeninanas(VALENTINIAN I]) 450-57 MARCIAN, 157-61 Jolin Malorians (MAJORIAN) or 0. 151-5 Luis SEVERUS ATA OLYBRIUS area GLYCERIUS He3 JULIUS NEPOS sn.91 1eNO 475-6 Romuhus Angst (AUUGUSTULUS) ise JUSTINT 7-85 JUSTINIAN