1 Introduction

Introduction to Radar Systems
Dr. Robert M. ODonnell
MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Introduction-1
AG 6/18/02
Disclaimer of Endorsement and Liability
The video courseware and accompanying viewgraphs presented on this

server were prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the
United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any
agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology and its Lincoln Laboratory, nor any of their contractors,
subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or
implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, products, or
process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise
does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation,
or favoring by the United States Government, any agency thereof, or any of
their contractors or subcontractors or the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology and its Lincoln Laboratory.
The views and opinions expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect
those of the United States Government or any agency thereof or any of their
contractors or subcontractors
Introduction-2
AG 6/18/02
Introduction to Radar Systems

Introduction

Introduction-3
AG 6/18/02
Acknowledgement
Developers of Tutorial Material

Dr. Eric D. Evans
Dr. Andrew D. Gerber
Dr. Robert M. ODonnell
Introduction-4
AG 6/18/02
Dr. Robert G. Atkins

Dr. Pamela R. Evans
Dr. Robert J. Galejs
Dr. Jeffrey S. Herd
Dr. Claude F. Noiseux
Dr. Philip K. W. Phu
Dr. Nicholas B. Pulsone
Dr. Katherine A. Rink
Dr. James Ward
Dr. Stephen D. Weiner
And many others
Background on the Course
One of Many Radar Courses Presented at the Laboratory
Relatively Short
Introductory in Scope
Introduction-5
AG 6/18/02
Basic Radar Concepts

Minimal Mathematical Formalism
Prerequisite A College Degree
10 lectures
40 to 60 minutes each
Preferred in Engineering or Science, but not Required
More Advanced Issues Dealt with in Other Laboratory Radar

Courses
Outline
Introduction-6
AG 6/18/02
Why radar?
The basics
Course agenda
What Means are Available for

Lifting the Fog of War ?
D-Day + 1
The Invasion of Normandy

D-Day
Courtesy of National Archives.
Introduction-7
AG 6/18/02
What Means are Available for

Lifting the Fog of War ?
Courtesy of US Marine Corp, History Division.
Iwo Jima
1945
Introduction-8
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Military Means of Sensing

Radar
Ground surveillance/
reconnaissance/ID
Laser targeting
Night vision
Space surveillance
Missile seekers
Attributes
Applications
Optical/IR
Introduction-9
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Acoustic
Other
Chem/Bio
Surveillance
Sonar
Radiological
Tracking
Blast detection
Fire control
Troop movement
Target ID/
detection
discrimination
Ground surveillance/
reconnaissance
Ground mapping
Moving target detection
Air traffic control
Missile seekers
Long range
All-weather
Day/night
3-space target location
Reasonably robust against
countermeasures
Early Days of Radar

Chain Home Radar, Deployment Began 1936
Chain Home Radar Coverage
circa 1940
(21 Early Warning Radar Sites)
Sept 2006 Photograph of

Three Chain Home
Transmit Towers, near
Dover
Dover
Radar Site
Courtesy of Robert Cromwell.

Used with permission.
Introduction-10
AG 6/18/02
Chain Home Radar System

Typical Chain Home Radar Site
Radar Parameters
Frequency
Wavelength
350 kW
Detection Range
Introduction-11
AG 6/18/02
About 100o
Peak Power
Dipole Array on
Transmit
Crossed Dipoles on
Receive
Azimuth Beamwidth
10-15 m
Antenna
20-30 MHz
~160 nmi on
German Bomber
Chain Home Transmit & Receive Antennas

Two Transmitter Towers
/2
360'
One Receiver Tower
/2
240'
215'
95'
45'
0'
Main Gap Filler
Antenna Antenna
Transmit Antenna
Introduction-12
AG 6/18/02
Receive Antenna
Radar and The Battle of Britain

Chain Home Radar Coverage
circa 1940
(21 Early Warning Radar Sites)
The Chain Home Radar

British Force Multiplier
during the Battle of Britain
Timely warning of direction

and size of German aircraft
attacks allowed British to
Focus their limited numbers
of interceptor aircraft
Achieve numerical parity
with the attacking German
aircraft
Effect on the War

Germany was unable to
achieve Air Superiority
Invasion of Great Britain
was postponed indefinitely
Introduction-13
AG 6/18/02
Surveillance and Fire Control Radars

Courtesy of Raytheon.
Courtesy of Raytheon.
Courtesy of Raytheon. Used with permission.
Courtesy of US Navy.
Introduction-14
Courtesy of
Global Security.
AG 6/18/02
Photo courtesy
of ITT
Corporation.
Used with
permission.
Airborne and Air Traffic Control Radars

Courtesy of US Air Force.
Courtesy of US Navy.
Courtesy of Northrop Grumman.

Courtesy Lincoln Laboratory.

Introduction-15
AG 6/18/02

Courtesy of Boeing Used with permission
Instrumentation Radars
Introduction-16
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Outline
Introduction-17
AG 6/18/02
Why radar?
The basics
Course agenda
RADAR
RAdio Detection And Ranging
Antenna
Propagation
Target
Cross
Section
Transmitted
Pulse
Reflected
Pulse
(echo)
Radar observables:
Target range
Target angles (azimuth & elevation)
Target size (radar cross section)
Target speed (Doppler)
Target features (imaging)
Introduction-18
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Electromagnetic Waves
Courtesy Berkeley National Laboratory
Radar Frequencies
Introduction-19
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Properties of Waves
Relationship Between Frequency and Wavelength
1, 2, 3,
Speed of light, c
c = 3x108 m/sec
= 300,000,000 m/sec
Figure by
MIT OCW.
Frequency (1/s) =
Examples:
Introduction-20
AG 6/18/02
Frequency
100 MHz
1 GHz
3 GHz
10 GHz
Speed of light (m/s)

Wavelength (m)
Wavelength
3m
30 cm
10 cm
3 cm
Properties of Waves
Phase and Amplitude
Amplitude (volts)
A
Phase,
Amplitude (volts)
A sin( )
90 phase offset
A
Phase,
Introduction-21
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A sin( 90 o )
Properties of Waves
Constructive vs. Destructive Addition
Partially Constructive
(somewhat out of phase)
Constructive
(in phase)
Destructive
(180 out of phase)
Introduction-22
AG 6/18/02
Non-coherent signals
(noise)
Polarization
y
Electric Field
Electric Field
Electromagnetic Wave
Electromagnetic Wave
Magnetic
Magnetic Field
Field
Horizontal Polarization
Vertical Polarization
E
x
Introduction-23
AG 6/18/02
z
Radar Frequency Bands

Wavelength
1 km
Frequency
UHF
1m
1 MHz
L-Band
1 GHz
S-Band
1 m
1 mm
109 Hz
1 nm
1012 Hz
IR
UV
Visible
C-Band
Ku
K
Ka
W
X-Band
VHF
0
30 20
Introduction-24
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10 9
5
6
7
8
Allocated Frequency (GHz)
8 7
6
5
Wavelength (cm)
10
11
12
3
IEEE Standard Radar Bands

(Typical Use)
HF
VHF
UHF
Introduction-25
AG 6/18/02
3 30 MHz
30 MHz300 MHz
300 MHz1 GHz
L-Band
1 GHz2 GHz
S-Band
2 GHz4 GHz
C-Band
4 GHz8 GHz
X-Band
8 GHz12 GHz
Ku-Band
12 GHz18 GHz
K-Band
18 GHz27 GHz
Ka-Band
27 GHz40 GHz
W-Band
40 GHz 100+ GHz
Search
Radars
Search &
Track Radars
Fire Control &
Imaging Radars
Missile
Seekers
Radar Block Diagram
Propagation
Medium
Target
Cross
Section
Transmitter
Waveform
Generator
Signal Processor
Antenna
Receiver
Pulse
Compression
A/D
Main Computer
Detection
Introduction-26
AG 6/18/02
Tracking &
Parameter
Estimation
Doppler
Processing
Console /
Display
Recording
Radar Range Equation
Antenna Aperture A
Transmitted Pulse
Transmit Power PT
Target Cross Section
Received Pulse
Figure by MIT OCW.
Received Signal
=
Energy
Introduction-27
AG 6/18/02
Transmit
Power
Transmit
Gain
Spread
Factor
Losses
Target
RCS
PT
4A
2
1
4R2
1
L
Spread Receive
Factor Aperture
1
4R2
Dwell
Time
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Received Signal
Noise
SNR =
Introduction-28
AG 6/18/02
Received Signal Energy

Noise Energy
What the #@!*% is a dB?

The relative value of two things, measured on a
logarithmic scale, is often expressed in deciBels (dB)
Example:
Signal-to-noise ratio (dB) = 10 log 10
Factor of:
10
100
1000
.
.
.
1,000,000
Introduction-29
AG 6/18/02
Scientific
Notation
101
102
103
106
Signal Power
Noise Power
dB
10
20
30
0 dB = factor of 1
-10 dB = factor of 1/10
60
3 dB = factor of 2
Pulsed Radar
Terminology and Concepts
Peak power
Power
Pulse length
Target
Return
Pulse repetition interval
(PRI)
Duty cycle =
Time
Pulse length
Average power = Peak power * Duty cycle

Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) = 1/(PRI)
Continuous wave (CW) radar: Duty cycle = 100% (always on)
Introduction-30
AG 6/18/02
Pulsed Radar
Terminology and Concepts
Peak power
Power
Pulse length
100 sec
1 MW
Target
Return
1 W

(PRI) 1 msec
Duty cycle =
Pulse length
Time
10%
Average power = Peak power * Duty cycle
100 kW
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) = 1/(PRI)
1 kHz
Continuous wave (CW) radar: Duty cycle = 100% (always on)

Introduction-31
AG 6/18/02
Brief Mathematical Digression

Scientific Notation and Greek Prefixes
Scientific
Notation
Standard
Notation
Greek
Prefix
Radar
Examples
109
1,000,000,000
Giga
GHz
106
1,000,000
Mega
MHz, MW
103
1,000
kilo
km
101
10
100
10-3
0.001
milli
msec
10-6
0.000,001
micro
sec
MHz = Megahertz
MW = Megawatt
Introduction-32
AG 6/18/02
Radar Waveforms
What do radars transmit?
Waves?
or Pulses?
Introduction-33
AG 6/18/02
Waves, modulated
by on-off action of
pulse envelope
Radar Waveforms (contd.)
Frequency
Pulse at single frequency
Time
Frequency
Pulse with changing frequency

Linear
FrequencyModulated
(LFM)
Waveform
Time
Introduction-34
AG 6/18/02
Radar Range Measurement
e
ng
a
R
Target
d
tte
i
nsm se
a
r
T Pul
ted
c
e
fl
Re ulse
P
Target range =
c
2
where c = speed of light

= round trip time
Introduction-35
AG 6/18/02
Antenna Gain
Isotropic antenna
Directional antenna
G = antenna gain
Introduction-36
AG 6/18/02
Propagation Effects on Radar Performance
Atmospheric attenuation
Reflection off of earths surface
Over-the-horizon diffraction
Atmospheric refraction
Radar
Radarbeams
beamscan
canbe
beattenuated,
attenuated,reflected
reflectedand
and
bent
bentby
bythe
theenvironment
environment
Introduction-37
AG 6/18/02
Radar Cross Section (RCS)
RCS
Incident
Power Density
(Watts/m2)
(m2)
Reflected
Power
(Watts)
Radar Cross Section (RCS, or s) is the effective crosssectional area of the target as seen by the radar
measured in m2, or dBm2
Introduction-38
AG 6/18/02
Signal Processing
Pulse Compression
Problem: Pulse can be very long; does not allow accurate range measurement
1 msec x c = 150 km
2
?
Figure by
MIT OCW.
Solution: Use pulse with changing frequency and signal process using matched filter
Matched
Filter
Uncompressed pulse
Introduction-39
AG 6/18/02
Compressed pulse
Narrowband
Waveform
Bandwidth
Frequency
Bandwidth
Compressed
Pulse
R =
Low
Range
Resolution
c
2B
Range
Time
Bandwidth
Frequency
Wideband
Waveform
Time
Introduction-40
AG 6/18/02
High
Range
Resolution
Compressed
Pulse
Range
Why Bandwidth is Important

Wideband Target Profile
Bandwidth
Power
Very High
(X 30)
High
(X 10)
Medium
(X 3)
Low
Relative Range (m)
Introduction-41
AG 6/18/02
Detection of Signals in Noise
Detected Target
Power
False
Alarm
Missed
Target
Detection
Threshold
RMS
Noise
Level
Range
Introduction-42
AG 6/18/02
Coherent Integration
Voltage
Signal buried
in Noise
(SNR < 0 dB)
Pulse 1
+ Pulse 2
0
+ Pulse 3
Signal integrated
out of Noise
(SNR increases by N)
..
.
Signals are same each time;

add coherently (N2)
Noise is different each time;
doesnt add coherently (N)
Introduction-43
AG 6/18/02
|x|2
Power
+ Pulse N
0
Doppler Effect
Observer A
Observer B
Observer A Hears
Observer B Hears
Driver Hears
Figure by MIT OCW.
Introduction-44
AG 6/18/02
Doppler Shift Concept
f ==
c
c
f
c
f = f (2v/)
Introduction-45
AG 6/18/02
Doppler
shift
Why Doppler is Important

Surface Radar
Clutter returns are much larger than

target returns
however, targets move, clutter
doesnt.
Airborne Radar
Note: if youre moving too, you need

to take that into account.
Doppler
Doppler lets
lets you
you separate
separate things
things that
that are
are moving
moving from
from things
things that
that arent
arent
Introduction-46
AG 6/18/02
Clutter Doppler Spectra

70
Land
Sea
Rain
Chaff
Birds
Relative Power (dB)
60
50
40
30
20
10
Target
0
-10
-20
0
50
100
150
200
Velocity (m/s)
Introduction-47
AG 6/18/02
Radar Block Diagram
Propagation
Medium
Target
Cross
Section
Transmitter
Waveform
Generator
Signal Processor
Antenna
Receiver
Pulse
Compression
A/D
Main Computer
Detection
Introduction-48
AG 6/18/02
Tracking &
Parameter
Estimation
Doppler
Processing
Console /
Display
Recording
Outline
Introduction-49
AG 6/18/02
Why radar?
The basics
Course agenda
Introduction to Radar Systems Tutorial

Agenda
Introduction
Radar Equation
Propagation Effects
Target Radar Cross Section
Detection of Signals in Noise & Pulse Compression
Radar Antennas
Radar Clutter and Chaff
Signal Processing-MTI and Pulse Doppler
Tracking and Parameter Estimation
Transmitters and Receivers
Introduction-50
AG 6/18/02
References
Introduction-51
AG 6/18/02
Skolnik, M., Introduction to Radar Systems, New York,

McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition, 2001
Nathanson, F. E., Radar Design Principles, New York,
McGraw-Hill, 2nd Edition, 1991
Toomay, J. C., Radar Principles for the Non-Specialist, New
York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989
Buderi R., The Invention That Changed the World, New
York, Simon and Schuster, 1996

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Introduction to Radar Systems

Dr. Robert M. ODonnell

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Disclaimer of Endorsement and Liability

The video courseware and accompanying viewgraphs presented on this

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Introduction to Radar Systems

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Developers of Tutorial Material

Dr. Robert G. Atkins

Background on the Course

One of Many Radar Courses Presented at the Laboratory

Basic Radar Concepts

Prerequisite A College Degree

Preferred in Engineering or Science, but not Required

More Advanced Issues Dealt with in Other Laboratory Radar

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

What Means are Available for

The Invasion of Normandy

Courtesy of National Archives.

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

What Means are Available for

Courtesy of National Archives.

Courtesy of National Archives.

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Military Means of Sensing

Early Days of Radar

Sept 2006 Photograph of

Courtesy of Robert Cromwell.

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Chain Home Radar System

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Chain Home Transmit & Receive Antennas

One Receiver Tower

Radar and The Battle of Britain

The Chain Home Radar

Timely warning of direction

Effect on the War

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Surveillance and Fire Control Radars

Courtesy of Raytheon. Used with permission.

Courtesy of Raytheon. Used with permission.

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Courtesy of Raytheon. Used with permission.

Airborne and Air Traffic Control Radars

Courtesy of Northrop Grumman.

Courtesy Lincoln Laboratory.

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Courtesy Berkeley National Laboratory

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Speed of light (m/s)

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Radar Frequency Bands

IEEE Standard Radar Bands

40 GHz 100+ GHz

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Radar Block Diagram

MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Radar Range Equation