Weak Lie symmetry and extended Lie algebraa)

Hubert Goenner
Citation: Journal of Mathematical Physics 54, 041701 (2013); doi: 10.1063/1.4795839
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JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS 54, 041701 (2013)

Weak Lie symmetry and extended Lie algebraa)

Hubert Goennerb)
Institute for Theoretical Physics, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, University of Goettingen, D-37077
Gottingen, Germany
(Received 11 December 2012; accepted 4 March 2013; published online 1 April 2013)

The concept of weak Lie motion (weak Lie symmetry) is introduced. Applications
given exhibit a reduction of the usual symmetry, e.g., in the case of the rotation group.
In this context, a particular generalization of Lie algebras is found (extended Lie
algebras) which turns out to be an involutive distribution or a simple example for a
tangent Lie algebroid. Riemannian and Lorentz metrics can be introduced on such an
algebroid through an extended Cartan-Killing form. Transformation groups from nonrelativistic mechanics and quantum mechanics lead to such tangent Lie algebroids
and to Lorentz geometries constructed on them (1-dimensional gravitational fields).
C 2013 American Institute of Physics. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4795839]


I. INTRODUCTION

In the spirit of Felix Kleins Erlangen program (cf. Refs. 1 and 2), several new concepts will
be introduced: weak (Lie) motions (cf. Sec. IV) and groups of extended motions (cf. Sec. VIII).
The last concept is related to a suggested widening of the physicists concept of a Lie algebra to
particular tangent Lie algebroids, called here extended Lie algebras. Some of the corresponding finite
transformations are presented: they are no longer Lie groups. Also, an extension of the Cartan-Killing
form will be proposed which up to now seemingly has not been studied. Its definition allows the
introduction of Riemannian and Lorentz metrics on the sections of a subbundle of the tangent bundle.
The mathematical literature for algebroids and groupoids3 has lead to some formal applications to
Lagrangian mechanics.46 The particular tangent Lie algebroids presented here are an example for
such structures much closer to physics than the examples usually given by mathematicians. They
already emerged in pre-relativistic relative mechanics.
II. LIE-DRAGGING
A. Lie algebra for physicists

In metric geometry, the concept of symmetry is expressed by an isometry of the metrical tensor
gab of such a space. This means that this tensor field remains unchanged along the flow of a vector
field X. This demand may be formulated by help of the Lie derivative defined for tangent vector
fields X := a x a , Y := a x a by
L X Y = [X, Y ],

(1)

where [., .] denotes the Lie-bracket [A, B] = AB BA. If (1) is expressed by the components a , a
of the tangent vectors X, Y, then7
a c
L a = ,c
c ,ca ,

(2)

a) A summary of this article has been presented at the 90th Encounter between Mathematicians and Theoretical Physicists

at the Institut de Recherche Mathematique Avancee (University of Strasbourg and CNRS), September 2022, 2012.

b) E-mail: goenner@theorie.physik.uni-goettingen.de

0022-2488/2013/54(4)/041701/15/$30.00

54, 041701-1


C 2013 American Institute of Physics

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041701-2

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J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

a
where ,c
=
. If L X Y = 0, the vector field X is called a symmetry of the vector field Y. Such
xc
symmetries play an important role for the integration of differential equations.8 The Leibniz rule
holds for the Lie derivative. From (1) we have
a

L Z L X Y = [Z , [X, Y ]],

(3)

L Z L X Y + LY L Z X + L X LY Z = [Z , [X, Y ]] + [Y, [Z , X ]] + [X, [Y, Z ]] = 0.

(4)

L Z L X Y L X L Z Y = [[X, Z ], Y ] = L[X,Z ] Y = LL X Z Y.

(5)

and with help of the Jacobi identity:

From (4):

For a Lie group, a special subspace of the tangent space is formed by the infinitesimal generators
a
X (i) := (i)
, (i, j, l = 1, 2, . ., p) by means of the Lie-bracket
xa
[X (i) , X ( j )] = cil j X (l) ,

(6)

with structure constants cil j . It is named a Lie algebra.9 From (6) follows:
L X i L X j X k = cljk cilm X m

(7)

m
l m
cljk cilm + cil j ckl
+ cki
c jl = 0.

(8)

such that according to (4):

A symmetric bilinear form, the Cartan-Killing form, may be introduced,

i j := cilm cljm .

(9)

If it is nondegenerate, i.e., for semisimple Lie groups, ij can be used as a metric in group space. In
Sec. VII, we will permit that the structure constants become directly dependent on the components
ia of the vector fields Xi (x): they will become structure functions.
B. Lie-dragging

Under Lie-dragging with regard to an arbitrary C vector field X = a x a we understand the

operation of the Lie derivative on any geometric object without the simultaneous requirement that
the result be zero. Applied to the metric gab , this means
L gab = ab ,

(10)

where ab is a symmetric tensor of any rank between 0 and n (in n-dimensional space). In the sequel
we will be interested in the case ab = gab . This use of the name Lie-dragging is different from
the one in Ref. 10. By (1), the Lie-dragging of a vector field is expressed.
For a tensor field, Lie-dragging neither conserves the rank of the field, nor, if it is applied to a
symmetric bilinear form, its signature. The vector fields X might be classified according to whether
Lie-dragging with them leads to a prescribed rank for given metric gab . In any case, not every
arbitrary ab can be reached by Lie-dragging (cf. the Appendix).
Equation (10) can be read in different ways:
(A) Given a single vector field (a set of vector fields) and an arbitrary metric gab ; the set of
all possible bilinear forms ab is to be determined by a straightforward calculation. This is an
intermediate step for the determination of weak Lie motions of gab .
(B) Given a single vector field (a set of vector fields) and a fixed target tensor ab ; the metrics
gab which are Lie-dragged into it are to be determined. This requires solving a system of 1st-order
PDEs.
(C) Given both a start metric gab and a target metric ab . The task is to determine the vector
fields X dragging the one into the other.
If we ask for both, L X gab = ab and L X ab = gab , then we are back to weak homothetic
mappings for both g and . Cf. Sec. III.

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041701-3

Hubert Goenner

J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

For a first example for Lie-dragging in space-time leading to tensors of lower rank, we look at
the Kasner metric:
ds 2 = (d x 0 )2 (x 0 )2 p1 (d x 1 )2 (x 0 )2 p2 (d x 2 )2 (x 0 )2 p3 (d x 3 )2 ,

(11)

an exact solution of Einsteins vacuum field equations if p1 + p2 + p3 = 1 = (p1 )2 + (p2 )2

+ (p3 )2 , p1 , p2 , p3 constants. Lie-dragging with

xa
after a coordinate change leads to the space sections,
X = 0a

ds 2 = (y 0 )2 p1 (dy 1 )2 (y 0 )2 p2 (dy 2 )2 (y 0 )2 p3 (dy 3 )2 .

Unlike this, Lie-dragging of (11) with
X = f (x 0 )1a

xa

)
0
leads to a tensor of rank 2 :11 ab = 2 d df (x
g1(a b)
.
x0
In the second example, a Lie-dragged metric of rank 1 is prescribed. Let

L gab = X a X b ,

(12)

with the vector field X tangent to a null geodesic:

g

( b X a )X b = 0, gab X a X b = 0.

(13)

From the definition of L gab given in (16) and (13), (Xs s ), a Xa = 0 follows: Xs s must be
constant along the geodesic. Equation (13) leads to a restriction on for given null geodesic, or for
Xa if the vector field is given. Xa generates a powerful-weak motion (cf. Sec. IV).
III. MOTIONS AND COLLINEATIONS

On a manifold with differentiable metric structure, a motion is defined by the vanishing of the
Lie-derivative of the metric with regard to the tangent vector field X = a x a , i.e., by Lie-dragging
into zero:
L X g(Y, Z ) = 0 = Xg(Y, Z ) + g(Z , L X Y ) + g(Y, L X Z )
= Xg(Y, Z ) + g(Z , [X, Y ]) + g(Y, [X, Z ]),

(14)

where X, Y, Z are tangent vector fields. In local coordinates, (14) reads as

ab = L gab = 0 = gab,c c + gcb ,ac + gac ,bc ,

(15)

with gab = gba . The vector field is named a Killing vector; its components generate an infinitesimal

symmetry transformation:12 x i x i = x i + i . (15) may be expressed in a different form:
g

L gab = 2 (a b) = 0.

(16)

In (16), is the covariant derivative with respect to the metric gab (Levi Civita connection), and a
= gab b . From (15) we can conclude that L ds = 0 for all dxa , i.e., all distances remain invariant.
A consequence of (15) is that the motions form a Lie group and the corresponding infinitesimal

a Lie algebra (6), cf. Ref. 14.
generators X (i) := (i)
x
As an example for a group of motions in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, a Lie group G3 acting
on V3 with finite transformations is used,


x 1 = x 1 + c1 , x 2 = x 2 + c2 x 1 , x 3 = x 3 + c3 .

(17)

The corresponding Lie algebra is13

[X 1 , X 2 ] = 0, [X 1 , X 3 ] = 0, [X 2 , X 3 ] = X 1 .

(18)

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041701-4

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J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

In quantum mechanics, the algebra is known under the name Heisenberg algebra and, in the form
[p, q] = 1z, [p, z] = 0, [q, z], for operator-valued elements p, q and the unit operator is reflecting the
canonical commutation relations.
Lie-dragging with the vector fields 1a = 2a , 2a = 3a , 3a = 1a + x 3 2a gives
(1)

(2)

L1 gab = gab,2 =: ab , L2 gab = gab,3 =: ab ,

(3)

3
L3 gab = gab,1 + x 3 gab,2 + 2g2(a b)
=: ab .
(i)

(19)

(i)

All ab can have full rank. The demand ab = 0, i = 1, 2, 3, makes this G3 a group of motions
whence follows:

(0)
(0)
P1
11 12

(0)
(0)

gab =
21 22 P1 ,
P1

P1

P2

(0) 1
(0)
(0) 1
(0)
(0) 1 2
(0) 1
(0)
where P1 = 12
x + 13
, P1 = 22
x + 23
, and P2 = 22
(x ) + 223
x + 33
with
(0)
(0)
(0)
33 , 1 p , 2 p , ( p = 1, 2, 3) constants. We will see in Sec. V C how the metric looks if the
group is demanded to be a complete set of weak (Lie) motions.
Further types of symmetries are defined by the vanishing of the Lie derivative applied to other
c
(g) = 0, cf. Ref. 15, curvature tensor
geometric objects like connection (affine collineations L
ab
c
(curvature collineations L Rdab (g) = 0, cf. Ref. 16, Ricci tensor (Ricci or contracted curvature
c
(g) = 0, cf. Ref. 17. Another generalization is the concept of conformal Killing
collineations L Rabc
vector, defined by

L gab = (x 1 , ..x n )gab .

(20)

A subcase are homothetic motions with = 0 = const. Conformal Killing vectors are included in
what follows.
IV. WEAK LIE MOTIONS (WEAK SYMMETRIES)

In the 1980s, a concept of p-invariance has been introduced,18

L . . . . . . L gab = 0,

(21)

with p Lie derivatives, p > 1, acting on the metric. At the time, for p = 2 an application has been
given in Einstein-Maxwell theory.19 In the following we will concentrate on this case p = 2.
Definition 1: An infinitesimal point transformation x x + satisfying
L L gab = 0, L gab = 0,

(22)

generates a weak Lie motion.

A coordinate-free formulation of (22) is
LW L Z g(X, Y ) = [W, Z ]g(X, Y ) g([W, [Z , X ]], Y ) g(X, [Y, [W, Z ]]).
If applied to other geometric objects, we call (22) weak symmetry. In the set of solutions
of (22), the isometries (motions) must also occur. We speak of genuine weak Lie motions when
motions are to be excluded. The expression weak isometry is also used. Equation (22) can be read
in two ways:
- The metric gab is given; determine the generator of a weak Lie motion;
- A vector field or a Lie algebra is given; determine the metric gab which allows these fields as
weak Lie motions.
As has been pointed out in Ref. 18, a disadvantage of the new concept is that L L g ab = 0 does
not follow from L L gab = 0 for L gab = 0. In fact,
L L g ab = g as g bt L L gst + 2g at g bp g sq (L g pq )(L gst ).

(23)

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041701-5

Hubert Goenner

J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

Consequently, in general L L g ab = 0 and L L gab = 0 define slightly different invariance concepts. If both conditions are imposed, L gab = (x)ka kb with the null vector ka (grs kr ks = 0), and
arbitrary scalar function  follows. In this case, we call the weak motion generated by X = a x a a
more powerful weak motion. It entails the existence of a null vector ka with L k a = k a L (ln).
What is called here powerful motion, would have be named cosymmetric-2-invariance in
Ref. 18, p. 138. In Euclidean space L gab = 0 results. For p > 2 the situation would become
still more complicated.
A. Weak symmetries

That a weak symmetry can be really weaker than a symmetry is seen already when the Lie
derivative is applied twice to a function f(x1 , . . . xn ):
!

L X L X f = L L f = X X f = 0.

(24)

i
In n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn , for a translation in the direction of the k-axis with i = (k)
,
we obtain from (24) f = xk f1 (x1 , .., xk 1 , xk + 1 , .., ..xn ) + f2 (x1 , .., xk 1 , xk + 1 , .., ..xn ) in place
!
of f = f(x1 , .., xk 1 , xk + 1 , .., ..xn ) for L f = 0. For the full translation group of Rn , (24) leads
to a polynomial of degree n in the variables (x1 , .., xn ) with constant coefficients and linear in
3
3
r s
s
each variable (x1 , .., xn ). Thus, for n = 3, f = c123 x 1 x 2 x 3 + r,s=1;r
<s, cr s x x + s=1 cs x + c0
as compared to f = f0 for the translation group as a group of motions. This result follows only if
Definition 3 for a complete set of weak symmetries is applied, cf. Sec. IV B.
!
For a rotation Rki = x i x k x k x i (i, k fixed), a function satisfying L L f = 0 is given by
i
f = 1 (x 1 , .., x i1 , x i+1 , ..x k1 , x k+1 , ..x n ) arctan xxk + 2 (x1 , .., xi 1 , xi + 1 , ..xk 1 , xk + 1 , ..xn ),
with L f = 1 = 0 for this rotation. For the full rotation group SO(3) in 3-dimensional space,
f = f (r ), r = (x 1 )2 + (x 2 )2 + (x 3 )2 follows: no genuine weak motion is possible in this case.
These examples show that the set of weak-Lie invariant functions can be larger.
An enlargement of a subgroup of the Abelian translation group in an n-dimensional euclidean
space is given by


x 1 = x 1 + G 1 (x k+1 , .., x n ), .., x k = x k + G k (x k+1 , .., x n ), x (k+1) = x k+1 , .., x n = x n ,

(25)

with arbitrary C functions G1 , G2 , .., Gk . Weak Lie symmetry under this group for the function
f(x1 , .., xn ) leads to the same result as for the translation group, although (25) no longer is a Lie
group.
A link between weak Lie symmetry of scalars and weak Lie motions can be found in conformally
flat metrics: gab = f(x1 , x2 , .., xn )ab due to
L L gab = (L L f )ab + 2L f L ab + L L ab .

(26)

In the special case of (20) follows

L L gab = (2 + ,s s )gab , L L g ab = (2 ,s s )g ab .

(27)

Hence, in this case nothing new is obtained by letting the Lie-derivative act twice. The concept of
conformal Killing vector could also be weakened to weak conformal Killing vector by the demand,
L L gab = (x i )gab , L gab = (x j )gab .

(28)

B. Complete sets of weak Lie motions

If gab allows the maximal group of motions with (n+1

2 ) parameters, no genuine weak Lie motions
do exist. If gab allows a r-parameter group of motions, then (n+1
2 ) r genuine weak Lie motions may
exist. The case of a Lie group with (n+1
)

1
parameter
acting
as an isometry group cannot occur in
2
n-dimensional space.20 Hence, in space-time which allows a 10-parameter group as maximal group,

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041701-6

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J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

no 9-parameter Lie group exists. For 4-dimensional Lorentz-space (with signature 2), 8-parameter
Lie groups are likewise excluded as isometry groups.21 This does not hold for Finsler geometry by
which an 8-parameter Lie group is admitted. Cf. Refs. 2224. Thus, besides the maximal group, the
largest group of motions in space-time is a 7-parameter group. Petrovs claim that for 4-dimensional
Lorentz spaces 7-parameter Lie groups are excluded, is not correct, cf. Ref. 13, p. 134 and Ref. 25,
p. 122). In this case, the largest group of weak Lie motions would then be a 3-parameter Lie group.
According to (5), a consequence for weak motions is
(Li L j L j Li )gab = L(Li j ) gab = Lckji k gab = ckji Lk gab .

(29)

Equation (29) provides a hint about how a group of weak Lie symmetries is to be defined when
a set of vector fields, , , , .. has been found satisfying (22). For genuine weak motions, not
all of the following equations can be satisfied: L L gab = 0,L L gab = 0, L L gab = 0, L L gab
= 0, L L gab = 0, L L gab = 0, . . . . If the r vectors (k) , k = 1, 2, .., r are the infinitesimal
generators of a Lie, group, the above demand in general leads into an impasse: instead of its
intended role as a weak Lie-invariance group, it reduces to an isometry group. This is due to (5) or
(29). An exception holds if some of the vector fields commute.
Consequently, the following definition may be introduced:
Definition 2 (Strong complete set):
A Lie algebra presents a strong complete set of weak Lie symmetries if at least one of the
corresponding Lie algebra elements does not generate a motion (L( j) gab = 0 for one (j), at least)
), m > 1 conditions hold,
and the following (m+1
2
L(i) L( j) gab = 0,

(30)

for (i) = (j) and (i) < (j), (i), (j) = 1, 2, .., m or, for (i) = (j) and (i) > (j), (i), (j) = 1, 2, .., m.
The remaining L(i) L( j) gab = 0 for (i) > (j)[(i) < (j)] are then determined through (5). In general,
we will demand that none of the vector fields X(i) generate motions.
A less demanding definition would be:
Definition 3 (Complete set):
A Lie algebra leads to a complete set of weak Lie-symmetries if each of its infinitesimal
a
generates a weak Lie motion: L(i) L(i) gab = 0, L(i) gab = 0 for every i = 1,
operators X i = (i)
xa
2, . . . , m.
In Sec. V C, examples will be given showing that the alternative Definitions 2 and 3 for complete
sets of weak Lie symmetries lead to different results. In general, we will prefer Definition 2.
As will be seen in the Appendix a consequence is that if g(X, Y) allows the maximal group of
motions, weak Lie motions for g(X, Y) do not exist or reduce to conformal motions. As an example:
in 2-dimensional Euclidean space with a 3-parameter maximal group (two translations and one
rotation), no genuine weak (Lie) motion exists. The other extremal case is the non-existence of
genuine weak Lie motions, e.g., for the rotation group together with Definition 2. The Kasner metric
(11) which allows three space translations as isometries, is a candidate for not leading to genuine
weak Lie motions.

V. WEAKLY STATIC AND SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC METRICS

We now want to determine the metrics allowing a time translation and the rotation group as weak
Lie motions. The group is chosen such that, as an isometry group, it describes static, spherically
symmetric (s.s.s.) metrics. Thus we have to allow for four vector fields (i) , i = 1, 2, 3, 4 forming a
Lie algebra with a 2-parameter Abelian subalgebra and then drag twice the arbitrary metric gab . At
first, Definition 3 is applied and the target metric ab calculated.

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Hubert Goenner

J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

A. Weakly static metrics

s
To begin, we demand that only the time translation T = X1 with components (1)
= 0s generates
a weak motion: L X 1 L X 1 gab = 0. The resulting class of metrics is

gab = x 0 cab (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) + dab (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ),

(31)

with arbitrary symmetric tensors cab , dab . The class remains invariant with regard to linear transformations in time x0 (x1 , x2 , x3 )x0 + (x1 , x2 , x3 ); , arbitrary functions.
B. Weak spherical symmetry

Now, the three generators of spatial rotations SO(3) in a representation using polar coordinates
x1 = r, x2 = , x3 = are added. Its corresponding generators are
s
(2)
= 3s , (3) = sin x 3 2s cos x 3 ctgx 2 3s , (4) = cos x 3 2s sin x 3 ctgx 2 3s .

(32)
1

Lie-dragging with the time translation and with (2) forming the Abelian subgroup leads to ab
2

= gab,0 , ab = gab,3 , and to the weakly Lie invariant metric (i.e., with L X 1 L X 1 gab = 0, L X 2 L X 2 gab
= 0)
gab = x 0 x 3 cab (x 1 , x 2 ) + x 0 dab (x 1 , x 2 ) + x 3 eab (x 1 , x 2 ) + f ab (x 1 , x 2 )

(33)

with four arbitrary bilinear forms cab , dab , eab , fab .

Lie-dragging with (3) and (4) applied to any of these bilinear forms results in the following
equations (using fab for the presentation):
3

cos x 3
2
f 3(a b)
,
sin2 x 2

(34)

sin x 3
2
f 3(a b)
.
sin2 x 2

(35)

3
3
ab = sin x 3 f ab,2 2 cos x 3 f 2(a b)
+ 2 sin x 3 ctgx 2 f 3(a b)
+2
4

3
3
ab = cos x 3 f ab,2 2 sin x 3 f 2(a b)
2 cos x 3 ctgx 2 f 3(a b)
+2
2

The demand ab = ab = ab = 0, i.e., that spherical symmetry holds, leads to cab = eab = 0 and
to the well-known result for fab , dab :
f ab = (x 1 )a0 b0 (x 1 )a1 b1 (x 1 )[a2 b2 + sin2 x 2 a3 b3 ]

(36)

with two free functions (x ), (x ). One of the functions (x ), (x ) is superfluous because, locally,
a 2-dimensional space is conformally flat. f01 = f23 = 0 follows from the rotation group acting on a
2-dimensional subspace. In addition, here f02 = f03 = f12 = f13 = 0 has been used.
If Definition 3 for complete sets of weak symmetry is imposed: two further PDEs must then be
satisfied. If all generators of the rotation group are taken into account, then the result is
1

ab = x 0 dab (x 1 , x 2 ) + f ab (x 1 , x 2 )

(37)

with two bilinear forms dab , fab having the same form:
f ab = (x 1 )a0 b0 (x 1 )a1 b1 [x 2 1 (x 1 ) + 2 (x 1 )][a2 b2 + sin2 x 2 a3 b3 ].

(38)

For the proof, we do not reproduce here the lengthy full expressions for L(3) L(3) f ab = 0 and
L(4) L(4) f ab = 0, but give only the equations for the components f22 , f33 :
L(3) L(3) f 22 = sin2 x 2 f 22,2,2 + 2

cos2 x 3
f 33
!
[ f 22 +
] = 0,
2
2
2
2
sin x
sin x

(39)

sin2 x 3
f 33
!
[ f 22 +
] = 0.
sin2 x 2
sin2 x 2

(40)

L(4) L(4) f 22 = cos2 x 2 f 22,2,2 + 2

The consequences f22, 2, 2 = 0 and f 33 = sin2 x 2 f 22 are obvious. That (38) is a genuine solution is
shown by 22 = L(3) f 22 = sin x 3 1 (x 1 ) = 0 and by 33 = L(3) f 33 = sin x 3 sin2 x 2 1 (x 1 ) = 0 if
 1 (x1 ) = 0.

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041701-8

Hubert Goenner

J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

The surface x1 = const, x0 = const has Gaussian curvature:

K =

1
(1 )2
2
2
[
ctgx
+
2
x
+
2
+
].
1
1
2
2(1 x 2 + 2 )2
1 x 2 + 2

(41)

 1 ,  2 are now constants. For  1 0 we obtain the constant curvature of the 2-sphere.
The time translation and the 3 generators of the rotation group form a complete set of weak Lie
motions; this shows that Definition 3 is not empty.
However, if it is asked that the rotation group generate a strong set of weak symmetries according
to Definition 2, then the result is very restrictive. The conditions L(2) L(3) f ab = 0 = L(2) L(4) f ab for
Eqs. (33) and (38) are leading to the remaining metric tensor of (37). If L(3) L(4) 33 = 0 is studied
for fab , then L(3) L(4) f ab = 0 due to the only nonvanishing expression L(3) L(4) f 33 = sin x 2 cos x 2
1 (x 1 ) for  1 (x1 ) = 0. Thus the demand that the rotation group in 3 dimensions generates
a strong set of weak Lie symmetries according to Definition 2 enforces  1 (x1 ) = 0 and reduces to an isometry. Nevertheless, the resulting spherically symmetric metric is only weakly
static.
C. The group G3 acting as a group of weak Lie motions

In taking up the example of a G3 acting on V3 from Sec. II with Lie algebra (18), we first apply
Definition 3 to a scalar f(x1 , x2 , x3 ). If the generators are to lead to motions, then the only solution is
f = constant. We find
L X 1 L X 1 = f ,2,2 = 0, L X 2 L X 2 = f ,3,3 = 0,

(42)

L X 3 L X 3 = f ,1,1 2x 3 f ,2,1 + (x 3 )2 f ,2,2 = 0, L X 1 L X 2 = L X 2 L X 1 = f ,2,3 = 0,

(43)

L X 1 L X 3 = f ,1,2 + x 3 f ,2,2 = 0, L X 3 L X 1 = f ,1,2 + x 3 f ,2,2 = 0,

(44)

L X 2 L X 3 = f ,1,3 + f ,2 + x 3 f ,2,3 = 0, L X 3 L X 2 = f ,3,1 + x 3 f ,3,2 = 0.

(45)

With these results, Definition 3 for a complete set of weak Lie motions leads to
f = a0 x 2 x 3 + b0 x 1 (x 2 x 1 x 3 ) + c0 x 1 x 3 + b1 x 2 + c1 x 3 + d1 x 1 + d0 ,

(46)

while Definition 2 results in

f = c0 (x 1 x 3 + x 2 ) + c1 x 3 + d1 x 1 + d0 .

(47)

We note, that the only one of the 9 possible demands so far unused, i.e., L(3) L(2) gab = 0 reduces
(47) to
f = c1 x 3 + d1 x 1 + d0 .

(48)

Applying G3 to the metric, the following weakly Lie-invariant metric is obtained,

(0)
11
2 (0)
x
21
P1

(0)
12
(0)
22
P1

(0)
11

3 1 (0)
P  + x [x 21
P1

P2

P1

(0)
12
(0)
22
P1

ab =
(0)
11
P1

(0)

P1 + 21
P2
P1

(0)

12

(0)

22
P 
1

Q1
P1
] + Q 
1
P1
Q
2
P2

Q 1
Q 1
Q 2

Q2
Q 2 ,
Q3

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041701-9

Hubert Goenner

J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

where Pi , Pi , Q i , Q i , Q i are polynomials in the coordinate x1 of order i, the coefficients of which
are not all independent:
(0)
(0)
(0)
P1 = 12 x 1 + c13 , P1 = 22 x 1 + c23 , P2 = 22 (x 1 )2 + 2c23 x 1 + c33 ,
(0)

Q1 = l

11 x

(0)

Q2 = l

(0)

12 (x

(0)

(0)

+ m 11 , Q 1 = l
(0)

12 x
(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)
(0)
+ m 12 , Q 1 = l22 x 1 + m 22 ,
(0)

) + m 13 x 1 + k 13 , Q 2 = l

1 2

22 (x

(0)

(0)

) + m 23 x 1 + k 23 ,

1 2

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

Q 3 = l 22 (x 1 )3 + m 23 (x 1 )2 + k 33 x 1 + m 33 and ab , (a, b = 1, 2), ci j , l i j , m i j , and k i j constants.

In the polynomials P1 , P  1 , P2 , the constants ab , cab are exchanged by the set of independent constants ab , dab . Thus Definition 2 is not empty. Two independent matrices of the
type that occurred for the group acting as an isometry group and a third, new matrix occur
now.
Definition 3 leads to a different complete set of weak Lie motions for which the metric
takes the form: gab = dab (x1 )x2 + eab (x1 )x3 +  ab (x1 ) with d, e,  expressed by matrices of the
form:

P11 P12 Q 1

P12 P22 Q 2 ,
Q1

Q2

where Pik are polynomials of 1st degree, Qi of 2nd degree, and M a polynomial of 3rd degree.
VI. A NEW ALGEBRA STRUCTURE

For Lie-dragging, up to now we have mostly taken vector fields forming Lie algebras corresponding to Lie groups of point transformations. In the following, we consider more general types
both of groups and algebras in Secs. VII and VIII.
A. Lie-dragging for vector fields not forming Lie algebras

Already in (25) of Sec. IV A, vector fields containing free functions were considered. We
now continue with vector fields X 1 = r x r ; X 2 = s x s with r = f (x 0 )1r , s = h(x 1 )0r such
that
[X 1 , X 2 ] = f (x 0 )H (x 1 )X 2 h(x 1 )F(x 0 )X 1 .
0

(49)

))
Here, F(x 0 ) = d(lndfx(x0 )) , H (x 1 ) = d(lnh(x
. The finite transformations belonging to X1 and X2 , redx1
spectively, are generalized time- and space-translations


x 0 x 0 = x 0 + h(x 1 ); x 1 x 1 = x 1 + f (x 0 )

(50)

0
1
x(0j) | and the space interval |x(i)
x(1j) | between two events
leaving invariant the time interval |x(i)
0
0
1
1
(x(i) , x(i) ) and (x( j) , x( j) ). Each of the two families of transformations


x 0 x 0 = x 0 + h(x 1 ); x 1 x 1 = x 1 + a,

(51)

and


x 1 x 1 = x 1 + f (x 0 ); x 0 x 0 = x 0 + b

(52)

forms a group. However, these groups are not Lie groups: in part, the Lie-group parameters have
been replaced by arbitrary functions. In this case, the algebra (49) reduces to either
[X 1 , X 2 ] = H (x 1 )X 2 ,

(53)

[X 1 , X 2 ] = F(x 0 )X 1 .

(54)

or to

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Hubert Goenner

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Likewise, (49), (53), and (54) are not Lie algebras. Both transformations (50) applied together do
not even form a group.26
Equation (52) is a subgroup of the so-called Mach-Poincare group27 G4 (3) (cf. also Ref. 28),
pp. 85101):


x a = Ara x r + f a (x 0 ), x 0 = x 0 + b, Ara Arb = ba .

(55)

This group plays a role in Galilean relative mechanics.

A generalization is the group G1 (6) of transformations leaving invariant the observables describing a rigid body; 6 free functions of x0 and one Lie-group parameter do appear,


x i = Aij (x 0 )x j + f i (x 0 ), x 0 = x 0 + b, Aij (x 0 )Ak (x 0 ) = ki , (i, j = 1, 2, 3).

(56)

The corresponding seven algebra generators are

, X i = f i (x 0 ) i (i not summed),
x0
x

Y1 = 32 (x 3 2 x 2 3 ), Y2 = 31 (x 3 1 x 1 3 ), Y3 = 21 (x 2 1 x 1 2 )
x
x
x
x
x
x
T =

(57)
with

ij

ij (x 0 ).

The corresponding algebra is given by

d
ln( f i (x 0 )), [X i , X j ] = 0, (i, j = 1, 2, 3)
dx0
d
[T, Y1 ] = 23 (x 0 )Y1 , [T, Y2 ] = 31 (x 0 )Y2 , [T, Y3 ] = 12 (x 0 )Y3 , ij =
ln(ij (x 0 )),
dx0
[T, T ] = 0, [T, X i ] = Fi (x 0 )X i , Fi =

[Y1 , Y2 ] =

31 32
21 31
21 23
Y
,
[Y
,
Y
]
=

Y
,
[Y
,
Y
]
=

Y2 ,
3
2
3
1
1
3
21
32
31

[X 1 , Y1 ] = 0, [X 1 , Y2 ] =
[X 2 , Y1 ] =
[X 3 , Y1 ] =

f 1 (x 0 ) 1
f 1 (x 0 ) 1

X 2,
X
,
[X
,
Y
]
=

3
1
3
f 3 (x 0 ) 3
f 2 (x 0 ) 2

f 2 (x 0 ) 2
f 2 (x 0 ) 1

X 1,
X
,
[X
,
Y
]
=
0,
[X
,
Y
]
=
3
2
2
2
3
3
f 3 (x 0 )
f 1 (x 0 ) 2
f 3 (x 0 ) 2
f 3 (x 0 ) 1

X 1 , [X 3 , Y3 ] = 0.
X
,
[X
,
Y
]
=

2
3
2
3
f 2 (x 0 )
f 1 (x 0 ) 3

(58)

There exist further groups of this non-Lie type occurring in the classical relative mechanics like
Weyls kinematical group G3 (6) and the covariance group of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation G7 (3)
or, as a subgroup in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the covariance group of the Schrodinger
equation28 G12 (0). The structure functions of all these groups depend on a single coordinate, the
time.
VII. EXTENDED LIE ALGEBRAS

In the following, we will deal with a subbundle of the tangent bundle of n-dimensional Euclidean
or Lorentz space. We will permit that the structure constants in the defining relations for a Lie algebra
become dependent on the components ia of the vector fields Xi (x): they will become structure
functions.
Definition 4: The Lie brackets
[X i , X j ] = cikj (x 1 , x 2 , . . . , r )X k

(59)

with structure functions cikj (x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x r ) are said to build an extended Lie algebra.
The Lie algebra elements form an involutive distribution. This is a smooth distribution V on
a smooth manifold M, i.e., a smooth vector subbundle of the tangent bundle TM. The Lie brackets

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Hubert Goenner

J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

constitute the composition law; the injection V  T M functions as the anchor map.29 This is
a simple example for a tangent Lie algebroid (cf. also Ref. 3, p. 100 and example 2.7, p. 105).
Nevertheless, the involutive distribution used here can also be considered a subset of the infinitedimensional Lie-algebra B(M). Closely related, but different structures are a family of Lie algebras
(Refs. 30 and 31) and variable Lie algebras (Ref. 32, p. 115).
After completion of the paper, I learned of some of the historical background of (59): It already
has occurred as the condition for closure of a complete set of linear, homogeneous operators belonging to a complete system of 1st order PDEs in Jacobis famous paper of 1862 (Ref. 33, 26, p. 40).
In Jacobis paper, (59) is used in phase space such that the structure functions depend on both
coordinates and momenta: cikj (x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x r , p1 , p2 , .. pr ). It is in Clebschs paper of 1866
(Ref. 34, 1) in connection with his definition of a complete system of linear PDEs that the
rhs of (59) depends only on the coordinates. Cf. also Eq. (3.1) in Ref. 2., p. 311.
If an extended Lie algebra is studied instead of an ordinary Lie algebra, (7) must be replaced by
L X i L X j X k = (cljk cilm + X i cmjk )X m ,

(60)

m
l m
m
+ cki
c jl + X i cmjk + X k cimj + X j cki
= 0.
cljk cilm + cil j ckl

(61)

and (8) by

An extended Cartan-Killing form can be defined acting as a symmetric metric on the sections of the
subtangent bundle. An asymmetric form could be defined as well.
Definition 5 (Generalized Cartan-Killing form):
The generalized Cartan-Killing bilinear form is defined by
i j := i j + 2X (i cmj)m = cilm cljm + 2X (i cmj)m .

(62)

The generalized Cartan-Killing form now depends on the base points of the fibres in the tangent
bundle. They may be interpreted as a metric.
We use the example of the group G1 (6) given in Sec. VI A. If we use the notation Z1 = T,
Zi = Xi , (i = 1, 2, 3), Zj = Yj (j = 1, 2, 3) where Xi correspond to time-dependent translations, Yj
to time-dependent rotations, the structure functions for the corresponding extended algebra (58) of
rigid body transformations are given by
i
4
5
6
= (ln f i ) (i = 1, 2, 3), c04
= (ln32 ), c05
= (ln31 ), c06
= (ln21 )
c0i
6
ciAj = 0 (i, j = 1, 2, 3, A = 0, .., 6), c45
=

32 31 4
31 21 5
23 21
,
c
=

c
=

56
46
21
23
13

A
3
c14
= 0 (A = 0, .., 6), c15
=

f1 1 2
f1
, c = 21
f 3 3 16
f2

3
c24
=

f2 2 A
f2
1
3 , c25 = 0 (A = 0, .., 6), c26
= 21 ,
f3
f1

2
c34
=

f3 2 1
f3
A
, c = 31 , c36
= 0 (A = 0, .., 6).
f 2 3 35
f1

From them, calculation of the extended Cartan-Killing form leads to a Lorentz metric with
signature (1,3) of rank 4 within a degenerated 7-dimensional bilinear form,

00 0 0 0 0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0
0
0

0 0 0 0 0
0
0

0
0
(63)
i j =
0 0 0 0 0
,
0 0 0 0 44 0

0 0 0 0 0 55 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 66

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Hubert Goenner

J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

3

fi
3
where 00 = i=1
+ 32 + 13 + 21 , and 44 = 4(32 )2 , 55 = 4(31 )2 , 66 = 4(21 )2 . By profi
3
2
1
jection into the 4-dimensional space with coordinates 0, 4, 5, 6 and signature (1,3), we surprisingly
arrive at the general class of one-dimensional gravitational fields (Ref. 26). For special values for
the fi , and ik , the Kasner metric (11) can be derived by this approach. All the pre-relativistic groups
mentioned at the end of Sec. VI A lead to Cartan-Killing forms depending on just one coordinate,
the time.
The following definition introduces a new class of extended motions and a new class of weak
extended motions, the infinitesimal generators of which form an extended Lie algebra.

Definition 6 (Extended motions):

Let x x + , y y + be infinitesimal transformations forming a continuous group the
corresponding algebra of which is an extended Lie algebra according to Definition 4. Then, the
vector fields X = c x c , Y = c x c with L X gab = 0, LY gab = 0 are called extended motions.
An analogous formulation is:
Definition 7 (Extended weak motions):
Let x x + , y y + be infinitesimal transformations forming a continuous group
the corresponding algebra of which is an extended Lie algebra according to Definition 4. Then,
the vector fields X = c x c , Y = c x c with L X L X gab = 0, LY LY gab = 0 are called extended weak
motions.
VIII. EXTENDED MOTIONS AND EXTENDED WEAK (LIE) MOTIONS

In Sec. VI A, we have given examples of non-Lie groups leading to extended Lie algebras. How
will the corresponding extended motions and extended weak (Lie) motions differ? These concepts
are exemplified here with the most simple non-Lie group (52). The tangent vectors X, Y with the
algebra (54) form an extended motion (L X gab = 0, LY gab = 0) for all metrics of maximal rank 3:

00 (x 2 , x 3 ) 0 02 (x 2 , x 3 ) 03 (x 2 , x 3 )

0
0
0
0

(64)
gab =
02 (x 2 , x 3 ) 0 22 (x 2 , x 3 ) 23 (x 2 , x 3 ) ,
2
3
2
3
2
3
03 (x , x ) 0 23 (x , x ) 33 (x , x )
with arbitrary functions ab due to arbitrariness of f(x0 ). This is to be compared with the motions
derived from X = x 1 , Y = x 0 forming an Abelian Lie algebra and leading to
gab = ab (x 2 , x 3 ).

(65)

The corresponding extended weak (Lie) motions (L X L X gab = 0, LY LY gab = 0) are given by

1
x 00 + 00 01 x 1 02 + 02 x 1 03 + 03

01
0
12
13

(66)
gab =
x 1 02 + 02 12 x 1 22 + 22 x 1 23 + 23 ,
x 1 03 + 03 13 x 1 23 + 23 x 1 33 + 33
where ab = ab (x2 , x3 ); ab = ab (x2 , x3 ), 01 = 0, 11 = 0. Comparison with the weak (Lie)
motions generated by the translations given above shows the class of metrics:
gab = x 1 ab (x 2 , x 3 ) + ab (x 2 , x 3 ).

(67)

IX. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

When Lie-dragging is seen as a mapping in the space of metrics, it may be asked whether it could
provide a method for generating solutions of Einsteins equations from known solutions. It is easily

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Hubert Goenner

J. Math. Phys. 54, 041701 (2013)

shown that the Schwarzschild vacuum solution, the Robertson-Walker metric with flat 3-spaces, and
the Kasner metric cannot be obtained by Lie-dragging of Minkowski space. On the other hand, the
metric (33) which is weakly Lie-invariant with respect to the group (T, SO(3)) trivially contains
cosmological solutions of Einsteins equation. If the metric x0 dab (x1 , x2 ) with spherically symmetry
and with flat space sections is chosen, by a transformation of the time coordinate we arrive at the
line element
ds 2 = (d )2 2/3 3/2 [(dr )2 + r 2 (d )2 + r 2 sin2 (d)2 ].

(68)

It describes a cosmic substrate with the equation of state p = 19 , where p describes pressure and
the energy density of the material. This equation of state for w = 19 is non-phantom because of
1 < w but does not accelerate the expansion of the universe which occurs for 1 < w < 13 .
It remains to be seen whether the anisotropic line element
ds 2 = (d )2 c0 2/3 [c1 r + c2 ][(dr )2 + r 2 (d )2 + r 2 sin2 (d)2 ]

(69)

can satisfy Einsteins equations with a reasonable matter distribution. In view of the fact that
Lie-dragging does not preserve the rank of the metric, its efficiency for generating interpretable
gravitational fields is reduced considerably.
Surprisingly, by studying the rigid body transformations G1 (6) as a group of extended motions,
we arrived at the complete class of one-dimensional gravitational fields including the Kasner metric.
More generally, a close relation to finite transformation groups in classical, non-relativistic mechanics
containing arbitrary functions has been established.
A classification of solutions of Einsteins equations with regard to weak (Lie) symmetries could
be made. Although this might be a further help for deciding whether two solutions are transformable
into each other or not, the calculational effort looks extensive.
Weak Lie-invariance as a weakened concept of symmetry has been introduced and its consequences presented through a number of examples. It also has led to the introduction of a new type
of algebra (extended Lie algebra) which is an example for a tangent Lie algebroid. In each fibre
of a subbundle of the tangent bundle, the extended Lie algebra reduces to a Lie algebra. By help
of an extended Cartan-Killing form, Riemann or Lorentz metrics have been constructed on such an
algebroid. A particular example is provided by the non-Lie groups of classical mechanics mentioned
above.
A classification of non-Lie groups leading to extended Lie algebras and of the extended Lie
algebras in n-dimensional space arises. A preliminary study for the case n = 2 has shown, that this
is a delicate problem depending on the existence of solutions of some 1st-order nonlinear PDEs .
Whether there are noteworthy applications in geometry and physics beyond those established
here for classical mechanics and the Schrodinger equation will have to be found out.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My sincere thanks go to A. Papadopoulos for inviting me to the Strasbourg conference at

IRMA. Remarks by P. Cartier and Y. Kosmann-Schwarzbach, participants at the conference, were
quite helpful. I am also grateful for advice on mathematical concepts like algebroids by H. Seppanen
and Ch. Zhu of the Mathematical Institute of the University of Gottingen as well as to my colleague
F. Muller-Hoissen, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Gottingen, for a
clarifying conceptual discussion. As a historian of mathematics, E. Scholz, University of Wuppertal,
did guide me to the relevant historical literature. The presentation did also profit much from the
suggestions of a referee.
APPENDIX: INTEGRABILITY CONDITIONS

That an arbitrary symmetrical tensor field of fixed rank cannot be reached by the operation
of Lie-dragging may be seen already from (15) and (13), or from the following equations obtained

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from (16):
g

d
b c a + d Rbca
(g) = 1/2[ b ac + c ba + a cb ].

(A1)

d
Here, Rbca
(g) is the curvature tensor of the metric gab . For gab , ab fixed, the n3 equations (A1) would
be an integrability condition for the n components of the vector field . Equation (A1) generalizes
part of the integrability condition for (15) given in Ref. 15, Eq. (6.2), p. 56. As an example, we take
Minkowski space gab = ab , a space of maximal symmetry. From (A1) with ab = 2 (a, b) follows:

b c a = b (a,c) + c (b,a) + a (c,b) ,

(A2)

the general solution of which, apart from the generators of the Poincare group, is a = c0 ar xr
+ r F[rs] as . Thus, a homothetic motion appears as well.
If we look at Eq. (A1) as a condition for ab when the vector field and the metric gab are given,
the equation then says that there are linear relations between the first derivatives of ab . Further
differentiation of (A1) leads to
g

d b c a + a b d c + c b a d = 1/2[ d b ac + a b cd + c b da ]
s
s
s
+as Rbcd
(g) + cs Rbda
(g) + ds Rbac
(g) = 0.

(A3)

A counting of derivatives and equations leads to the number of restrictions for the obtainable ab
showing up explicitly as relations among the derivatives of ab .
From (A2), by contraction with bc the equation a ( c c ) = 0 follows, whence c c = c0
= const. Contraction with ac then leads to ()2 c = 0. The most general ansatz for solving c c
= c0 is c = c40 x c + r F [r c] with r ()2 F[rc] = 0. Let Xc := r F[rc] ; then, from (A2) c ( a Xb
+ b Xa ) = 0. Whence follow the equation for a homothetic motion.
1 D.

E. Rowe, The early geometrical works of Sophus Lie and Felix Klein, in The History of Modern Mathematics, Vol. I,
Ideas and Their Reception, edited by David E. Rowe and John McCLeary (Academic Press, Boston, 1989), pp. 209273.
2 T. Hawkins, Line geometry, differential equations and the birth of Lies theory of groups, in The History of Modern
Mathematics, Vol. I, Ideas and Their Reception, edited by David E. Rowe and John McCLeary (Academic Press, Boston,
1989), pp. 275327.
3 K. C. Mackenzie, General Theory of Lie Groupoids and Lie Algebroids (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,
2005).
4 P. Libermann, Lie algebroids and mechanics, Arch. Math. (Brno) 32, 147162 (1996).
5 E. Martnez, Lagrangian mechanics in Lie algebroids, Acta Appl. Math. 67, 295320 (2001).
6 K. Grabowska, P. Urbanski, and J. Grabowski, Geometrical mechanics on algebroids, Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys.
3, 559575 (2006).
7 Latin indices from the beginning (a, b, c, ..) and end of the alphabet (r, s, t, ..) run from 1 to n or 0 to n-1 where n is the
dimension of the space considered. Indices from the middle (i, j, k, l, ..) may take other values. The summation convention
is used except when indicated otherwise.
8 Symmetries and Conservation Laws for Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics, Translation of Mathematical
Monographs, Vol. 182, edited by I. S. Krasilshchik and A. M. Winogradov (American Mathematical Society, Providence,
1997).
9 In current mathematical literature, the definition of a Lie algebra is much more general. It is defined either as a module
B(M) of the set of all C -vector fields on a C -manifold with a multiplication introduced via the Lie-bracket, or as a
finite-dimensional vector space V over the real or complex numbers with a bilinear multiplication on it defined by an
anti-commuting bracket [, ] satisfying the Jacobi identity (4).
10 B. Schutz, Geometrical Methods of Mathematical Physics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1982).
11 Symmetrization brackets are used: A B = 1 (A B + A B ); A B = 1 (A B A B ).
(r s)
r s
s r
[r s]
r s
s r
2
2
12 For mechanical systems in phase space, this infinitesimal symmetry transformation is applied to the generalized coordinates
and supplemented by an infinitesimal transformation for the momenta: pa pa  = pa + a with an additional infinitesimal
generator a . Some authors use the name weak-Lie symmetry for what we would name Lie symmetry; cf. T. Pang, J.-H.
Fang, P. Lin, M.-J. Zhang, and K. Lu, New type of conserved quantities of Lie symmetry for nonholonomic mechanical
systems in phase space, Commun. Theor. Phys. (Beijing) 52, 977980 (2009).
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041701-15

Hubert Goenner

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