BY vs200 ce compatbe with Virtually every standard textbook in their subject field, Barron's FZ-101 Study Keys give you a valuable overview of your col level course, notes emphasize important facts, remind you what you need to remember for term papers and exams, and help guide you through the complexities of lectures and textbooks. sroom-style Benjamin W. Griffith, PhD. Emeritus Professor of English West Georgia College All key topics covered, including Old English language and poetry; Beowulf; Middle English masters such as Chaucer and Malory, Renaissance BIND] YSHsw masters such as Shakespeare, Bacon, Donne, Themes, keys, quotations, glossary of and Milton; Restoration and the 18th century, literary terms for your introductory including Dryden, Pope, Sheridan, Boswell, college course. and Johnson; the Romantic poets and novelists; From Beowulf, through Shakespeare and the Victorians; the moderns, including G.B. Shaw, i Milton, to James Joyce and Samuel Beckett. AIM $8.99 Canada Hl l James Joyce, and Study Keys will help guide you through uel Beckett. lectures, your textbook, tests, and papers in introductory English literature courses.English Literature BARRON'S)1 Copyright 1991 by Baron's Edustional Sees, In All ph resered 'No par of ths Book may be eproced in any form, by Potosi. merotim. xeroerapty any othe means oF Tncorporaed ino any information retceval yen, cectronic ‘or mechanical without the writen permission ofthe copynght owner All ngaies shold be addressed wo Baron's Edsatoal Series In 250 Wireless Boulevard Hauppauge, Now Yrk 11788 Librars of Congress Catalog Cand No. Y1-8075 ISAN-18-4780-8120-460-7 Library of Congress Calalogingin-Publication Data Gitth, Benjamin W ‘Stuy keys 10 Baglish erator / by Henin Gi Pe ca Baron's tals Begs Includes inde ISBN 0.4130 00.5 1 Epis Meratce Outings bi te, 1 Tite M Sens PRE?.GTI 1991 R20.9—e0 oss PRINTED IN CHINA 10987 CONTENTS THEME 1: Ancient Britain 7 Cultural backgrounds of ancient British literature 2 2 The Old English language 3 3 Old English poetry 4 4 Beowulf 5 5 Old English Christian poetry 6 6 Allred and the beginning of English prose 7 EME. 2: Medic 7 Cultural backgrounds of Medieval English literature 9 8 Middle English as a language 10 9 The importance of The Wycliffe Bible i 10 The alliterative revival in Medieval poet 12 11 Chaucer and his works 4 12 The prose of Sir Thomas Malory 16 13. The beginnings of English drama "7 14 Mystery and miracle plays Is 15. The morality plays 19 16 _ Middle English lyrics and ballads 20 enalbsance prose 17 Characteristics of Renaissance England 18 The beginnings of moder English 19 Prose of the Renaissance humanists 20 Sidney and Raleigh 21 Elizabethan prose 22 Literary philosophers: Bacon and Hobbes 23 Early 17th Century prose stylists 24 The King lames Bible aissance poets: Wyatt and Surrey 26 Spenser and his works27. Other Elizabethan poets 35 L cavalie pects 58 Byron: Neoclassical and Romantic poet n el ctons Doane tet : x 59 Shelley: Poet and political rebel 78 29° John Donne and metaphysical poctry 37 etree n ma % at ae Pala a hl 7 61 Prose essayist. ofthe Romantic period %0 no Oiher Commonwenlth poets a 62 Major novelists: Jane Austen and Sir Walter Scott 8 : Renssance drama ai Pre- Shakespearean drama 2 Ta Shakespeare u THEME: Vatvin rose = Shakespeare's history plays 45 63 Characteristics of the Vietorian period 83 Shakespeare's comedies and romances, 46 64. Major prose writers: Carlyle, Newman, Mill 84 Shakespeare's tragedies 48 65. Three major erties: Arnold, Ruskin, Pater 85 Other Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists 50 66 The Victorian novel 86 67 The novels of the Brontés 87 68 Dickens and Thackeray 88 "THEME 6: The Restoration and the 18th Century 2 69° George Eliot and Anthony Trollope 89 Sa HCAnial ances 70 Novelists opposed 10 *Vitorinism™ 90 a novels of Thomas Hardy 91 39° John Bunyan, popular allegorist 72_Victorian drama: Oscar Wilde and others 92 40 Restoration comedy 41 Other Restoration dramas #2 Dryden and his works 43 The satire of Swift vs 98 44 The essays of Addison and Steele 73 The significance of Tennyson o4 45 Defoe and the birth of the novel 74 Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning 95 46 Richardson: New direction for the novel 75. The poctty of Matthew Amold 96 47 The novels of Fielding and Smolett 76 Pre-Raphaclite poets: Rossetti and Morris 7 48 Sterne’s controversial novels 77_ Swinburne, antagonist to Vietorianism. 98 49 Pope and Neoclassicism 50. Boswell and the early biographers Samuel Johnson, man of letters Three Ith Century comic dramatists The Pre-Romantic’ poets, (IE 7: The Romantic period 2 Characteristics of the Romantic period BR Blake and Burns "a Wordsworth and his revolutionary theory of poetry 75 57 Colevidge: Poet, critic. visionary % ‘THEME 10: 20th Century fetion 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 36 Characteristics of the Modern period Social criticism in the Modern novel ‘The fiction of Joseph Conrad ‘The experimental fiction of James Joyce The innovative novels of Virginia Woolf The novels of D-H. Lawrenk Satirical novelists: Huxley and Waugh Critics of society: Orwell and Golding Novelists in search of meaning: Forster and Greene87. Novel s of the distant past: Graves and Tolkein 110 88° Masters of the short story: Saki, Coppard Mansfield Ww oct 1m Early Modern poets: Hardy and Hopkins. 113 90 Poets of World War I: Brooke, Housman, Owen 114 91 The poetry of William Butler Yeats us 92. Eliot and Modernist poetry 6 93. Other Modernist poets: Sitwell and Thomas 117 94 The “*New Signatures’ poets: Auden and Spender 18 95. Pocts of “The Movement”: Larkin, Puller, Davie 19 96 Traditional poets: Blunden, Muir, Betjeman 120 97 Shaw: Major dramatic influence 122 98 Shaw's contemporary dramatists 123 99 Irish playwrights: Synge and O°Casey 124 100 Beckett, dramatist of the absurd 125 101_Contemporary British dramatists 126 Glossary 138 ina Theme 1 _ANCIENT BRITAIN ‘any literary historians use the term "*Middle Ages” to describe « period in English literature that encom passes 800 years, from Caedmon's Hymn at the end of the ‘7th century to the morality play Everyman at the beginning of the 16th century. There are many striking differences, however, between the periods before and after the conquest of the island by the Normans in 1066. There were radical changes in English culture and literature, as well as an emerging new English language after 1066. The prior period ccan better be designated as the era of Ancient Britain, a time in which a Germanic “Old English"” was spoken and a cul ture brought by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes from the Con- tinent was being assimilated by the Celts and other native Britons. 2 The OM English language — 3 Old English poetry bee eeaESES EEE 5-_Old English Christian poetry 6 Alfred and the beginning of English poKey 1 Cultural backgrounds of ancient British literature OVERVIEW Many cultures and ethnic groups were in conflict in Ancient Britain. The Romans, Germanic invad- ers, and Christian missionaries brought a diverse mix of culture to the Celtic tribes who occupied the istand. Roman influence: Beginning in 43 A.D. dhe sand became apart of the Roman Empire. Impressive roads were bil, towens flourished. peace wats kept under Roman law, andthe invaders nd Celtic Britons inter mmaried [Northern European invaders: Soon alter the Roman lesions withdrew in the early ffth century, Romanized Britain was in conflict ith the isolated Celie tribes from present-day Scotland and Wales. The ‘Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (Germanic tribes from western Europe, generally called Anglo-Saxons) invaded ami this turmoil and even ‘wally conquered the island Social classes: The militant Anglo-Saxon culture had two clases: the ruling class, called ears, and the lower class, called churls (or hondsmen). Society was enganized by files and clans Royalty: There was a concept of unquestioned loyally to tebesmen and tothe king. ideally a revered leader. hero anda wise judge who gave rewards to loyal warriors. Wars and famines caused problems but everyone could depend wholly on the courage and loyalty of fellow tribesmen. Anglo-Saxon religion: Many deities were worshiped, all having special Strengths and vires found in nature oi animals, Imari ws believed to come from dying in bale: destiny seas controlled by syed (or fate). Coming of Christianity: The monk Augustine arived in Kent in 597 ‘and converted King Ethelbert. Within two generations, Christianity hl spread throughout Britain, Monks began teaching Latin and Greek classics in monastery schools. and when Alfred was crowned in 871 he ondered important classics translated into West Saxon. Importance of Old English terature: fier suffering centuries of neglect, Old English Iiterature is now thought tobe the greatest Ger manic iteraure of is time, Key 2_ The Old English language OVERVIEW The English spoken during the six centuries before 1150 differs so markedly from our modern English that it iy virtually a foreign language. Old English, spoken from about 450 t 1150, had a complex grammar with a system of word endings (inflections) to indicate word rela tionships (O14 English vocabulary: The vocabulary wy small and resistant to ‘change, unlike modern English. which incorporates. words from ‘many other languages. Quickly apparent to the mex reader s the “absence of French and Latin words, which form so large a part of our present vocabulary Pronunciation: Te Old English svord sn isthe same as modern English stone indicating that the Vowels have undergone a change. ot ‘vowel shift." The long a vowel is formed further back inthe throat ‘han the sound of the long o. stich is easier to make and therefore ‘was subsftued for ease of pronunciation. Examples: hal holy, ba bone. rap-rope, and gang. KEY EXAMPLES “Badwine er com mid landfyrde and dra hine Gt” means “Earl Béwin came with a land army and drove him out Se hilga Andreas him andswarode" transates as “The Holy Andrew answered him.” Dialects: There were great differences among the four major dialects spoken in Anglo-Saxon England: Nosthumbrian, Mercian, Kentish ‘on, Nearly al ofthe surviving OW English manuscripts ry importance were writen in the West Saxon dar (Classification of English: The English language is one ofthe Western GGermanie languages and is therefore ofthe Indo-European family [Languages most like English are Frisian (spoken along the northern coast of Holland) and Low Gecman (~Pltdeuisch"), spoken in northern Germany. The English of today resulted from the fusion of| the language ofthe Germanic ties who came to England.Key 3_Old English poetry OVERVIEW Before the coming of Christianity, poems— composed and presented orally-—were used to preserve folk: lore. Most of the early poetry (like Beowulf and The Battle of Maldon} is concerned with heroic hatte feats, but some is Iyrical Rhythm: Old English verse has four main emphases fr Beas) in eaeh Tine, reflecting the way these poems were performed to the acm: paniment of oud strum ona harp or lyre. Sevps (or bards), accom panied by a harp or Ire, sang their verse tles to audiences in mead halls, Kennings: Bards used many tational phrases, unigue figures of ‘speech called enmings. Examples: swar-rud C*swan's.riding- place") for sea: filde-eome ("light of bale”) for sword: mere Iiraegl("sea-gurment™) for sail; mere-hengest (°sea horse") for ship: banshaus ("bone-house") for body: and woruld-cande! (world candle") for sun Alliteration: The verse ws highly allterative; i a pai of poetic lines, four or five stressed words might begin withthe same consonant ot vowel. Examples: “hu hi faerice/fetofgeoton” and“ werodes wis word:hord onleac." Repetition: Asin Hebraic poety ofthe Old Testament, statements are repeated. in ditfering words, for emphasis Rapid narrative style: Unnecessary details are omited so thatthe story mnhindered, This is especially we of the epic ‘can move forwat Beowulf, KEY POEMS. Deor’s Lament (¢. 500) is a melancholy Iyrie ofa scop who has lost lavor with the king and has been replaced, ‘The Wife's Lament (trom Exeter Book, ¢ 800) isthe biter lyric ofa wife who is living with hostile relatives after her husband fis been caprured in bale ‘The Seafarer (Irom Exeter Book, ¢. 725) isa doletul monologue by a sailor who is complaining of the cold aorthesn sea and its fearful Key 4_ Beowulf OVERVIEW Beowulf, the epic poem that is the chief surviving monument of Old English literature, was com: posed in Northumbria, England, about 750 A.D. Nt was intended to be sung by a scop 10 entertain eighth-century audiences ‘The anonymous author: The poem ws eventually writen down about the year 1000 in Wessex by an Anglo-Saxon who had raining inthe church, who understond the royal court, who knew the folkloe, and ‘who fd a good command ofthe techniques of Anglo-Saxon pocty “There are many allusions to the Bible: God is said tobe the ear of all thing, the monster Grendel is called a descendant of Cain, and Hell and the Devil await the villainous monsters. There i also some cultural confusion: the author. for example, seems to equate God's Will with the concept of fate (or wyrd, The British Museum contains the only surviving manuscript of Beowulf, which fortunately survived a fire in 1731, before any modern transeription had been made of the poem. Historical evidence: One event in the poem—Hyzelae’s raid on the Frisians —has been documented in Frankish chronicles happening betwecn S12 and $20, Anglo-Saxon culture in Beowulf The poem emphasizes te close rele THonship between Kinsmen, the importance af the relationship be tween the svarrioe (thane) and his lord, and the devotion othe virtue of courage KRY NARRATIVE. ‘A monster named Grendel begins railing Hrothgar’s court and Kling his hanes, Beowulf, Geat, is summoned t kill he monster. which he ‘does by wrenching off his gigantic arm. Beowull fights Grendel’ ‘mother. whom he slays witha magical sword he finds 3s they struggle in a mysterious hall beneath the ovean. The third story concerns the ho tring of Beowulf by Hrothgar and Beovwul’s return home. Yeats ‘when he is old, Beooll is called wo hatle a deagon, who Kills the old ecoKey 5 Old English Christian poetry OVERVIEW Old English poetry, composed orally before the Christian era and amended by the monks who put it into manuscript form, combines pagan mythology and Christian symbols. In The Dream of the Rood, for example, Christ iv described as a “young hero... strong and stou-hearted. The poet Caedmon: The Venerable Bee, in his Beclesiastival History ‘of the British Nation (731), tells bow verse way compoved by. femarkable poet named Caedmon, an uneducated herdsman. In his village the harp was passed around at evening meals ad imprompt songs were composed. Each time Caedmon saw the harp appeoac ing. he would leave the table in embarrassment, feeling unable to ‘conrbute. One night in a dream he was directed to compose poem, about the Creation, and he was able to remember the entire poem ‘when he awoke. Caedmon's Hymn: The only surviving poem definitely attributed to ‘Caedmoa isa nine-tine oe knowin as Caedmon's Hymn, Its subjects the Creation, and it contains the line (ianslted into modern English) "We should sing how he, the eternal Lord, set up a beginning 10 every wondrous thing. Other poems ascribed to Caedmon: The Junius Manuscripts (. 950) contain poems with biblical subjects that Bede has connected with, Cacdmon, atively paraphrases the frst 22 chapters ofthe Ole Testament + Judith fragmentary poem about the beheading of an Assyrian commander by the lovely widow Judith story ofthe Israelites passing through the ‘The poet Cynewulf (c. 750-c. $25): Ranked second only (6 the poet ‘who wrote Beowulf, Cymewulf is best knw for Drea of the Rov poem about the Crucifixion a od bythe Cros sell. Because of ts tendemess and imainativeness. its considered the finest ofthe Old English religious poems. Key 6 Alfred and the beginning of oe English prose OVERVIEW King Alfred the Great (849-c. 900) suw the need for educating his people and sranslated Latin works into the language actually used by the people: Old English Alfred's importance: He wrote prefaces for his warioustanslacions and tle explanations aul expansions of the txt. For this he i called the “alter of English prose.” He also credited with preserving most of the surviving ON! English berate Alfred's translations: This intellectual Anglo-Saxon mont transl fed four of the mnt significant works of his time: Pope Gregory's ‘Pastoral Care." Paulus Orosius’s "Universal History.” the Vener able Bede’s "Ecclesiastical History,” and Boethius’s “Concer the Consolation of Philosophy. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Probably initiated sbout 891 at Alfred's ‘iretion, this history of England from the invasion of Solus Caesar ‘through 8913s the fis original narative prose in the peope’s ver nacular language anywhere inthe western world. No ether people at that time had such a complete history inthe language the people actually spoke. Poems from The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: “The Battle of Brunanburh isa fervent parti poem celebs sh victory. “The Ba tle of Maldon is an excellent pete deserptinn of brave AK Saxon warriors rising hack Norse invaders. Som critics jee 119 :Lfiner pure epic poem than Beene. particu in is character ization of the giant Alderman Bychioh, whine skeleton, when exhumed in 1769, mcsure ss Feet sine inches Feet Acie. 955-«. 1020); Educated under Alfie's diction, Aetiie way ws transatons fom ‘agilled prone writer whose works includes ‘he Old Testament, and Texts om srminae ad ar ‘Wattstan a, 1023 Fits toe sermons have been atria to Walle ‘at, His best havi, “Wols Sermon tothe English” UNL. wren in foeceul. elegant Old English prose it he sates thatthe raids by the Vikings ate in etibaion for English sinsTheme 2_ MEDIEVAL ENGLAND. fier the Norman Conquest the English language was no longer used by the aristocracy, who embraced the French dialect of their Norman conquerors. English sur- vived and developed, however, through its use among the lower and middle classes. In the 13th and Mth centuries the ‘most popular literary works for the anti-aristocratic audi ‘ences were medieval romances, in which the heroie knights bbchaved in the crudest fashion as they ate, fought, or made love. The most important event was the lowering in the late 4th century of three great pocts: the so-called “Peat! Poet,” William Langland, and Geoffrey Chaucer. INDIVIDUAL KEYS IN THIS THEME, 7 Cultural backgrounds of Medieval _English literature 8 Middle English as a language 9 The importance of The Wvcliffe Bible 10 The alliterative revival in Medieval “poetry HE 1 Chau _ 12 The prose of Sir Thomas Malory B ish drama 14 Mystery and miracle plays 15. The morality plays lish lyri 16 Middle E: and by Key 7 Cultural backgrounds of Medieval English literature OVERVIEW The Middle Ages are sometimes referred to as the “Dark Ages,” obscuring the many cultural chunges that took place in language, literature, the arts, and even the political and class structures Language: After the Norman Conquest, when aisoerats embrace ‘Norman French dislect, literary works ere writen in French. It was not uni early inthe 1th century that Es ‘emerged a6 lierary’ and politcal language. Inthe mouths of erai- naty citizens, English became richer more than 10,000 French words ‘were added, and principles were established that made English evolve in everfreer adaptations. Architecture: Although litle great literature was writen in English dur ing the thre centuries ater 1066, there was one crowning atistic achievement: the completing of the 27 great cathedrals of England Such unity of devotion and effort has rarely heen equaled. With Simall population for support, 16 of the cathedrals were stared between 1070 and 1100: all were essentially complete by 1350, ‘The powerful Church: In Nocman England the Church became increas ingly stong, as evidenced by the construction of cathedrals. Through the Church, the culture of Greece and Rome was disseminated, man ‘crip copied, and universities established at Cambridge and Oxford Inmedieval thought, the Church and the King were the two swords (of God in msintaining onder in society ‘Nationalism: Partly de tothe war with France, the English began 10 ‘ake a nationalistic pride in their country and their language inthe 1h century. English instead) of French vs taught regularly in schools Social structure: By 1250 she steady growth of tae and industry led to 2 rising middle class, with guilds to protect members who practiced traf and trades. Te plague reduced the labor force and ed oer wages and to the demands of the Peasants’ Revolt in 1381. Chaucer. im his Canterbury Tales, brilliantly depiets the varied social satsKey 8 Middle English as a language OVERVIEW In the year 1000 the opening words of the Lord's Prayer were written in Old English: “Faeder ure thu cart on heofiaum, si thin nama gehalgod.”* In The Wycliffe Bible (1389). it begins: ““Oure fadir that art in hevenes: habwvid be thi name.”” English thus made a giant stride from its Germanic heritage toward the language as we speak it today ish The grammar ‘wats simplified and the vocabulary greatly enlarge +The inflections (special worl endings shoving relationships be tsecen sentence pats) vinwally disappear in Mille English + The word order in Chavcer’s time was fke that of Medeen English, with the subject coming before the predicate and the mod ificr before the sword modified, Example: “oure fait,” not “Faeder ue + The vocabulary of Old English was primarily Germanic, but Mids le English was enriched by borrowed words “+ Middle English spelling is fess unifom because it incomporstes sever regional dialects, each with is ovin system of representing Sounds in iting 1+ The “natural gender” evolved in Middle English, We uniformly refer to male beings as masculine, female ones Feninine, unlike ther European languages. + The pronunciation of Old English sutra sands ws sensed in Middle English, but with no consistent system, leading 10 varied Pronunciations nf words with the saris ening. Examples: pls, hiecough, rough. cough. though. and slough Walter Son's novel 1 Wana notes th although von, seep, i an deer are words trons Oh! English, eainary swords such 3 br ea mtn, pork, aun, al venison ate detved fn French. The reason tht lies speaking Norman French gave orders the hitch fe tld ths these words for meat bere aed 10 the cooks ‘vocabulary. Herdkmen continued fuse the English words for an ralson the hoof. This ilusteats the distinction in made English Which words relating to eure, suneroment std "polite terms enerally have French Latin rats while the “litle words of oune ih home" derive tsi Argh Savon noo Thunhoe, the chara 7 Key 9 The importance of The Wycliffe Bible OVERVIEW Jolin Woelffe(e. 1328-84) was an Oxford theologian and religious reformer whose writings champi ‘ned the poor, who he thought were overburdened by the power ofthe Church. He encouraged the firs translation of {he Bible into English so that persons could interpret the Seriptures individually: ‘The Lollard movement: Wycliffe attacked the Churehs power in his sermons and oer witngs, advocating thatthe state tke over the ‘ast landholdings ofthe Church, More practically, he sent ou simple devoted ren, called Lollards, t0 preach t© people in their naive tongve, revealing the living tuths of religion which they said the formalism of church had obscured. The Lollacds identified withthe poor. wearing coarse russet robes and carying staves. Many of them ‘Were executed in the fourth quarter ofthe Ith century Links with literature: Although Chaucer's works contain only one ref ‘fence (0 the peasant uprising and one to the Lollards, the tone of (Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and his stiri truss atthe land-hunry power of the medieval church owes much to Wyeliffe’y move> Links with history: Peshaps unintentionally. Wyelife's Lollard move ‘ent helped instigate the Peasant’s Revolt of 1381, His efforts 10 remove the Church trom political and materialistic concerns were pa of the movement that led 10 the Reformation. The Waeliffe Bible: tn two versions, <. 1382 and 6. 1395, this was the alist complet trnsation of the Bible into English. Some scolar claim tha none of the actual translation was done by Wylie: is most probably the work of Nicholas of Hereford and John Purvey encouraged by Wycliffe, The King James Version of the Bible (Key 24), which had more iatuence on English ftrature than any other book, made extensive use of The Wselife Bible Links withthe language: Wycliffe and his associates, in ranting the Bible, are credited with incorporating more than a thousand Latin words not found previously in English uKey 10 The alliterative revival in Medieval poetry OVERVIEW Between 1350and 1400, over rwenty signif icant Middle English poems in the alliterative style of Old English poetry were written (Characteristics: Ualike the works of Chaucer, these poems seem wi tea 10 be recited. show litle of the personality of the author. use ryyths and consentonal subjects, ad Seek to each Hes, usally through allegory The Pearl Poet: ‘The authorship of several anonymous aliterative ‘poems in similar sy, diction, and ialet have heen atributed othe Pearl Poet + Peart is dream allegory lamenting the death ofthe poet's 0 year-old daughter and envisioning Parise. + Purity (or Cleanness promotes the virtue of parity by paraphras- ing Biblical tries of the Flood, the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and the fall of Belshazzer in passages of rest poster. + Patience iluirates the evils of impatience by retelling the try of Jonah in a humorous vay, complete with a ease piture ofthe Whales imterio. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: This cleganily consieucted, vivid narative poem. attbuted by some 1 the Peat! Poet, is one of the realy admired works of medieval Hteatue, The native iivided Into four parts. fs: +The Challenge? The giant Green Knight appears in King Arthues court on New Year’ Day, daring anyome to chop off his head and receive a similar stroke w year and a day hence. Gawain accepts the challenge and sever the head ofthe want who picks Up his hel tnd dishes aay + The Knightly Quest: Gawain ses oat to fll his pledge, but loses is way ad comes to ease where he is welcomed By the loed. his beautiful lady. and a hideous old hag. The host plans three days of pleasant activity the two fos vow To evehange each night tokens won during the day. R +The Temptation: The lady forces her atentons on Gata, kis ing him. When the lord recurs from the hunt, Gawain receives that day's kill and responds with a hss. On the second day he receives and exchanges suo hisses. onthe tid, three. But Gawa Withholds another git fom the lady: a mage green baltic belt) thats supposed to preserve the weaters life +The Return Blow: When Gas faces the Green Knight on New Yeats Day. he liches trom the frst ho blows and sustsin Slight gash on the neck from the thie, Then he leans that the Green Knight is relly his generous fost and that the old hag is ‘Arthur's fairy sister. Mongain-Le-Fay, who had devised this rat egy 40 corrupt Gawain and shame King Arthurs court Medieval Meaning of Gawain: This allegory. intended to teach the ‘Vitus of chivalry ana knighthood, maybe aseisted with dhe Foun ing of England's Oner of the Garter. Except for his weakness in the hale episode. Gawain's behavior is above reproach Piers Plowman: More than sixty manuscripts sursive in three differing ‘etsions of Pers Plosman, attesting to the popiarty ofthis alter ative poem. the full ile of which i The Vision of William Concer ing Piers the Plowman. Notes in certain manuscripts aeribe the Authorship 10 a Wiliam Langlnd, In form its dre the most common of medieval Hteaty devices. Its considered by many to be the greatest poem of the Middle English lliterative Revival + Basie content: The poet dreams of «tower on a hill & dungeon in the valley, snd "Tafel ul of folk” in between, Symbolic ly. God lives in the tower, the devil in the dungeon, Inthe we called Btest of the poem. there are eight separate vision, described by a narrtoc cled Will, The themes are primarily re ious. and the poem ends with Coneienve setting out tik Piers. ho will ead them, iis hoped on & perfected search For Salvation + Importance of the poem: It iy second only to the Canterbur Tales in giving vivid scenes of moval ie at depict Famine the evils of glutiony. and the greed of unscrupuus andl officials, tits wer. and merchants. The tone bs sarc an angry. but inthe was of a sincere al religious common Many of th the protesters in the Peasants Revolt sayings in Pers Plowman became shgats shouted hy BKey 11 Chaucer and his works OVERVIEW Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) served three English kings in high governmental positions: concur rently, he wrote an extraordinary body of poetry. that touched all phases of English life and art Works: Traditionally, Chaucer's hterary career hs been divided into Three periods that reflet the influences and sles tat affected bis writing + Brench period: Chaacer followed French poetic conventions in the allegorical elegy, The Bork of the Duchess (1369), 3nd The Parliament of Fowl a St. Valentine's Day poem celebrating 2 royal betothal. He also translated into English poetry the Ronit de la Rose, the most papular ad itluenil af al Fenech poems in| the Middle Ages. jan period: Visiting Icly on diplomatic missions, Chaueer influenced to write Tous and Cressida, bis longest complet poem, largely adapted from Boccacei's story Filostato (The Love-Stricken One), Other poems colored by Malian reminis- ‘ences ate a dream allegory, The House of Fame, and The Legend Of Good Women, «collection of stones in heroic couplets about Famous women of antiquity who were fitful in love. + Enilish period: Here Chaucer adds an important ingredient to the conventional artistry ofthe earlier periods his unique personality In the Canterbury Tales he describes, witha tolerant humor and restrained wit, nearly every type of person found in medieval England in various classes, trades, and professions ‘The Canterbury Tales: Chaycer's most celebrated work. it contains ‘bout 17.000 lines i prose and verse of various meters (though pei ‘marily in ehymed couplets) +The plan: Chaucer originally conceived framing device with 3 motley company’ of thinty traveler telling {80 sores each way on their pilgrimage to Canterbury and rium to London. The desig ‘was similar to Boccaccio’ Decameron, in which sores were told by a group sequestered fom the plague, Chaser bepan the work shout 1386, but only twenty-four stories four ofthese unfinished had beon writen shen he died in 1408 ‘+ The General Prologue: An impertant poem in its own Fight, it deseries the meoting of 29 pilgrims atthe Tabard Ina in South- wwark (now a part of London) In fact the pilerims add up to 31 in the Prologue. and 21 of them are described colorfully in bret word MW pictures that reveal their personalities, dress, and even the kind of horse they nde + Sources: Not original with Chaucer. but freely adapted from ‘works well knovn in the Midale Ages, the stories include every type of medieval Retin as well as a sermon. «+The characters: The bilan of Chaucer's arts shown in bis creation of a marvelously vied pore galley of medieval char acters, both in and out ofthe Church. Forever memorable ae the Wife of Bath fee-whceling feminist figure: the“ poor Parson.” the only churchman Chtucer approves othe Miller 3 cose and {quarresome bully: the rioress, dainty and pretentious pig: and fan assortment of unlikely and roundly satirized prelates the Monk the Summoner. and the Fria KEY TALES Hi “The Miller's Tale" isa ribald story of the conning of « husband, through the expectation ofa second Flood, anda lover, seho expects to Kise a lady's lips, but is offered her “nother eve." ‘The Reeve’s Tale” is fabliau about twa clerks, having been robbed ty a miller, taking revenge by sleeping with his wife and daughier “The Wife of Bath's Tale” offers arapst-knight freedom i he answers the question, “What do women most desire?” The “loath lady" who {gives him the answer (women want to have their own Way) is tans. formed into © beautiful wie “The Clerk's Tale” tells of patient and obedient Griselda, who with stands the tials meted out by’a relentless husband, “The Merchant's Tale" i the story of an old man maried toa young wife. Wher he goes blind, she makes love in a pear tee with a young lover, during which event Pluto mischievous festores the old man’s sight “The Pardoner's Tale" is sermon as well asa sory of the riotous young men who set out to find Death and destroy hin, Instead, their ‘reed destroys them The Nun's Priest's Tale" is bess fable shou cack whe is Naiered and caught by fox, sho in tm sited By the cook, wh escapes IsKey 12 The prose of Sir Thomas Malory OVERVIEW Malory'y Morte Darthur, a gathering of the ‘main body of legends about King Arthur into one narrative, is the best-known work of fjteenth-censury English litera Influence: Malory’s simple, forthright telling of the Arthurian lore is sill enjoyed hy modern reds, and the work has lon inspite other Weitings, such as Tennyson's dls ofthe King Malory's reputation—myth or fact? For many yoars scholars have ‘idemitied the author of Morte Darthur with a Warwickshire Knight ‘who was charged with extortion, robbery. and rape and who spent the Tastcenty years of his life in prison, Recent investigations hase siscovered othee Thomas Malorss, indicating that the actual author ‘may not have hid & riminal recon ‘Sources of Morte Darthur: Malocy used 13th century French versions ‘of Arthurian legends, skillfully condensing and rewriting them, ‘Anotier source Was 4 medieval allterative pocm in English called Mone Arthure, Malory omitted minor episodes found in these Malory’s prose style: The conversion of the wordy, long-winded French originals into shor, fim sentences with natural rhythm of speech gives Malory's work is greatest distinction. A blunt, practical nan of action who admied knighthood but di not romanticize it be presented the Amhurian material in a work uniquely his own, Caxton’s edition of Morte Darthur: Wiliam Caxton (14222-14912) nroduced printing to England: among his most famous publications fre the Canterbury Tales and Malory's Morte Dardhur, published in 148s The content of Malory's eyele: A manuscript discovered in 1934 of "Malory’s work lists the eight principal hoes of Anurian fore: 1 ‘The Tale of Anhur and Lucius: 2. The Book of King Amur: 3. The ‘Tale of Sir Lancelot du Lake: 4. Sir Gareth of Orkney: 5. Teistam de Lyones: 6. The quest ofthe Holy Grail: 7. Lancelot and Guinevere: and 8. The Morte Danhur (death of Arthur). 16 eee Key 13__ The beginnings of English drama eee OVERVIEW I: is ironical that the flourishing drama of Greece and Rome was banned by the early Christian church, while in England priests of the Church acted out biblical scenes and fostered the beginning of drama as we ‘know it today. ‘Barly drama in the chureh: In a late 10th-century manuserip, Eel "wold, Bishop of Winchester, instructed Benedictine monks in per forming an Easter drama called the Quem Quaerits Trope. The phrase "Quem quacrits™ means “Whom seek ye?” and was asked lof the three Marys as they came tothe tomb of esus. Two members fof the church choir dressed in white as angels, asked the question of three others dressed in black, representing the Marys. Thus English Grama was born. Later, a Christmas playlet about the coming ofthe Magi, Offcium Stelle, was added to the repetoite ‘Church drama becomes popular: The people clamored for mone dr ‘matic presentations, and the clergy complied, erecting platforms Along the interior walls of the chutch so that scenes ranging from (Creation to Judgment Day could be presented, With no chairs pews in medieval churches, the crowds could cluster clase tothe action. ‘The acor-priests hegan Wearing costumes and speaking thei lines in vernacular English rather than Latin, receiving the delighted applause of the audiences, Two of the earliest of such dramas in English were Jacob and Esau (early 13th century) and The Harrowing of Hell {nid-1309 century, Drama moves outside the church: Ashe deamas placed mee strain on the services and the audiences became more unruly. the plays Were ‘moved outside, ft othe church porch and then to the surrounding ‘grounds and graveyards. The laughter and the excited squcals nw ‘realy inereased, and sch plays as one in svhich Noah's wie is comical drunken shrew became widely popular. The actors ‘overplaying thei roles o the delight of the simple folk in the a tence. By the end of the 3th century the exasperated church banished all drama from holy groundKey 14_ Mystery and miracle plays OVERVIEW As the 41h century began, drama was free of Church control, and plays were performed by lay persons rom the craft guilds which were called “mysteries.” To satisfy the growing public demand, the guilds constructed elaborate pageant wagons as stages for their cycles of plays Content: The subject matter was sil religious; mystery plays (based on the Bible) ad mirace plas (based upon the fives of saints) were the only dramatic fare. (Cycles of plays: To celebrate Corpus Christi Da, cratt guilds presented plays to crowds that remained in place ws the pageant wagons rolled. tich sation. Appropriately. the goldsmith guild performed the Three ‘Wise Men Bearing Gifts; the carpenters, Noah's Ark; and the bakers and brewers, the Last Supper. Surviving eyetes: Although these cyeles were performed in about 125 Bish communities inthe 14th and 15th centuries, manuscripts of ‘complete cycles survive only from Chester, York, Wakefield, and the unknown "N, Town,” +The York Cycle: The most extensive English eyele, with 48 plays surviving, covers biblical history from the Creation tothe Cruci fivion, + The Wakefleld Cycle: These plays by the so-called “Wakefield Masec” are unique in medieval drama. They contain exciting reli ious thealer combined with boisterous humor and bigh spins ‘The best example isthe Second Shepherd's Play. in which Mak tries to steal a sheep and conceal it ina cradle ava new-born baby The play stirizes shrenish wives and the overaing of the poor Mier Mak's guilt is farcicaly revealed, the other shepherds 20 ael before the new-boen Jest +The Chester Cycle: Twenty-four “pageants are included in dis ‘ycle. treating sacred history more humorously than in the York ‘cycle, but les so thin inthe Wakeiel. A typical Chester play is fone with slapstick humor inwolsing Noah's wife's drunkenness ‘The Chester plays used an “expositor.” who accompanied the pageant wagon on horseback and explained the meaning of the play. 1B Key 15_ The morality plays OVERVIEW The morality plays were allegorical ser ‘mons with simple plots, using characters to personify such ‘abstractions as Beauty, Glustony, Virtue, and Vice. Profes sional actors were used to perform these plas own ofthe morality plays. the cha eter Everyman (representing all humankind) is surnmoned by Death to the day of judgment. Everyman ties find a companion for bis journey. but all forsake him. Only Good Deeds poes wth him into the rave and helps present his case, The play i intensely dramatic as Everyman is deserted by Fellowship, Kindred, Goods, ete. and becomes increasingly terrified Everyman (140%: fn the b The Castle of Perseverance (c. 1425): This oldest complete morality play has a plot similar Wo that of Everyman. The Bad Angel and Good ‘Kngel suse forthe soul of man, and the later places him inthe Castle of Perseverance, Hell's forees cannot prevail agains the Cas- te, but Greed lures him outside, where he dies repentant. Mercy Peace, Truth, and Righteousness complete ina debate fr the mans soul; Merey wins ‘Mankind (c.1475): In this unusual comic morality play. the vices com fete for the soul of man, delighting medieval audiences with their lewd antics. Titiullus, a devi who collects words mumbled or skip ped in divine services, was a favorite medieval character, He seduces Mankind trom Merey at first, but Merey ttumphs a las. Magnyfycence (1516) This isthe earliest English drama whowe author ‘ship is cerain. Writen by Joba Skelton (c. 460-1529), it depicts ‘mankind being deceived by vies, but later redeemed by the vies GGoodhope and Perseverance. Ane Pleasant Satire of the Thrie Estaits (1540): Written by Sir David Lindsay, it depicts the temptation of Rex Humanitas by Sensuality ‘Wantonness, Solace and oer undesirable companions. Atibe same time, Good Counsel is hurried ava’. Verity is putin stocks. and Chastity is warned 0 say away. Comection arives 40 sive the day, 7Key 16 Middle English lyrics and ballads OVERVIEW Lyrics—short, melodie poems, usually ex pressing intense personal emotion—are rare in Old English poetry, but are fairly common in medieval literature, with religious lyrics greatly outnumbering secular ones. Bat- Lads—poems that tell stories, often of folk origin—are found in great numbers. Both Ivrics and ballads were originally vavitten to be sung. Religious lyrics: The extensive cull ofthe Virgin in the Middle Ages accounts for many songs about the Madonna. The lyric beginning “Lullay, my child, and wepe no more (usually entitled “A Sacred Lullaby") and “Jesus Christ's Mild Mother’ are typical Secular Iyries: The bes-known lyric in Middle English is Cuckoo Some (1300), with is joyous outburst in the opening ines; "Sumer #8 cmen in, Lhude sing, cucco!"” Also well known is the love Tyre “Alysoun"(¢.1300), in which the poet praises he fair hai. brown eyes, and *middel smal Medieval ballads: Interest in ballads was given a great impetus by the publication of Tuomas Percy's Religues of Ancient English Poetry (3 ‘vols. 1765) and Francis James Chil's English and Scottish Popular Ballads 5 vols. 1882-98). Most ballads teat tragic le, the pagan Supernatural, and historical and semi-historical events, + Sir Patrick Spens, an early Scotsh ballad, tells of Spens being ‘ordered to sea in winter on a mission forthe King. His foreboding ‘of cisaser and he tragic droning of the crew are powerfully as simply tl + Barbara Allan, widely sung in America, tells of Sir John Grehme's dying of unrequited love For Barbara + Tam Lin ells of Janet winning back to moa ie ber ela lover. Tam, from the queen of the fairies, who hid captured him. + Robin Hood Cycle of Ballads: The bescknown of this genre is Robin Hood and Gus of Gishorne. Rabin kills Guy of Gisborne in ‘deadly fight disguises himself in Guy's horsehide garment, and teicks the Sheriff of Nottingham, 0 Theme 3 RENAISSANCE PROSE La —errrr—evee”e@=e— L. 1485 when Henry VIL, the first Tudor monarch, was crowned, an astonishing era of change was beginning, ‘Seven years later, Columbus discovered America, opening the way for the English to colonize the New World, Great ccultural changes had recently occurred when William Cax- ton published the first book in English in 1474. English scholars, called Humanists, visited Italy and brought back the spirit of the Renaissance —a rebirth of literature and art inspired by the rediscovery of classical manuscripts from antiquity. Martin Luther promoted a schism in the Roman Catholie Church in 1517, leading to the Protestant Reforma- tion and England's separation from the Roman Catholic Church. England, under Queen Elizabeth, became strongly nationalistic as Britain gained control of the seas. INDIVIDUAL KEYS IN THIS THEME 17 Characteristics of Renaissance England 18 The beginnings of modem English 19 Prose of the Renaissance humanists 20 Sidney and Raleigh — waethan prose 22-_Literary philosophers: Bacon and Hobbes i: Early 17th-Century prose stylists 24 “The King James Bible aKey 17 Characteristics of Renaissance England OVERVIEW The Renaissance (or rebirth of learning), which began in ttaly in the 14th century, affected English aamitudes toward learning and the arts from approximately 1485, the year of the accession of the Tudor monarchs, 10 1660, when Charles I was restored to the throne. "The new impulse for learning: Before Caxton printed his fst book in English, no more than two percent of the English people could ead Afterwards, learning increased rapidly, from the Crovin tothe com monet: Henry VII wrote poetry and composed songs: Elizabeth | spoke five foreign languages and encouraged drama and the ats, New ‘Schools Were founded throughout Britain, in rural villages as well as Influence ofthe Humanists: Enlightened by the elassies of Greece and ‘Rome, the Humanists emphasized human potential, not God's power believing one's role i life shouldbe action, not religious conempli tion, After the publication of The Wyeliffe Bible Key 9), Humanists influenced a ertcal and scholarly study ofthe seripures. which par ly led to a challenge of Roman Catholicism and the emergence of English Protestantism Strong English nationalism: During Queen Elizabeth’ reign (1558. 103). England became a world naval power and bepan the founds ‘ions ofthe far-lung British empire. Te defeat of the Spanish Arma {ds in 158K gave impetus toa poverful surge of nationalistic Fervor iat energized all English pursuits, inching teature and the EY RENAISSANCE CHARACTERISTICS Emphasis on classical sues sn the expanding uni + Increasing iteracy among the ty rath ofa titi, skeptical type of scholarship, leading tos enc ingiry + creasing tae leads co individual w rationalism, anid materialism. general prosperity. Gradual movement fom unguestioned religious beliefs toward a more human centered philosophy’ at Key 18 The beginnings of modern English OVERVIEW English had triumphed over French as the spoken language by the mid-I41h century Groth of English: As strony nationalistic feelings developed in England during the Renaissance and the “New Learning™ became ‘more scientific and technological. English became the language of Scholarship. replacing Latin. With the rive of Protestantism, English became the language of theology: now the English kmguage had no bounds to ats development Greatly expanded vocabulary: Much grosth came from the leaned ‘words borrowed from Latin and Greek, bul explorers and overseas tradesmen brought an influx of words from many foreign lan- ages ‘Willingness to experiment: With such writers as Shakespeare leading the way, new forms of Words Were invented daily. Example: All of the following variants were in actual use in Shakespeare's da’ effec ual, effective, eflectating, and elfectuous Spelling: Early inthe Renaissance, spelling was eratic. Example: Fel Tove was spelled flaw, fetowe, fallow, and fllowe. In 1582, Robert, “Muleaster proposed as system of reguarizing spelling, which wis, {quickly accepted and which had begun wo make a noticeable differ ence by 1600, Pronu In reading poetic works from the peri of Shakespeare, notice that many words ae stressed on different sjllables from ones currently emphasized The second syllable was stessed in he flow ing words: character, illustrate, concentrate and contemplate ‘Changes in grammatical elements: al ke even and Kine were replaced by exes nd Pronouns: Ye was rapidly being eplaced by vo, and sho, shee, and thy were disappearing from popular speech. ‘The pronoun ie (not used in the King lames Ble) had is fist rooted use in 1598 Verbs: The endings of words ike giveth and taketh changed 1 sives and takes 2BKey 19 Prose of the Renaissance humanists, OVERVIEW The Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus (14662-1536), who came to England during the reign of the first Tudors, stimulated interest in classical writings and exploratory thinking among such English humanists as Sir Thomas More, Sir Thomas Elyot, and Roger Ascham Sir Thomas More (1478-1535): close fiend of Erasnns, Mowe is best Known for his prose work Utopia. writen fist in Latin in 1516, + Viopia: Book 1, which tells of an ideal state with tly repre sentative government the most widely read. It deseibes a and where cobus health s exalted, workdays ate only six hours Tong both women and men are educated. all houses are equally com= Fortable, ll religions ae tolerated, Waris detested, and he Welfare of the whole is paramount ‘Thomas Elyot (c. 1490-1546): He was appointed ambassador 10 ‘Charles V. Holy Roman Emperor after writing The Boke Named the Governowr (1531), the first full work in English on education and ioral philosophy. Elyot describes the ideal ruler ay a humanist. learned in Greck and Latin, with « dy mae healthy by the exercise ff wrestling and horseback riding. He follows the Renaissance ides that only those in high places, not the masses, should be educate, Roger Ascham (1515-1568): An aevomplished Greck scholar wha ts Tutor Io Elizabeth 1. Ascham was mister of the distinctly English prose sie + Taxophilus 1545) i 4 Platonie dialogue between Philologus Hos cerof knowledge) and Toxophilus lover of archery. OF principal interest isthe Prologue, where Ascham vigorously urges the tse of English a the language of schol + The Scholemaster (1370: This tative on edveation advoetes vonage of the birt rol on young students. He uegess itt ing classical mexdels to develop a goad prose syle and condemns the Canterbur Paley snd Morte Darin foe isumoralit. Key 20 _ Sidney and Raleigh OVERVIEW Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) and Sir Wal- ter Raleigh (c. 1552~1618) embodied the ideal Renaissance persona in their versauility: they were courtiers, soldiers, scholars, statesmen, and poets [Asauthors: Raleigh was second only 0 Sidney among the courtly poets oth were masterly at writing pretty ibutes to Queen Elizabeth. They were also accomplished prove writer: Sidney produced literary eit ieism and fiction, and Raleigh wrote history. Both lived and died dramatically “The legends of Sidney's death: On September 22, 1586, this Renas ance her led a tack on @ Spanish convoy and received a musket ‘wound in his thigh; he died of infection three weeks later. His fiend Fulke Greville, who was not present atthe scene, let two famous embellishment of his death in one, Sidney lt off his thigh armor so that he would not be beter protected than the marshal ofthe camp: in the second, ashe was being carried wounded from the field. Sidney saw a dying soldier looking pleadingly at his water boule and gave i to him withthe words, “Thy necessity is yet greater than mine Sidney was buried in St, Pavl's Catbedal Sidney's prose: Because of its lsh, sensuous language, The Coumiess ‘of Pembroke’ Arca, «pastoral prose romance, Was the mest il tential prose fiction before Pilgrim x Progress. The Defence of Poesy inaugurates English literary criticism, These are two of the most important Renaissance prose works. 4+ Arcadia (1577-85): Write to urmuse Sidney's sister. this discu sive narrative has two ship-oreched princes fallin Hove with the daughters ofthe King of Avcadi. In romanticized word pictures Sidney creates dream world of magical beay that anticipates Spenser + The Defence of Poesy e.1579-84y: Sidney defend the writing of imaginative literature usains the Puritan charge that it san enemy ‘of vir. Sidney argues that poetey has the funetion of hath teach ing and delighting. The great end of leaning. Sidney Wt, is living of a vious life. and the inspired poet can ead readers to the highest truth, asSidney's poetry: Atrophel and Stella (1580-84), the fst trae sonnet ‘sequence (or group of tlated sonnets) in English, established Sidney asthe most polished sriter of sonnets betore Shakespeare. Tn the Sequence, Astrophel "star lover") relates his love for Stella star"), dad celebrates er charms, The 108 sonnets follow the Petrarcan Form strictly Raleigh's prose: Primarily historical, these reflect the excitement atthe [expinding ofthe British Empire from the pont of view of nation alitic Renaissance man, +A Reportofthe Truth ofthe Fight about the Isles of Acores (pub. 1591) is a prose epic about the naval batle between Sir Richard Grevlle's ships agains an overwhelming Spanish Nee. Tennyson erived his poem "The Revenge from Raleigh's account + The Discovery ofthe Large, Rich, and Bewtiful Empire of Guix ‘ana (1596) concerns the quest for gold in a lush, viepin jungle ‘with graphic accounts of hand-to-hand combat, + The History ofthe World (16), rien in prison i the Tower of London, contains valuable history {up to 130 B.C.), writen in ‘magnificent prose syle Ralelgh’s poetry: He is best known for such yrs as “The Nympl's Reply w the Shepherd" (a sardonic reply to Marlowe's idyllic pu toral poem), The Lie” (rite fom prison), and "Farewell, False Love," (an unconventional lover's complaint, written in vigorous ctor) (QUOTATION) all she world and love were young [And truth in every shepherds tongue. ‘These prety pleasures might me move ‘To ive with thee and be thy love Raleigh, [rom "The Nymphs Repl to the Shepherd 6 Key 21 Elizabethan prose OVERVIEW Tivo types of prose were widely read: fi. tion, in a genre quite different from modern novels, and chronicles, accounts of travels and historical events. John Lyly (1554-1646): His best-known work, Fuphues: The Amatoms (of Wt (1878), was read for is allterative style and extravagant ln sage rater than i vial plo and bland moraliing. It was ad a the cour to imitate charaters in Eaplues, asserting that ho love is soon cold. thatthe bavin though it burn bight, is but blaze that, scalding Water ii stands a while tuneth almost to ice that pepper ‘hough it be hot inthe mouth is cold inthe maw." Robert Greene 1500-1592): Also a dramatist, he was the most prolife ‘of the prose fictions, writing twenty romances inthe TS8Ds, the best-known being Pandosto, she Triumph of Time (1588), the source of Shakespeare's The Winter's Tole, More significant and distinctive was A Notable Discovery of Cosenage (1561), frst of a series of “ony-catching"” pamphlets about con-men who cheated the iano- cent. Greene captured accurately the Sangy idiom of the under- worl Thomas Nashe (1567-1601): Nashe's unigue tale, The Unfortunate Traveler, oF the Life of Jack Wilton (1594) isthe fast piearesque novel in English. Picaresgue novels describe the adventures of a vig bond ar rogue (picaro in Spanish) with stark realism Raphael Holinshed (d.1S80}-"The Chronicles of England, Scovland and Ireland (1578), knovn as Holinshed's Chronicles, is history of Britain to 1575, From) these Chronicles Shakespeare borrowed the Plot of Macbeth, pars of Cymbetine, and possibly King Lear Richard Hakluyt (¢, 1552-1616 With minor collaboration he wre the maslerpiece of English wavel literate: The Principal Vow Traffes, and Discoveries of the English Nation (3 vols.. 1598 1600). which tansmits the wonder and novelty of mature in bite know parts ofthe planet Earth Samuel Purchas (c.1575—1626): When Hakluyt died. is woek was continued by Purchas. The completed work was entitled Hakluvts Posthumus, oc Purch His Pilgrines (1625), which inspieed Cole Fidge to write “Kubla Kha,Key 22 Literary philosophers: Bacon and Hobbes OVERVIEW Previously, British philosophers wrote in Latin, but the 17th Century saw the blossoming of great English philosophical writing. Philosophy was then a type of Titerature, not a specialized discipline of its own. Francis Bacon (1561-1626): A busy public servant and chief adviser vo Tames Ihe wrote super infelecial essays in the Renaissance spirit, He said: “1 have taken al knowledge to be my provinee. 2 essays (otaling 16, writen 1597-1625): Bacon’ primary pur pose was fo each young contemporary aristocrats how to succeed “Typical is "OF Riches,” which praises wealth und gives advice on taining it and using it wisely + Advancement of Learning (1608) isa trict on education in 40 books; the Fist prises knowledge and challenges prejudices against larg, the second isa survey of learning. laying a foun ation for national culture + Novum Organumm (1620) the best statement of phy, espouses the Novum Organun (nev instrume! tive reasoning to unlock seientiic mysteries. 100"s philoso of indue- KEY QUOTATIONS _ Some books ate tobe tasted, others o be swallowed, and some few 10 he chewed and digested." “Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man and weiting an “Money slike muck, not good! except it be spread Thomas Hobbes (154-1679): His philosophical works are considered the major English works of the type Between Bacon and Locke: + The Elements of Law Natural and Politic (¢. 4630) estblises him as the founder of modern empirical philosophy. He sates that the ultimate relity isthe ceaseless mevion of mater. chief drive iy selfopresersation, and Fee wil sam illsion + Leviathan (1651) argues that monarchs rule not by divine right. bur because humans. through self-interest. give up natural rights forthe security ofa srong ruler. A pessimist Be characterized lite as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and shoe 2» Key 23 Early 17th Century prose stylists OVERVIEW Like Bacon and Hobbes, prose writers of the early 17th Century also turned away from the highly ‘ornamental and artificial style of Lyly and Sidney. helping to {fashion a new kind of precise English prose, elegant, but yet unadorned. The subject matter of prose greatly browlened, incorporating all phases of learning —even fishermen’s lore—as the province of reflective prose. Robert Burton (1577-1610): A reclusive Oxford scholar, Burton wrote The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621-51). a book that grew with each sacoveding edition unl i reached nearly a kal million words and, included interesting observations on hundreds of subjects, gleaned from a lifetime of prodigious reading. Burton attempted (0 define melancholy 28 an emotional ailment (with special references to mel lncholia caused by love and religion) and ta offer cures. He counter- acted his own melancholy tendencies with love of if and a sense of humor. The Anatomy of Melancholy has hundreds of allusions to literature —ancien and Elizabethan —and many authors used it asthe source of their literary ideas, Traak Walton (1593-1683): His best-known work is The Compleat Angler, or the Contemplative Man's Recreation, the classic book about te fre of fish and fishing that evokes an England of pristine Streams, inviting meadows, an cosy terns, 1 takes the foxm of lalogues among the author Piseator ta fisherman), Aueeps (8 fos ler), and Venator (a hunter) each commending his own sport. The author intrcts his pupil in the at of catching Vis Kinds of Fes water fish and dresig them For the fable. An account of & fishing cexpeiion along the river Lea also conttins interlades of verse and song, angling anecdotes, moral reflections, and satches af tho ‘ogy and fokloe, ohn Selden (1584-1654): One of the tit great criti slay of ‘modeen England. be is now chielly koown for Table Tak (1689) 3 book of his sayings dat were collected and edited by his sere Richard Milward. The book shows Selden wo bea witty conversation. lis with a mind capable of shrewd analysis, The subject mater deals ith a wide range of human activites in balanced. common sense way. »Sie Thomas Browne (1606-1682): Like Burton, this provincial phys ‘sian Toved the quaint and unusual + Religio Medici" Physician's Religion”) was writen from the pint of view of a experimental scientist who has a wide interest fn nature along with 2 rare charm and a sense of humor. + Hydriotaphia, Urw-urial besins with the discovery of some Roman funeral urs neat Norwich and grows ito treatise on all Known burial practices 3s well as an exhaustive investigation into death set KEY QUOTATION “The Egyptians were alrid of fre, not sa deity but» devouring element mercilessly consuming their bodies and leaving too litle of them; and therefore by precious emnbalmments, contrived the notablest ways of imtegral conservation. —Hvdrionaphia + The Garden of Corus (1688), published in the same volume os Urn Burial is an elaborate playing upon a conceit in prose. He uses the figure of the quincuns (the geometric arrangement ofthe five dts on dominoes or dice) to show the presence of the mumber| five inart astronomy. history, anatomy. magic and nearly every thing ele “The Character Writers: They wrote shor sketches of various human ypes. + "Joseph Hall (1574-1656). who claimed, with some validity, to be the frst English satirist, wrote Characters of Ves and Vies (1608), including shor vignetes seiten in a wity, homely style shout characters such as "The Malkontent ir Thomas Overbury (1581-1613) and some of his friends con- tinued the genre in 4 book published in 1614 that, unlike Hall included mule and femile characters with no arbitrary division fetween the gow! and the had. Well-known sketches inelude “A Puritan” and "A Fate and Happy Milkmaid.” + John Earle (c. 1601-1668) i considered the gwetes ofthe eter ites for hi book Mécracosmaeraphe ("The Word in Lit the"). which decries, wih humo and tolerance, "A Young Raw Preacher,” "An Upstart Knight.” and A Pretender to Lear 30 Key 24 The King James Bible OVERVIEW This Authorized Version of the Bible, called the “noblest monument of English prose” was published in 1611 and had a profound influence on the phrasing, cadence, and vocabulary of both everyday speech and liter= ‘ature from the 17th century onward. li was the chief reading of the Puritans, who passed laws compelling the study and reading of it. Origin: King James summoned a conference in 1604 to discuss the revising ofthe Bible. He appointed 47 scholars, to be divided into sx fr0ups, instructing them f0 approach the revision conservatively ‘The King James syle: Much ofthe grand syle ofthe Authorized Ver sion comes from the Work of {wo tanslators of the Bible into vernac- lar English: Wilfam Tyndale (c1494—1536), who suffered 3 mar {y's death for his translation of the New Testament, and Miles Cov- ferdale (1488-1568), who translated the Old Testament. Bott had the itt of placing simple words in musical cadences, BENIQUOTATION SESE [Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill hall be made low: and the crooked shall be made sirtight, and the rough places plain: ‘And the glory ofthe Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall soe it {ogether: forthe mouth ofthe Lord hath spoken i from aia, 33:3 Influence on literature: The Victorian critic Mathew Amol wrote of “one English book and one only. where . perfect plinness of speech is allied with perfect nablenes, and that book isthe Bible Scriptural phraseology his found its way ito allasions and meiied ‘quotations (as in "seing a birthright foe a "mess of potage™) and ito.common speech “highséays and hedges." “thorn the flesh. and a soft answer turneth away wath”). The King James Version of ‘he Bible has not only supplied authors with spiritual themes, fom Mitton’s Paradise Lost and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress to TS. Eliot and W.H. Auden, but all had major influence on innumerable Writers in the cadence of iis majestic prose. unTheme 4 RENAISSANCE POETRY vit write poy a considered neces accomplishment for a Renaissance gentleman, and ‘many courtiers were indeed accomplished pocts. The sonnet form, introduced trom Italy. was immediately popular and number of sonnet cycles were produced. Lyrics, generally fn the theme of love, were frequently pastoral and Bled with imagery from nature. Religious themes are particularly important in the 17th century, a time of great religious con flict in England IN THIS THEME, arly Renaissance poets: Wyatt and Surrey 26 Spenser and his works 27 Other Elizabethan poets 28 The Cavalier poets 29 John Donne and metaphysical poetry _ 30 John 31_Other Commonwealth poets INDIVIDUAL KEY. 25 on and his works 2 OVERVIEW Typical of the Tudor poets were Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, aristocrats who wrote lyric poetry to be circulated among acquaintances Foreign influences: Both Wyatt and Surrey tansated and imitated elas ‘cal Latin and Greck poms as well as contemporary French and Talian poets. They bot used Halian verse forms tra imu and ota 1a rima and experimented with sanzaie forms, particularly the son net, alapting the Halan sonnet kon English variant with thre qu trains and a couplet (called the Shakespearean sonnet ‘The Renaissance Miscellanies: Many collections of poetry. called “Miscellanes," were published during the Tudor period, They con tained primarily lyre poems, many of them free translations by var fous poets. The best-knovin was Tottel's Miscellany (1857), which contains 97 poems by Wyatt, 40 by Suey “Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542) By age 25 he had served Henry VIIL in missions tothe Continent, where he became interested in love poetry, paricuatly by Petrarch, + Brings sonnet to England: Influenced by Petrarchan sonnets, ‘Wyalt began writing poem in English with the same form: four- teen lines, divided into eight and six-line sections (octaves and sestets) + Subject matter: Nearly all follow the wadiions of courtly love tnd catalog the agonis inflicted by a cruel mistress on 4 love-sick Knight. Example: “The Lover Compareth His Site 0 a Ship in Perilous Storm Tossed on the Henry Howard, Bart of Surrey (c.1S17- 1547): As prominent ats {ocrat anda practicing poet, Suey did much to esablih he tation of courtly concern with ats and eters + Blank verse: The fst use of blank verse (unshymed iambic pen ameter) in English was in Surtey"s translation of a pact of the Aeneid in 1554 + Subject matter: Surrey continued the Tudor triton of sonnets bout the pains and pangs of love, Example: "Description of Spring Wherein Each Thing Renews Save Only the Lover.” 3BKey 26 Spenser and his works OVERVIEW The poeny of Edmund Spenser (c.1552- 1599), particularly The Faerie Queene, continues in the allegorical verse tradition of the Middle Ages. Spenser's allegories, however, were much more complex than previ- The Pacrie Queene (Books LI 1590; Books IV-VI, 1596) Spenser’ ‘omomental scheme fr this work is comparable in senpe i» Dane’s Divine Comedy. Spenser hoped to present nothing less than the total civilization of his era. He planned fist portray eleven private moval Vines. each portrayed by a knightly figure. with Anhur summing up all vires in the twelfth book. Next would come twelve more alle zorical books, celebrating the political virues of Arthur after be became king. Only six hooks were completed Allegory: Complexities come fom the structure ofthe allegory on tree levels: moral, historical, and personal. Allegories are suggested by the characters’ names: Vanity, Queen of Pride, Ghutony. Readers should be alert to the multilevel meaning of each character. Exam ple: The Red Cross Knight sands forthe abstraction “holiness,” for the English church, and, on a personal level, forthe courtier Sir Philip Sidney Neoplatonism: The philosophy of Neopatonism, which was widely held in the Renaissance, advocates finding permanence in the ever- changing world of natare By practicing the vitues, particularly love “Much allegorical meaning inthe poem is based on Neoplatonism Stanaaie form: Spenser devised nine-ine stanza, shyming uu ‘iehce, now known asthe Spenserian stan. The fst eight lines of the stanza ae in amie pentameter: he List isan Alexandrine bic herameter ‘Other works by Spenser: + The Shepherds Calender (157%) inchales twelve eslogves. sme for cach month, that lean heavily on classical pastoral poet by The: ‘eritus, which idealizes shepherds and rural life. An eelogue is. ‘Singing match; in these conventional paems all shepherds are poets + Amorett (1595) is «sonnet sequence celebrating the poet's court Ship of Elizabeth Bo + The Epithalamion 195, called the most beautiful nuptial poem inany language, celebrates the poet's wedding to Miss Boyle aM Key 27_Other Elizabethan poets OVERVIEW An exiraordinary period of ereativity in po- cary occurred during the latter years of Elizabeth's reign ‘and the early years of James I. There were aristocratic poets (called the “courts Ipricists™) as well as students of more modest birth at Oxford and Cambridge (the “University Wits”) Baward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford (1550-1604): Considered the ‘esto the courtly poets for sch sonnets as “Who Taught Thee First to Sigh?” or sch lyrics as “If Women Could Be Fair.” Oxford has ‘been proposed f0 be the tue author of plays aributed to Shake- speate ‘Sir Edward Dyer (c, 1550-1607): Highly popularin the royal court for 's brief period, he is remembered for “MY Mind to Me a Kingdom Ts.” asserting the Renaissance idea of intellectual set-sufliciency. Nicholas Breton (c.1545~c. 1626): arlest of the University school of Poets and one of the most popular Elizabethan pastoral yest, is 'Phitida ané Coridon,” was writen to be sung under the Queen's wind ‘Thomas Lodge (1558-1625): His Rosalynde 1590). prose romance containing sonnets and eclogues, was the source of Shakespeare's AS You Like fi Samuel Daniel (¢,1562-1619): Though the content of his verse lacked ‘originality he was noted for amisiy with language. particularly in Delia, a sequence of ity sonnets. He took English poetry a giant step forward with The Complaint of Rosamund, « monologue in Fime- royal sanza, Michael Drayton (1563-1631) A fashionable writer who produced ll the Iypes of verse popular in the Elvabethan age, Drayton is best, know for his sonnet sequence Zeus Mirrour (1594) ana Ide. the ‘Shepherd's Garland (1593), a collection of pastoral eclogues ‘Thomas Campion (1567-1620: An innovative versitier. Campion ‘wrote Four books of Airs" (poems written be sung) fram 160 1617 that include some ofthe most perfect Iyeies written in English such as “"When to Her Late Corinna Sings” and "There isa Garden in Her Face,” 35Key 28 The Cavalier poets OVERVIEW Called the “Tribe of Ben” because they were greatly influenced by Ben Jonson, they were sophisti cated poets who supported the King and opposed the sober Puritans tyes Their Iyres— indebted to the Latin poets Horce and Ovid—ate ‘characterized by symmetry of form, senstousness, and a playa tone. Vinually ignoring the sonnet form, they excelled in lyrics har seterized by short lies, idiomatic diction, and urbane wit Robert Herrick (1591-1674): The greatest of the Cavalier Poets and ‘he only one nota courte, this ural vicar extolled the idea of earpe diem (size the day, live vigorously) and wrote many joyous fave poems. The best-known i “To the Virgins to Make Much of Time, with the opening: "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, old time is sll, “flying.” His poems also show an intrest in the ancient folk festi- vals of rural England like May Day and Harvest Home, asin, “Co. sinna’s Going A-Maying."" Some of his best Iyrcs are highly pol- ished exercises in miniature, such as “Upon Julia's Clothes ‘Thomas Carew (c.1595~1639): He wot Iyrie poems with elssical polish learned from Jonson. His primary subject was delicate sec tion, but form, rhythms, and stactue interested him more than con- tent. He was appreciated for his graceful and sometimes eynicl Songs, such as “Ask Me No More Where Jove Bestows."” Sir John Suckling (1609~ 612) His greatest contribution to pootty was {o use the language of onlinary conversation among courtiers. He used icony and realism in dealing with conventional love themes, as in “Why So Pale and Wan, Fair Lover? Richard Lovelace (1618-1658): He wat the versatile Renaissance man who wrote acceptably all he standard foam of amorous verse. €-. the song beginning “Lucasta frown and ft mie di, But smile and le, ime live," Better known i the idealist Iyrc “Tn Lucasta, Going tthe Wars. whieh asserts: “I eould not love thee (Deate) so much, Lo" not Honour more. 46 Key 29 _John Donne and metaphysical poetry speeds Poel yeneaeraeetaeaneeeetaeet OVERVIEW “Metaphysical poetry” synthes cand intellect, to display both feeling and learning passion Imagery: Religion and romantic love ae the Wo principal subjees. but the starting imagery and the fu-reching allusions to phiesophy. ‘geography. and astronomy give complexity to themes that Were que Simple tthe Cavalier Pots ohn Donne (1572-1631): He made a strong break with the Nowery poetry of the Elizabethans and the Cavaliers. He read widely in sei nee, theology, and nearly all he branches of learning. and be had the lively imagination and boldness to use unusual imagery in aditonal situations: roting corpses appear in love poems alongside compasses land asronomical data. Though unsilling, Donne became an out ‘Standing preacher in an age of great preachers. His religious poems, full of paradoxes and ambiguities, are among the greatest Donne's poetry: In addition to staring imagery, Donne frequently ‘relies on conversational language and tone to give the lyrics a sense of| immediacy, His poems deal with both secular and religious themes. + Go and Catch a Falling Stae™ witily comments 02 the impos- sibility of finding a faithful woman. ‘+ ©The Indifferent” is spoken by a achelor who demands “incon staney"™ in love + “A Valediction Forbidding Mourning” isa love poem writen as Donne embarks on a journey. He uses the metaphor of a com ‘ass (ofthe type used in drawing. ciel) to show the union ofthe {to lovers even as they are separated + "The Flea” is clever seduction poom suggesting an unlikely vehicle forthe physical union ofthe Blond of to lovers the so ach of a fea, + "The Kestasy”” makes « mystical religions exper ing of the souls of 140 lovers “The Canonization” is philosophical love poem + Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” has the poet turn his back tothe scene of the Crucifixion to receive “eorections. ence of the oin- 7+ Holy Sonnets, including “Death Be Not Proud and “Baer My Heart, Three-Personned Gd" are powerful evocations of the Divine. “The Litany” isa rhapsodic lyric about the etemal power of the Church KEY QUOTATION: ur to souls therefore, which are one Thowsh F must go. endure not yet A bveach, ut an expansion, Like gold to airy thinness Beat IF they be two, they are 190 50 As sift twin compasses are 10: “Thy soul the Hxt Font, makes no show ‘To move, but doth if thher do. om “A Valediction: Frbidding Mourning George Herbert (1593-1633): He uses simpler, more traditional imag. ‘ery in religious poety than Donne. He demonsttes a deep religious faith in *Virtue™ (contrasting the transitory world with eternal spir- ital existence) and **The Collar which turns a symbol of slavery into one of submissiveness to God). The Temple, contsining nerly all of his surviving poems, was published in 1633. The Romantic Age revived interest in Hethen"s poems, largely duc to praise by Cole ridge. Richard Crashaw (1613-1689): The son ofa mifitan Puritan clergy ‘man, Crashaw rebelled and became» Roman Catholic, He unifies the seo and the spiritual in rational Church imagery in such poems as The Flaming Heart," extolling the Spanish nun, St. Theres His principal work was Steps to the Temple (1646). a collection of religious poems inflaenced hy Spanish msi, Heney Vaughan (1621-1695): Inspired by Herbert but less taditiona, ‘Vaughan uses Neoplatonie mysticism reach the heights rls cestaxy. His best-known poem is “The Retreat," which depicts ‘hikdhood 33 perio of divine spirituality (and points forward 1 Wordswoth's “Inmortalty Ode.” Key 56). Ini, e writes of is foun "AngeL-infancy.” when he would muse on clouds and Rowers and seein them “some shadows of eternity a8 ASCE TE aac eee Key 30 John Milton and his works OVERVIEW John Milton (1608-1674), the most con- tinuously admired English author except for Shakespeare, ‘stood in time between the Renaissance and the Common wealth. His writings combine the restless imellectuat spirit of the earlier period with the later emphasis on religion and politics. Religious themes: Unlike Donne"s, Milton’s religious poetry is une Tated to ordinary fe: the Visions he Siw in his blindness were of Heaven or Hel. archangels or demons. Early poems: Best-known are the brief companion pieces (€. 1631) ‘SL*allegeo” (scribing the “cheerful” man) and “Mt Penseroso™ (che stodious, contemplative” man). “Lyeidas”” (1637) sa pasto: ral elegy onthe death of his friend, the poet Edward King Prose (1640-1660): His most important tract Was Areopagitiea (1644). ‘tong argument against censorship. Of Education (1644) advocates, the kind of education that produces versatile, scholarly gentlemen, Paradise Lost: This is Milton's monumental epic poem in twelve books ‘of superb blank verse. Bused onthe Bible a other writings avilable inthe Renaissance, the epic begins with the fall from Heaven of the rebel angels, and continues through Satan's temptation of Adam and Eve and their expulsion rom the Garden of Eden, Though some have argued that Satan i the epic hero, the teal hero is mankind, and the Gramatic conflict is within humanity's divided propensity for good and evil Sonnets: The 23 sonnets of Milton ae ranked second only to the sonnets ‘of Shakespeare in excellence. Among the best re “When E Consid= er How My Light is Spent™ about serving Gad, though blind) and ‘How Soon Hath Time" he realization at age 24 01 time's quick passize). Later long works: Paradise Regained (1671), which depiets Christ's empations, hs lite ofthe argue splendor of Paradise Last, Sam son Agonistes (1671) i hike a Greek tragedy in its eatment oF Sam son's dowel, aKey 31__Other Commonwealth poets OVERVIEW During the era of the Commonwealth, or “Free Stare’ (1649-1660), under Oliver Cromwell, even poets were divided ino opposing political camps: the prow Commonwealth “ parliamentarians” and the pro-monarehy ‘royalists. Poets: Except for Milton, the only reat parliamentarian poet was Mar The to best royalist poets, Coley and Walle, wrote lyrics that ate closer the syle of Dryden und Pope (Keys 42 al 49) inthe [Neoclassical Period aca thin to the syle af Donne and Milton Andrew Marvel (1621-1678) The unoficial laureate 1 Oliver Crom: ‘well, he mourned Cromwell’ death in “Upon the Death of Hiy Late Highness the Lord Protector” in 1658 and took part inthe funeral procession, His few poems were remarkably diverse i style and of & high quality. “Fo His Coy Mistress” (1681) i carpe diem poe that witily suggests that with unlimited time he could eatalo imisress's charms, but since time is short “seizing the da)" and tasting immediate pleasures is imperative, He was neglected for wo centuries and twas not unt after World War I with the publication OF TS. Eliot's essay “Andrew Marvell. that is madesn high tep- ltaion was secured. His fore was eating conventional themes with, such originality and wit that they seemed new Abraham Cowley (1618-1667): precocious poet, he wrote his frst [oem atten and a successful volume of verse at filtcen. At his death his reputation was lofty, primarily for The Mivress (1647). sequence of lave poem that included the ppl Tyrie * The Wish, 8 prety eulogy of eounty life. He was also prised for his "Pindar que odes," in which he introduced the typeof irregular ae mock {imitated by Job Dryden (Key 42) and exer Edmund Waller (16046-1687), Though writing later in the Restoration Perio, Waller way strongly influenced by Jonson and wrote i the Cavalier tradition, He wrote in easy. conversational language in famous lyric, "Go, Lovely Rose" and the witty *On a Girdle Joh Dryden praise his “sucess, calling him the tater of English numbers” numbers being snother word for mete). wo Theme 5 RENAISSANCE DRAMA. Tefen st ssa one shovel ote Engh authors. of both the Renaissance and all other periods Drama at this time has moved completely into the secular world. Blank verse becomes the standard form for drama. except for scenes of low" comedy. which are in prose ‘Many early plays were based on the Latin comedies of Pkau- tus and Terence snd the tragedies of Seneca, The revenge tragedy is a popular form, reaching its apotheosis in Shake- speare's Hamlet. The fact that female roles are played by young boys makes somewhat more plausible the standard Plot device of the gil disguised as boy in romantic com- eds. INDIIDUAT REVS IN THIS THEME 32_PreShakespearean daria 33 _Shakespeare Sr 34 Shakespeare history plays 35° Shakespeare's comedies and 36 Shakespeare's wagedies 37 Other Elizabethan and Jacobean déramatists aKey 32 Pre-Shakespearean drama OVERVIEW. Miracle plays and morality plays continued 10 be performed through most of the 16th century, along with secular plays, called "interludes" and two other spe- cialized genres: academic drama (performed in schools by student actors) and drama of the court (produced in holiday seasons for the Queen), Public theater began in 1576, when the first permanent theater for public performances was builtin a London suburb under the leadership of James Bur age. Interludes: Although didactic, lke the morality plays, these were more ‘comic and realistic, andthe hesoes more individualized. + Henry Medwall (f. 1490): His interlade Fulgens and Lueres (6.1497) is probably the frst purely secular drama in English. It was writen for presentation beteen the courses of a banguet. + John Heywood (c.1497-c. 1380): The best-known inteslude is Heyssood's shor comedy, The Play Called the Foure PP: A Newe ‘and Very Merry Interlude of A Palmer, A Pardoner. A Peshycary 14 Pedlar (1823), n'a match to determine the mast fantastic le the Palmer wins by saying be had never in all his wavels seen & ‘woman lose her temp Academic comedy: Nicholas Udal’s Ralph Roster Doister (6.1835) is ‘modeled on the Latin comedies of Platus and Terence: the hero is Ralph, a penniless braggirt of a soldier. The anonymous Gamer Gurton's Needle (1353) is more humorous; the simple plot has the ‘whole community involved in retrieving Gammer's lost needle Academic tragedy: The Roman tragic dramatist Seneca Was the mode for the tragedies performed in Elizabethan schools. Gorin. or Ferrecand Porres (1561-62) by wo lawyers. Th Thoms Nori. is termed the first true English te divides his kingdom between his sons. leading to 8 quaerel and one Iwater's slaying the other, Blank verse is used foe the fis tie in ‘rams, Court drama: By royal decree dramas and other entertainments were Performed at court on festival days such as Chrsinas and Twelth [Night One source of dram 36 The lav school and from one of these. Gray’ In, came the comedy Supposes. by George Gascoigne the earliest comedy in English prose. Its lle with Euphuistic puns 2 and other figures of speech, Richard Edwards wrote many court dra- mas, among them Damion anu Pithas (pub. 1571). John Lyly. the luthor of Euphues (Key 21), also wrote six plays Tor the ehoitboys oF the Chapet Royal Drama in the public theater: A number of characteristic Renaissance themes, characters. and plot devices were introduced: John Lyly's Gare. 1S88) ite ist English use ofthe device ‘of girls disguised as boys, uscd many’ times by Shakespeate + George Peel's The Old Wives Tale (c.1890) i a dramatic fury tale that incites Elizabethan romantic comedy + Robert Greene's The Honorable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (1594) isa romantic comedy notable for the vietuous ad charming heroine Margaret, the fst of her type on the English stage. ‘+ Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Truged (c.1586). the most popular y before 1600, was the first English “revenge tragedy," out ‘doing Seneca in violent horror. Kyu made original use of feigned madness and a play-within--play KEY QUOTATION In time the savage ball sustains the yoke, In time all haggard hawks will stoop 10 lure, In time small wedges cleave the hardest cak. In time the fine is pierced with softest shaver ~The Spanish Tragedy 1. NLB Violence: Exremely popular in the new profesional theater, violent ‘action often left the stage ses with corpses ‘John Pickeryng's.A Newe Entrlude of Vice Contesnine the Hi torge of Horestes (pub 1567). which tough telat the leof Orestes and uses a character. Vice. fom dhe morality plays. has much gratuitous violence, with the stage litered with lod) comps + Thomas Preston's A Lamentable Tragedie, Mived Ful of Pesan Mirah. Containing the Life af Canbises, King of Perv te-1509) has six men and wo boys handling 38 roles Blond covers the ho ofthe sage a Fake sin is Raye froma allemped sper and 8 ladder of wine i nicked to simate the flowing of is ie" blood. There is much ow comedy ithe “plesant mith of the tle) and ranting inthe bombastic isle of the day aKey 33_ Shakespeare OVERVIEW There are very few clearly established facts about the life of England's greatest dramatist and poet, Wile liam Shakespeare (1564-1616) Biography: After is marriage to Anne Hathaway and he bin of tins, ‘Shakespeare left his nutive Stratford for London about 1547. First minor actor. he began writing phys, Robert Greene (Groat af Wi, 1392) spoke of him as "an upstart crow. beautiful with ut feathers that with his tiger's ert wrapped in players hie, sup poses he i ts well able to bombast out blank verse a the best of You” His it published work was a poem. Venus and Adonis, (1563); his rst published dear, Tits Mudronicus, appeared anony ‘ously year liter, He wrote 37 plays before retiring to Stratford where he died April 23, 1616, (Career as a poet: During the 1590s, Shakespeare weote sonnets that "were published asa sequence in 1600 and are considered is finest Wwork except for the dramas. His sonnet sequence follows the lead of Sidney and Spenser. but eclipses them in poetic quality and original ity. Mouis inthe sonnets include: the beauty ofa young man and the poets involvement with him, a “dark lady," Fival poet, and the rages of time and the immonality of ar [Authorship disputed: Shakespeare was accepted as the author of the Plays until 1769. when Herbert Lawrence argued that a relatively Uineducated minor actor could not have produced the Shakespearean ‘canon, Theorists have proposed Sir Francis Bacon, Christopher Mar Joe, ofthe Earl of Oxford the tue author ofthe plays. There fis evidence to suppor these conjectures, ‘Texts: Al printed plays hy Shakespeare appeared in sina heap yuarton Until 1628, when the list of four folio editions was published. I contained M6 plays, divided arbitrarily ino histories. comedies. and tragedies, The tind fio, toh nol che others includes Pericles KEY QUOTATION “That time of year thow mayst in me behold When yellow leaves, of none. oF few. do hang pom dose houghs which shake against the cold Bre ruined choirs, where late the sweet birds sang. from “Sonnet 79 au Key 34_ Shakespear OVERVIEW The history plays cover the reigns of earlier English kings, and frequently deal with the nature of king- ship and the qualities of a “good” king, These so-called chronicle plays an Elicabethan invention—served us Shakespeare's apprenticeship 10 the drama. 's history plays Minor plays: Henry VI. parts fl and IF (e-1890-92) and The Lite tand Death of King John (c.1595-96) are mele fayal power rugales during chaic periods of English history The Tragedy of King Richard [11 (c.1592): Called a chronicle play 3s ‘well asa “Full of Princes tragedy. i depicts the hunch-backed Richard's violen coute tothe throne, succeeding Edward IV. One of ‘Shakespeare's earliest well-developed characters. Richard is pure vi Jain, murdering all who stand ins ay KEY QUOTATION, My conscience has a thousand several tongues, ‘And every tongue brings in a several tle. ‘And every tale condenins me For 3 Irom Richard I The Tragedy of Richard If, 1597); Keates the conflict berween the ‘popular Henry Bolingbeoke and the eloquent but weak and inept Richard I, whose eal opponent shims: Only as he is Bing asa- inated does Richard finally take direct action. The Firs Part of Henry IV. (1597): Shakespeare combines the cam: edy of the amoral. drunken, but joyous Falsia with the exploits of the wild young Prine Hal, sn of Henry TV. Inthe course ofthe play Hal slays Hotspur, hate lets Falstllpretend to be the he The Second Part of Henry IV (e.1 $98): Continuing Park One, Shake speare allows the comedy of Falta to deminate play somewhat ‘barren in historical evens. When Henry IV dies. Hal nos Henry V semly dismisses Falta? and toens tthe husiness of Kingsip. The Life of Henry V (1599y. This patiosie play depts Henry's "umps in France and also portrays him as an ideal ruler. possessed of the Platonic virtues of justice. fortitude. temperance, and wisdom, 6Key 35 Shakespeare’s comedies and romances OVERVIEW The comedies varied widely in type, includ- ing masque famasies, romantic comedy, farces, and prob- Jem comedies. His last plays are more nearly dramatic romances than strict comedies. ‘The Comedy of Errors (1890-93): A fare about the mistaken iden- tities occurring among tin men with twin slaves. Based heavily on Paulus, Shakespeare molds it toward romantic comedy, The Two Gentlemen of Verona (c.159-94): Thin in plot, the play blends low comedy with poetic passages in blank verse. The fvorite Plot ofthe disguised git pursuing her lover i fist used hee, Love's Labour's Lost (1590-94): This satire on utopian concepts has our noblemen vow to study for tvee yeas, avoiding all contact with, women, The Princes of France and her beautiful attendants soon foil the plan, Notable are the characters Biron —the fist of Shakespeare's intellectual heroes—and Rosaline, witty heroine A Midsummer's Night's Dream (¢-1591—96y. This masque fantasy is test known for the mischievous elfin character Puck and the comic anisan Botiom, who, with hs Fellow traesmen, put on a ludicrous play The Taming of the Shrew (¢. 1894-97): A face in which the clever Petruchio woos the sheewish and mean-tempered Katharina, weds her for her dows. and curbs her will, The Merchant of Venice 159-97): The love afar heween Bassano ‘and Ports,‘ complicated by loan from Shylock. who demands his money ora pound of lex, Portis dixguined as 3 lawyer, solves the sie The Merry Wives of Windsor (1598-1600 It was writen for Queen Elizabeth, who requested 4 Falstall comedy. Falstaff sends wential love eters to mey wives who conspire with their husbands to hum ble him ina comic way Much Ado About Nothing (c.1598- 1608): This comantic comedy fea tures the witty repartee of two unlikely lovers Benedick and Beatie both determined to remain single “ ‘As You Like It (1599-1600): In this comantic pastoral comedy. court intrigue contrasts with county Tif, Touchstone is the frst of Shake speare’s "wise fools Twelfth Night, or What You Will 600-01 Again a woman (Viola) is ressed as man in this romantic comedy of nricate pls, There are te memorable comic characters: Sir Toby Belch and Sir Andrew ‘Aguecheck Alls Well That Ends Well (c.1603)- After Twelfth Night the comedies grew darker in tone. Helena saves the life of King Bertram and ‘demands im as her husband. She deceives hint into fathering her chil Measure for Measure c. 664): This problem comedy has Angelo offer to save the life of the condemned Claudio in exchange for sexi favors from his sister Isabella, a novice ina nunnery. She refuses, but ‘through disguises and subterfuges, the matter is solved, Troilus and Cressida (c.1598-1602): This play is so enigmatic that ‘scholars debate whether to call ita comedy ora tragedy. Set during the Trojan War, the action i tragic, bu is cynicism and satire sug est a comedy. Pericles, Prince of Tyre (c.1608) This dark comedy is based on the ‘premise that This, wife of Pericles, is mistakenly thought to ave died in childbirth and is buried at ea, Cymbetine (1609-10): Ina tagi-comedy somewhat Tike Othello, the [pre Imogen is falsely accused of infidelity bythe lago-ikelachimo. ‘Though ordered killed, she escapes in a pase-boy disguise. All are reunited in an elaborate recognition scene atthe end The Winter's Tale (c.1610-~1): In this dramatic romance, King Leontes falsely believes his wife Hermione has taken his friend Polixenes 263 lover and tries to poison him. While Hermione is mistakenly impr ‘one forthe deed, she hears child, Much ater, withthe help of the ‘oracle at Delphi, all are reunited happily, The Tempest .1611) In bis last play, Shakespeare bid his farewell «0 the theater. Symbolially, Prospero, the magician in the play ‘enounces magic and returns tothe ral world, Memorable characters are Ariel, a spiritual creature, and Caliban (an acronym for “‘cann- bal") who represents the haser side of human nature, aKey 36 Shakespeare's tragedies OVERVIEW The almost unearthly power and richness of Shakespeare's mind is most evident in his crowning achieve: iment, the four great tragedies of Hamlet. Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, He also wrote six other plays that can be categorized as tragedies. as well as several history plays with subject matter relating to the downfall of a monarch (called "Fall of Princes” tragedies). Early tragedies; The four trageies dated hefoee 1603, writen at inter ‘vals fom each othe, differ markedly in style and fone, Al four can be related tothe revenge plays of Seneca * The Tragedy of Titus Andronicus (c.1592-94): In this revenge tragedy, Titus, a roman general, captures Queen Tamora and het sons. He sacifices one son. and Tamora’s awful revenge culm rates ina dinner of human flesh + The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet (c.1595), Shakespeare fist romantic tragedy stems from a vendeia between the houses of Montague and Capulet, leading to the deaths of the «wo sar~ crossed” lovers. The play begins with a sonnet spoken by the horus, and in its poetic language it reflects the great interest in Sonnets in the 15905 + The Tragedy of Julius Caesar (c,1398~ 1601) This popular “Fall, of Princes” trgedy is ako a Senecan tragedy with & revenge ‘motif. It is unusual in stractare: Julius Caesar dies in Act TI. and Brutus doesnot emerge us the dominant character ut the last half of the ply. + The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark (1601): This trae cedy ofthe revenge of «price forthe mueder of his Father oes Fat eyond Seneca in its philosophical complexity and is considered the gweatext work of English iterary at. Te glorious poetry and the muli-layered charitervation makes the tile role, as Same Pepys wrote, “the best pat. believe. that ever was ate Middle tragedies: The erst triad of tagedies that Shakespeare weote from. H¥H-06 are similar in depicting a word full of insertable und interesting ei, presented objectively. not broeaingly and sub= Jectvely tas in Mamler 2 The Tragedy of Othello, Moor of Venice (c-1804: One of the most poetic and bese-constracted of the tragedies, Oslo has three memorable characters—the heroie Othello the villainous ago, and the pore and loving Desdemona —whose interaction ‘engendered by the envious Tago, leads 1 tersble consequences Coleridge. in a memorable phrase, describes lago'ssoliloguy at the end of Act I, scene 3-a6 “the motive hunting of motiveless malign.” + The Tragedy of King Lear (168-6): Ths isa agedy ofthe all fof an aging King—a petulant an unwise olf man —who divides his kingdom among three daughters. Two malicious dau ne sincere Coedli leading to the tra fecovered Lear dying of ge: + The Tragedy of Macbeth 4.1606). The evel. overpowering ambition of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth motivates tragedy hats Shakespeare's most vivid pte of ra. ak vl, The prophecy of the witches begins the play and Macbeth tempts wo that his destiny an defeat the witches warning motivates much te ely. KEY QUOTATION Methought I heaed a voive ery, ‘Sleep no more! Macbeth doth murder sleep” the innocent sleep Sleep that knits up the ravelled leave of ear, ‘The death of cach day's life. sore labours bath Balm of hurt minds, great nature's second course (Chief nourish of life's feast, Macbeth Later tragedies: The last three tragedies do not approach the greatness ofthe previously writen anes. and only one, Antony and Clerpatr, 1s frequently performed + Antony and Cleopatra. 67): The tagic love usr etween the noble hero Antony and Queen Cleopatta destroys Antony. but transforms Cleopatra from selish, wanton gil to a true queen who dies triumphantly + The Life of Timon of Athens (S08: Though publishe in the First Folio. this tragedy of the fall of Timon seems incon plete The Tragedy of Coriolanus (1608-8): Honoted with the sue rare Corilanus For eaptaring the town Carol. this Roman gen eral shows contempt for the mob, leading to his banishment from Rome. He leads an army against Rome, causing a tage dilemma she attacks his ow farKey 37 Other Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists OVERVIEW The Elizabethan Age had many extraordi nary playwrights, but the only two who came close to rival- ling Shakespeare were Christopher Marlowe, who made blank verse an instrument of eloquence and grandeur in his tragedies, and Ben Jonson, the master of classical. satirical comedy. Christopher Marlowe (1561-93): Marlowe's robust, poetic plays each ‘dealt withthe consuming deste of one overwhelming figure. He had 8 strong sense of the theater, moving his audiences with stating we maneuvers Tamburlaine the Great Pas |. ¢.1587; Pat I, ¢. 1588): Tambur- laine, ruthless shepherdtobber, plots his bloody route 10 the throne of Persia. In Part I his gory conquests continue ashe r= ‘ges Egypt and Babylon, While Speaser was writing of viruous Christan knights, Marlowe presented the consummate Renais- sage egoist and villain. In one scene Tamburlane imprisons the Turkish emperor and his empress in @ cage, goading them with cruel aunts ntl they dash out thee brains against the bars of the cage + The Tragical History of Dr. Faustus (c-1589): The German ‘Scholar Faustus, bored with conventional learning, sells his soul 10 the Devil for superhuman powers. He misuses his powers by play: ing ticks on the Pope and calling up Helen of Troy, with the well-known line: “Was this the face that launched @ thousand ships..." Atthe end, though Fausus i repentant, Lucifer claims ‘soul, The anguish in Faustus's mind is poignantly depicted + The Jew of Malta (c.1591): Barabas has half his wealth cons cated by the Governor of Mala, and his plot for revenge begins ‘orgy of slaughter in which his daughter Abigail's lover i killed land Abigail herself s poisoned. AL the end Barabas dies by falling into a boiling caldon + The Troublesome Reign and Lamentable Death of Edward the Second (c.1592). weak English king is involved in political intrigue and assassinated inthis “Fall of Princes” tragedy. 0 ‘Ben Jonson (1572-1637): Jonson's chief contribution to drama was to nich the possiblities ofthe genre called “comedy of humours,” in ‘which stock characters—cheeky slaves, miserly oldsters, and h fant soldiers—are played against each other. Humours.” tefined as "obsessive quitks of disposition.” 2 Boery Man in His Humours (1598): Stock charactersa jealous husband. country bumpkin, deceived father, and simple squite— ave linked togetber in an inconsequential plot, allowing Yonson to display the foibles of contemporary London life. Asper presents Sonson in the play and explains the playwrights theory of humors. + Volpone, or The Fox (c. 1605-06): Volpone, a rich Venetian pretends to he fatally il n order to receive gifs fom his covetous fcqusimtances, Considered the greatest satiric comedy in Enis ituses stock characters to expose greed. A secondary plot involves SirPolitie Would-be, an English traveller who has absurd schemes for improving trade and curing diseases. +The Atchemist 1610: The character Sub sims to be an ache mist who can change base metal t gold, thus entrapping the ‘greedy, including a Puritan pastor. George Chapman (c. 589-1634); His comic masterpiece, All Fools (1599-1604), combines two comedies by Terence into one comedy of intrigue. John Marston (1565-1634): The Malcontent 1608) ia revenge tag- ‘ody replete with oro. ‘Thomas Dekker (¢.1570-c.1632): He wrote one of the bestloved English comedies, The Shoemaker's Holiday (1599), with action placed realistically in Elizabethan London, ‘Thomas Heywood (1575-1641): He wrote the period's best domesti tragedy. A Woman Killed with Kindness (e,1603), successful despite its sentimental subpl. ohn Webster (.1SH0-c, 1625) He wrote such sensational tragedies as The White Devil, or Vizoria Covombona (e.6T~12)—based on sory —and The Duchess of Malf(e 1612-14}. ao historical. Webster phoneered in making women cental igure in is plays. srTheme 6 THE RESTORATION AND _ THE 18TH CENTURY sn Charles I was restored to the English throne in 1660, he ruled a nation weary of revolution and civil ‘war, eager to enjoy the worldly pleasures denied them by the somber Puritans. In 1665, the plague ravaged Britain, and the following year a fire destroyed most of London, and both events were thought to be the vengeance of Divine Provi- dence. A series of wars against the French between 1689 and 1763 brought Britain the huge domains of Canada and India, but shortly afterwards, she lost her thirteen American colo~ nies. In such a volatile age. great fortunes were amassed as poverty multiplied. The 8th century was a great age of advance in the physical sciences, with most discoveries being taken as proof of divine law and order. In literature there was a great emphasis on order and rules, particularly rules proposed by Aristotle, and correctness became more important than using creative imagination, 2 Tat KEYS IN THIS THEME 538 Calturalcharctrisies 39 John Bunyan, popula allegorist ‘M_ Restoration comedy — “4 Other Restoration Dramas 2 Dryden and his works The sate of Swit — 4H-_The essays of Addon and Stel 45 Defoe and the binh ofthe novel _ 46 Richardson: New direction for the “novel 47 The novels of Fielding and Smoll 48 Sterne’s controversial novels 49. Pope and Neoclassicism 50 Boswell and the early biographers SL_ Samuel Johnson, man of letters 52 Three 18th-Century comic dramatists 53_The Pre-Romantic poets 8Key 38 Cultural characteristics OVERVIEW When Charles Stuart returned from exile in France t0 become Charles I in 1660, he led the strong reaction to the drab Puritan way of life by reopening the theaters and heading a notoriously pleasure-loving court The 18th century way an age of transition, marked by the beginning of the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the British Empire. Intellectual life: Intellectual accomplishments by philosophers like John Locke and the mathematician Sir Isaac Newion led 10 3 new respect for order and reason, fostering the love of conventional rules that, agave the 18th century the name Neoclassical Period Literary conventionality: The Renaissance had revered Aristotle, and his Poerics had st the literary standards, In the Neoclassical period Aristotle's concepts, such asthe unities of time, place, and ation i drama, became the fixed norm. Even some of Shakespeare's dramas were devalued because they did not observe these nities. On the Positive side, the influence of the classical tradition led © a love of ‘moderation, balance, and grace, coupled with respect for inl ence and dignity. Society: Although great wealth and rational onder existed among the ‘arstoeracy, London's poor, a depiced in Hogan's painting "Gin Lane,” lived in miserable poverty atthe mercy of a severe penal code ‘hat ssigned the death pelty for stealing a andkerchiet or murder. During most of the period. Dissenters (Protestants who opposed th Church of England) and Roman Catholics were excluded from publ oie ‘The Literary seene: Though the fis half oF the [8th century was an age ‘of prea practicality and common sense, and reason and rationality ‘were the hallnarks of Alexander Pope's unemation, philosophical poems in couplets, the later half of the century saw the Fixe of highly ‘emotional, melancholy poets refered to asthe “Graveyard Schoo)” precursors of the Romantic Age. Iwas alo an ae of reat stein prose and poetry. Though there was an elitist ar of itlletualism in the works of Dryden and Pope, the Ith century was aso the period in which popular literawre. especially the novel, Hourished. 4 Key 39 John Bunyan, popular allegorist OVERVIEW John Bunyan (1628-1688), one of the most remarkable figures ofthe 17th century, wrote the most suecessfu allegory in English literature: Pieris Progress. Popularity: The popularity of this book has been second only t0 the Bible. Iwas a universally read classi in England as well as Puritan ‘New England and his been translated ino neatly every language Early works: Beginning with bis fist publication, the controversial tract Some Gospel Truths Opened (1686), Bunyan vas under atack, “The Restoration as unkind to Nonconformists, and in 1661 Bunyan was imprisoned for twelve years: there he wrote The Holy City (1665); his spiritual autobiography. Grace Abounding to the Chief of ‘Sinners (1666), and A Confession of Mv Faith and a Reason of My Practice (1672) The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is 19 Come: ‘Welten during a second imprisonment of six months in 1675. this is an allegory of the journey through lite of Chistian, the prinepal character, Content: Christian meets many symbolic, but familiar objets along the way: a quagmire, the bypaths through pleasant meadows, the step hill, Vanity Fair, the Slough of Despond. A superb story teller. Bur yan keeps his reader in suspense while leaching & moral lesson with his holy parables. Style: He uses concrete language and vividly observed details ina ile ‘simile tothe prose of the King James Bible (Key 24, Status as Hiterature: Bunyan’ allegory as much admired by Swift Johnson, and Cowper, butt was not considered grea erate uni the 1830s, Pilgrim's Progress is now considered the culmination of medieval allegory in the uncultored mind just 3s Tre Faerie Queene was its culmination among the edited. AAs T walked though the wilderness ofthis world i lace where was a Den an aid me dow in hat place o Sleep and. sept dreamed dream,Key 40 Restoration comedy OVERVIEW In 1660, when the monarchy was restored and the London theaters were reopened after 24 years of silence imposed by the Puritan Parliament, people were starved for merriment of all kinds, particularly. drama: Young Charles I. who had enjoyed plays during his exile in France, led the clamor. Playwrights obliged with a new type of play: the comedy of manners. Subject matter: The comedies of manners hold the mitror op 0 an artificial society motivated chiefly by a desire for pleasure, They ‘atirie those who ey fo enter the fashionable charmed circle Style: These comedies rely on verbal fencing and repartee. The predom: “nant one is witty, awd, cynical, and amoral, The plays were wrt ten mainly in prose, with passages of verse Being reserved forthe (Characters: The principal characters are Fashionable people who place wit and the knowledge of what is “good form” above morality and ‘ethies, Standard comic characters who attempt the social elim are ‘dullwited citizens, rural types, lawyers, and stock comic figures like risers, hypocrites, and aging. love-staved women. A favorite chur- actor i the fop who ies to imitate the grand manners ofthe genuine allan KEY AUTHORS Sir George Etherege (16357-1691), in The Man of Mode. or Sir Fopling Fhurer (1676) invoduved the oftimitated op whose manner isms make him easy prey to a man of William Wycherley (16412-1715) presened vice scornflly in his somershat indecent Farce, The Connirs Wie 1675) William Congreve (1670-1729) was the supreme master of witty ds logue. His The Dowhle Dealer (1693). Lave for Line (1698). and. The Wa of the World (170 set high standaeds tor is tearacnt oF the familie characters ir John Vanbrugh (1664-1726) in his wey fare The Provoked Wire (1697) ereated popular Si ohn Brute George Farquhar (c.1677-1707) moved his plots outside narmow Los don society i his less (1922) spec lacularly evokes stoet scenes in Peking, The Constans Wife (1926) ‘depicts wife's cunning revenge om an unfaithful hushand. and For Services Rendered (1932) i bitter anti-wa play 3Key 99 Irish playwrights: Synge and_ O'Casey OVERVIEW John Millington Synge (1871-1909), a leading figure in the lrish Literary Renaissance, wrote one of the 20th century's great tragedies as well as one of ity great comedies. Another strongly nationalistic Irish drama Tist whose plays were produced at Dublin's Abbey Theater was Sean O'Casey (1880-1964), rated by some crities ay second only 10 Shaw among 20th century playwrights ‘Spmge’s plays: In his best plays Synge mires the gullibility,supersi= tion, and brutality. as we asthe imate charm, ofthe Irish peasanty His language is enriched withthe rhythms and diction of peasant speech, + Riders 10 the Sea (1903) is an elemental tragedy of death and resignation ina fisherman's family, set on the west coast of Ie: land. + The Plasbos of the Western World (1907) caused wild riots as Irishmen considered themselves maligned by Synge's comedy outa son's revolt aguinst bis father. + Deirdre ofthe Sorrows (1910), untnished at Synge’s death, bri Jiantly tells an ancient Irish legend in modern Irish speech, (0°Casey’s plays: Also tid strongly tothe life and language of the Irish poor, O'Casey's plays bring together the tragic and comic: + Juno and the Paycoek (1924), se in 1922 during the civil war between the Ish Free State and the Irish Revolutionary: Army shows the disintegration ofthe Boyle family + The Plough and the Stars (1926), et during the Eases Rebin, portrays tragicomically eight separate defeats for eight charac + Wathin the Gates (1933) the ts flly expessionistic O° Caney ram an is therefore highly sivized and abstracted (ike a mera ity play. Key 15). The theme i the conflict between the repression oF life and the celebration of life, a recurrent problem. nheseot the Irish character and personality +The Stars Turn Red (1940) ws stacked in Ireland as Communist Propagana, The message is mace liberal than radical bat the unfortunate ride suggested otherwise be Key 100 Beckett, dramatist of the absurd OVERVIEW Samuel Beckett (1906-1989), born in Ire- Jand of Jewish parentage, moved 1 France in 1932 and wrote his remarkable dramas in French, translating them into English himself. The leading proponent of the “Theater of the Absurd,”* he revolutionized drama in England and deeply influenced young dramatists with his innovative use of the stage and his new approach to symbolism Waiting for Godot: Fis staged in French (1935), i received resounding cclaimy in its frst English performance at Cambridge (1955). Two {ramps are endlessly waiting for the aval ofthe mysterious Godot, engaging in bouts of witty wordplay. Pozzo arsives, driving the rope: bound Lucky with a whip. With this scant action and few characters eckett powerfully and symbolically porta’ the human condition 3s ‘one of ignorance. delusion, and paralysis, enlightened rarely by flashes of hope and human sympathy. Endgame (1958): A one-act drama, it features the irascible, senile Hamm, his attendant Clov, and Hamm's “accursed progenitons ‘who reside in trash-cans Krapp’s Last Tape (1989: ln this monologue. the aged Krapp tiesto rekindle his earlier feelings by listening to recordings of his younger sell Happy Days (1961); Winnie, buried! to her waist in 8 movin is sil sltached tthe precisely catalogued eontens of her purse Come and Go (1967): A iim ply it as thee fe and a text of 121 won, Breath (1969): This 3 breath, amd a ery evond play consists of only pile ot rubbish, 3 Nar (1973): A shot, fragmented memologue is delivered by an ae a indeterminate sex and of whom only the mouth iy lunsinated tin Eglin were the ‘The novels: The lst important works Beckett w movely Murpiny (193K) and Want (1942-44, 1983), Those indicate Strong influnce fom James Joyce and Frame Kalk un in their Bold ‘experimentalsm. exemplity the “novel of the absurd” just ay Wet jing for Gear is prime exannple of the “theater of the absurd BsKey 101 Contemporary British dramatists OVERVIEW The dramatists generally considered to be the most important on the present-day London stage are coincidentally those who were most influenced by Becker and the Theater of the Absurd. In plays by Pinter, Stoppard, ‘and the South African playwright Fugard, however, there is 4 more positive underlying ethical purpose, not merely « symbolic portrayal of a fragmented, disintegrated society Harold Pinter (1930): He is known for is “Pinteresque” syle of dialogue which realistically reproduces the nuances of conversational speech, with its pauses, silences, and difficulties in communication His frequent themes include jealousy, Family hates, mental aber tions, and erotic fantasies. + The Birthday Party (1958) portrays an out-of-work pianist in seaside boarding house being threatened by two mysterious intrud- + The Caretaker (1960), a comples, enigmatic play with dialogue that is both naturalistic and surreal, depicts the intersction of three characters: the brothers. Aston and Mick, and a amp named Davies, whom Aston rescues from a bras + The Homecoming (195) is datk, erotic, Freusian drama of & son's bringing his wife into the womnless household of his father and brothers, She calmly accepts heir sexual overtures and ejects her husband + Other plays include Old Times (1971), Nov Man's Land (1975), and Betrayal (1978), ‘Tom Stoppard (1937): He has «biting wit, particularly in word play. stone sense of theta possibilities, ad reat inventiveness inthe structure of plays. His dramas pose ethical problems und, ea isically. donot always offer a solution + Rosencrant: and Guildenstern Are Dead \ 196). bs second pay atracted much attention forthe device of making the "attendant Jonls.* Roxencranty and Guildenstern, cental his play. There is verbal wit Shakespearean parody. and a tragic sense othe lack mastery over one's destiny + Jumpers (1972) reveals the principal character. «professor of ‘moral philosophy. through lengthy speeches that are beiliant parodies of academic philosophy 16 + Travesties (1974) is set in Zari, where Lenin, James Joyce, and ‘minor historical igure named Henry Carr resided during World ‘War Joyce and Carr appeared in an amateur performance of The Importance of Being Earnest, and Stoppard builds this acts inci ‘ent into an extravaganza of wity commentary on Joyce's Ulssses land Lenin's polities, av well ay parody of Wilde's play. One ‘Scenes riten entirely in limericks. + Other plays include Dirty Linen (1996), on parliamentary mide eanoes; Evers Good Boy Deserves Favor (1977), abou 4 diss ‘dentin & Soviet mental hospital; and The Real Thing (198 ‘marital agi-comedy. Athol Fugard (1932): A South African playwright he has Stunning: Iy revealed the problems of apartheid among various ethnic groups in his country. His use of symbols i akin to Becket’, whose work he admires. + The Blood Knot (1961) is about the relationship of two brothers, designated “colored in South Arica. + Boesman and Lena (1968) has a homeless, middle-aged couple Set up their shelter on the open stage, suggestive of Becket. +A Lesson from Aloes (1980) contrasts the politcal atiudes of an Alrikaner, his wife, and their “colored” frends, + Master Harold . .. and the Boys (1982) tellingly depicts the ‘lationship between a white South African teenager and to black. family servant, ayabsurd Alexandrine allegory alliteration allusion analogy archetypes ballad Daroque blank verse bombast Re GLOSSARY Literature deama that has is base premise ‘the meaninglessnesso ite inthe 20th century: uses anal repetitions and fantasy A line of poetry with six iambic feet, wsed by Spenser asa long ninth line in his Spenseian A narative poem or prone work in whieh per sons, events, and objects stand for something eke, ‘The repetition of inti sounds ina series of swords in poetry or prose A reference in literary work toa Famous person for event in history. the Bible, a literature, oF rythology, The comparison of one object, condition, peo- 28s, oF event to another in order to clarify or Intensity the image or thought Those images which are a par ofthe collective subconscious of all humanity ‘A poem that tells a sory. often of folk origin, usualy in four ine iambic stanzas with the see fd and fourth Fines eyeing. A sigle int architecture, literature, and music characterized by flamboyancy, elaborate oi ‘mentation, and a symmetrical arangement {A type of poetry in which thyme is not used ine hus ten syllables with an tambie Inflated, extravagant speech, found in many Elizabethan poems and plays carpe diem classicism closed couplet comedy of ‘convention couplet cycle didactic shay ‘A Latin phrase, meaning literally “seize the day." fist used by Horace and applied to lyric poems that have the theme “Eat, drink, and he merry, for tomorow we may die. ‘The philosophy of art associated with the ancient Girooks and Romans, typically chareterized by hlanee, moderation, sel conto, dominance of reason, and respect for tadition A pai complet oF shymed lines of poetry containing 2 A type of satirical comedy. especially poplar in the Restoration and Neoclassical periods. con- ‘cemmed with the manners of highly sophisicat fd and atlficial society and characterized by ‘win dialogue. A literary practice, style. oF technique that has become, through frequent use, an accepted method of terry expression, ‘Two shyming lines of poetry, sual in lines of eight or ten syllables each, ‘A term—sshich originally meant “circle” — used to describe a collection of poems or romances, as in "sonnet cycle.” AA term use by Hterary historians to denote the decline tht signals the end of a peat period in Iiterature, characterized by such qualities 3s ab- formal and atitcial subject matter. exreme self-consciousness and overly subse sie ‘A term sed to describe poetic works whose pri- mary objective is to teach oF 1 convey moral cbervations, Along and Formal poem meditating onthe dead ‘often writen to commemorate the death ofa fl Tow poet be