HYDROLOGY An Introduction to Hydrologic Science Rafael L. Bras ‘Massachusetts Institute of Technology ' A ve ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Reading, Massachusetts + Menlo Park, California + New York Don Mills, Ontario + Wokingham, Bagland + Amsterdam + Bonn ‘Sydney * Singapore + Tokyo + Madrid + San Juan‘To Rafael E, and Alejandro L.: Build me a son, O Lord, who will be strong enough to know when he is weak, and brave enough to face himself when he is ‘ie book isin the Addison-Wesley Series in Civil Engin Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, Bras, Rfae! L. ‘afraid: one who will be proud aad unbending in honest defeat, and ‘iydrology: an introduetion to hydrologic sions. humble and gentle in vietoy, Bibliography: Build me o son whose heart will be clear, whose goal will be Feud | high; a son who will master himself before he secks to master other 3. Hydrology. 1 ‘men; one who will reach into the future, yet never forget the past cuscrant i000 sods 8.10703 "And efter ll ths things ae hse I pay enough oF sese |SBN 0.201.05922-3 | of humor, 90 that he may always be serious, yet never take himself 100 seriously, Give him humility, so that he may always remember the simplicity of true greatness, the open mind of true wisdom, and the meckness of true strength, | Then I, his father, will dare to whisper, 'l have not lived Cover Mllustration: Used with permission of Brie F. Wood and Dominique Thongs, Wa ter Resources Program, Princaton University. Produced at the Interactive Computer Excerpts from "A Father's Prayer” by Douglas MacArthur, written for his (Graphles Laboratory, Princeton University son Arthur. Copyright © 1990 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Ine. All rights recorved. [No par ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored In a retrieval system, or rans ie ‘mitted, in any form or by any means, electrenie, mechanical, photooopying, recording, fr otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the ‘United States of America. Published simultaneously in Cenada, ABCDEFGHU-HA-89Preface ‘The remarkable levels of public health and safety enjoyed by the "urban population of the developed world are due im considerable part. to investments in hydrology over the past century. While we have ‘spent lavishly to cope with the scarcity and excesses of water, we ‘have invested little in the basic science underlying water's role i shaping and reshaping our planet. Hydrology, the science of water, hhas.a natural place alongside oceanography, meteorology, geology, and thers as one of the geosclences: yel in the modem acicnce extab- lishment, this nicho is vacant. Why is this?* ‘The answer to the sbove question lies in the fact that “the elaboration of the field [of hydrology], the education of its practitioners, and the creation of {te research culture” have been problem driven. There is nothing wrong with |knowledge responding to problems. Bui when knowledge only follows prob Tome, the human mind and condition stagnate, and in a solf-fulflling proph- egy we became unable to predict the new challenges our water environment vw bring. 5 It is 2 firm belief in hydrology as an earth science, as # useful earth sci- ‘ence, that has driven my career and the writing of this book. I have been jnepired by many with the desire to help inform people of what hydrology is. ‘That challenge has come from a variety of places, some strange indeed. I will never forget arriving in New York in 1983 from a year's sabbatical abroad, Jneluding a three-week trip to the People's Republic of China, My family was * ¥rom “Hydtulgy, the Forgottin Barth Solones” by R Le Bras and PS, Bagleson, itera in B08, Vol 68, No. 16, April 21, 1987vill ecrace received by your “friendly” immigration official. After responding the best I could to her question "What is hydrology?,” Thad to restrain my anger when she asked why the Chinese, or anyono else, would care about that. My dedica- tion to the education of hydrologists was reaffirmed. “Although it has changed and developed considerably, the core of this book: was ready nine years ago. At that time, hydrology in the United States was dominated by only two introduetory textbooks, both of which had been on the ‘market for a considerable amount of time. Many of us felt the need for a dif ferent approach, somewhere between the “engineering hydrology” of the time and Peto Eagleson's Dynamic Hydrology, which ahead of its time espoused an ‘advanced and more seientifie, but quantitative, viow of hydrology. Circum- Stancas conspired to delay my project. To the chagrin of my editor (sorry, ‘Tom) in the past two years alone, more introductory hydrology books have ‘boon published than I care to remember. I should be upset at myself for losing the edge, for furnbling the opportunity to be the first of a new generation. But ‘Lam not. In whatever smal] way, I believe that my adtivities (yes, including drafting and redrafting this book and making my students suffer through the changes) have helped to spur renewed interest in hydrology. Tt is an exciting time for hydrologista, « time of major changes and opportunities. The field is beginning to carve its niche in the science establishment, We are moving, and it is fun to be part of it! Like all efforts of this nature, this book has an ideal es a soul. and com- promise as its body. It is not all I wanted, nor will it be for anybody els T intended it to be a textbook for advanced undergraduates or first-year graduate students, As a prerequisite it requires come Newtonian physies and Some thermodynamic concepts, Rlementary fluid mechanics is also needed. Introductory Inowledge of probability and statisties would be helpful to the understanding of some ideas, in particalar those of Chapter 11, but is not required. Metric units are favored, but in response to the reality of practice in the United States, other commonly used units are intentionally used. ‘The book emphasizes physical hydrology, The processes inherent to the hydrologic eyele are diseussod. The origins and, to the level possible, the sci- entific foundations of the hydrologic processes are presented in a descriptive ‘and quantitative way. The book is unique in keeping a reasonable balance in the discussion of the occurrence and movement of water in the atmosphere ‘and land masses, More than the usual attention is given to unified viow of ‘energy, climate, meteorology, and land-atmospherie fluxes like precipitation and evaporation (Chapters 2-6). Chapters 7 and 8 deal with subsurface ‘waters, saturated and unsaturated, This knowledge is used to develop the concepts of infiltration and exfiltration as well as percolation and capillary rise, Chapter 9 canceptualizes the river basin response, leading to the defini- tion of the discharge hydrograph. Chapter 10 discusses the flow of water in channels, which is necessary for streamflow routing and flood forecasting. ‘The interpretation of hydrologic variables az random is inherent, to mod~ cern hydrologic practios, Chapter 11 introduces and presents ideas for the ercence ix analysis of random variables, particularly oriented to the definition of the ‘return period or recurrence of a hydrologic event. The river basin is the prod- uct of climate, geology, and hydrology. It is the reflection of nature's balance fand dynamics. Chapter 12 ends with a discussion of hydrology and fluvial geomorphology, one of the many exciting frontiers in hydrology. ‘Although all material is intended to emphasize basic understanding, it remains very quantitive and useful. The student should finish this book with. ‘2 practical working knowledge of hydrology that goos beyond the cookbook ‘approach that has plagued us for many years. “Many hydrologic subjects are missing from this book, like any other. A balance had to be achieved betwooa the book's goals, the nature and level of the subject matter, space, novelty, and the intended audience. In my opin- jon, the biggest gap is in the description of sediment transpor': and erosion. ‘This is the result of a tradeoff in which increased attention to meteorology, snow, and groundwater carried the day. ‘Others will point out that there is little or no reference to models, the in- tegration of concepts into the tools that make up the day-to-day life of the practitioner. This was to have been Part IT of the book, but it lost out in the ‘competition for space. Given my objectives and my view of what « eolid intro duction to hydrology is, I see this as an unfortunate but correct definition of priorities Drafts of this book have been used at MIT‘ for many years (it has also ound its way, via former students, to othor universities). There is an extraor- dinary amount of material to cover in one somester. Generally, I go aver the ‘great majority of the subjects but net all of them. I have starred sections that fare more expendahle, aither because they are elaborations of a subject or because they are secondary to the main concepts. Depending en the audience and geography, Chapter 6, Snowpack and Saowmelt, can be given variable emphasis; I nevertholoss suggest some study of this chapter, however brief it may be, Chapter 12, Concepts of Fluvial Geomorphology, is not process oriented and hence is not part of the mainstream. The temptation to treat Chapter 11, Concepts of Probability in Hydrology, in a similar way should be avoided, Probebility is crucial to hydrology and should be the noxt level of sophistication to the studont. ‘The book has a respectable collection of end-of-chaptey problems. Com- monly, these are used as didactic tools to either expand or introduce new concepts, The teacher should carefully select homework to achieve the goal of teaching by doing, Introductions aad summaries to chapters should help in continuity of thaught and link the veriety af concepts prevented. ‘Albert Binstein once said: A lhundred timedevery day Ivemind myself that my inner and outer life are based on the labors of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as | have received and am still receiving.X PREFACE ‘These words ere ftamed in the Arthur T: Ippen Conference Room at the Ralph M. Parsons Laboratory for Water Resources and Hydrodynamics at MIT. Toaanot think ofa better way to express my appreciation for the people that make up that laboratory and for the many other friends and colleagues 1 have, Sharing the droams, the excitement, the opportunities, and the eolle- siality of the Ralph M. Parsons Lab has been the reward of « career. Having tthe honor of serving as ite director fulfilled a dream. I want to particularly thank the studente, both undergraduate and graduate, who for many years ‘suffered the development of this book and the maturing of my thoughts. I have been blessed with extraordinary students. Seeing them succeed is my greatest enjoyment and satisfaction. Some have contributed particular prob- Toms and/or portions of text. They are acknowledged where the material appears, Dr. Carlos Puente was also very helpful in the development of come fend-of chapter problems. Besides challenges and opportunities, hydrology hes provided me with extraordinary friends end mentors, Even in competition, I can't think of a betior sot of colleagues. There are two who deserve special attention; 1 would {ike fo mention Professor Peter S, Eagleson, a friend, example, and mentor, ‘and Professor I. Rodrigue2-Itarbe, my closest collaborator. ‘The careor of an academician is impossible without the support of many agencies that sponsor research and facilitate our thinking. Many have pro- vided me with financial eupport. The Office of Hydrology of the National ‘Weather Service and the National Science Foundation (Engineering and Sci- ‘ence Directorates) have always been there when I nooded their. For many years now, Elaine Healy has served as my personal secretary ‘and friend. She went through three word processors and uncountable drafts of tis book (not to mention may many other wild projects). Believe it or not, she actually likes it! If ever write another book (two may be enough for mel) I hhope to count on her excellent support again. Thanks, Blaine. "fom Robbins, Sponsoring Editor, and Sherry Berg, Production Coor- dinator, have worked on ry two books. I thank them for their efforts and confidence. ‘Versions of this hook have been reviewed by many. Drs. Stephen J. Burges, University of Washington; Daniel D. Evans and Soroosh Sorooshiaa, University of Arizona; Konstantine P. Georgalsakos, University of lowa, Towa Institute of Hydraulic Research; arid Antonis D. Koussis, Vanderbilt Univer- sity, provided formal reviews and criticisms that were very helpful in prepar- ing the final manuscript. Finally, J want to acknowledge the love of my wife, Pat, and my children, Rafael B. and Alejandro L., and my parents, Amalia and Rafael, Without them any projost would be senseless. Carnbridge, Massachusetts RLB, Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction 1 ‘The Hydrologic Cycle and the Hydrologic Budget Equation 3 Scope of Work 12, Sommary 13 References 13, Problems 14 iJ 43 1 1 2 soLaR RADIATION AND THE EARTH'S ENERGY BALANCE 19 2.1 Introduction 19 5 2.2. Planetary Motions and the Distribution of Radiation 21 28 Radiation Physics 31 23.1 Shortwave Radiation 34 23.2 Longwave Radiation 42 24 Summary 47 Relurences® 47 Problems 49xii contents 3 princiwies oF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM 53 aa 32 33 a4 35 36 at 3s 39 Introduction 53 Composition and General Characteristics of ‘the Atmosphere 54 ‘Transport Processes 56 ‘Tomperature Distribution 58 34.1 ‘Temporal Distribution 58 342 Vorizontal Distribution 60 3.43 Vertical Temperature Distribution in the Lower Atmosphere 63 844 ‘Temperature Measurements 66 Pressure Distribution 68 + ‘Advection by Winds and Ocean Currents 73 3.6.1 Atmospheric Circulation 73 36.2 Circulation in the Oceans 80 ‘Atmospheric Humidity &2 3.7.1 The Phases of Water 82 3:72 Vapor Pressure and Humidity 84 3:73 Measurement and Estimation of Humidity and Vapor Pressure 86 8-7.4 Distribution of Atmospheric Moisture 88 ‘Atmospheric Stability and Condensation 92 3B. Adiabatic Cooling 93 3.8.2 Condensation by Pseudo-adiabatic Cooling 95 383 Further Comments on Thermal Conveetion and Stability 100 Summary 102 References 103 Problems 104 4 PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT 109 1 Aa ‘3 Introduction 109 Cooling and Lifting Processes 110 ‘An Introduetion to Cloud Physics 116 49.1 Nucleation 116 432. Growth and Distribution of Precipitation Particles 17 4.3.3 Terminal Velocities of Fydrometeors 120 43.4 Evaporation of Precipitating Hydromoteors 120 Forms of Precipitation 126 48 comments xii Storm Structure 127 ‘Measurement of Precipitation 182 46.1 Gages 132 482 Radar 134 46.3 Satellites 140 Precipitation Data Analysis 146 4.7.1 Estimation of Missing Data 149 4.7.2 Consistoncy Checks 153 4.73 Mean Areal Precipitation 154 474 Frequency Analysis 157 4.75 Network Design 158 Summary 170 References 171 Problems 175 5 EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION, INTERCEPTION, AND DEPRESSION STORAGE 183 61 52 53 Ba 55 56 Bq Introduction 183 Evaporation from Free Warer Surfaces 188 5.21 Water Balance Mothod 189 5.22 Enorgy Balance Mechod 190 523. Mose-Transfer Methods: The Dalton Law Analogy 197 6.24 Combined Mass-Transfer and Energy Methods: ‘The Penman Equation 201 5.2.5 Empirical Equations 203 5.26 Direct Measurement of Evaporation 210 ‘Transpiration and Evapotranspiration 219 Bvuporation from Snow 231 Intercoption 232 Depression Storage 234 ‘Summary 296 s References 237 Problems 241 6 SNOWPACK AND SNOWMELT 247 on 62 63 Tatroductidh 247 Snow Accumulation and Measurement 248 Snowpack 256 63.1 Density 257 63.2 Cold Content 259xiv contents 63.8 Thermal Quality 260 63.4 Liquid-Water Content 261 6.3.5 Albedo 262 64 Bnergy Budget and Snowmelt 264 64.1 Net Radiation 265 642 Advected Heat in Precipitation 265 643 Bnergy Consumed in Evaporation, Condensation, and Sensible-Heut Transfers 266 644 Heat of Conduction from the Soil 267 645 Energy Reloased by Freezing of Liquid Water Content 268 65 Air Temperature as an Index of Snowmelt 268 66 Routing of Melt through Snowpack | 275 67 Summary 278 References 278 Problems 280 A GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA 283 TAL Introduction 283 7.2 ‘The Soil-Rock Profile and Subsurface Waters 284 13 Darcy's Law 290 714 Mass Belance Equations —Flow in Saturated Porous Media 294 74.1 Confined Aquifers 294 742 Unconfined Aquifer 296 743 Horizontal-Plane Flow and the Dupuit Approximation 296 7,44. Initial and Boundary Conditions | 300 745 Linearity and the Superposition Principle 300 7.5 Hydraulics of Welle 313 75.1 Steady State Solution of a Fully Penetrating Well ina Confined Aquifer 313 75.2 Steady-State Solution of a Fully Penetrating ‘Well in an Unconfined Aquifer 316 1.58. Unsteady Flow in Wells 817 754 Wells in Leaky Aquifers 323 75.5 Superposition of Wells and the Method of images 323 7.5.6 Aquifer Tests 925 16 Summary 336 References 337 Problems 939 contents xv 8 row in unsatunareD POROUS MEDIA AND INFILTRATION 349 8.1 Introduction 349 82. Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media 350 8.2.1 Conservation of Mass in Unsaturated Porous Media 352 8.3. Infiltration and Exfiltration 355 83.1 Empirical Infiltration Equations 362 88.2 Storm Runoff 368 88.8 Actual Evaporation 877 8A Percolation and Capillary Rise 382 8.5 Summary 384 References 985 Problems 388 THE HYDROGRAPH AND SIMPLE RAINFALL— DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS 395 9.1 The Hydrograph 395 9.2 Hydrograph Separation 399 9.3 Streamflow Measurements 401 94 Rainfall-Discharge Relationships 404 9.4.1 Peak Discharge Formulas—The Rational Formula 405 94.2 The Unit Hydrograph 409 94.3 Synthetic Unit Hydrographs 419 9.5 The Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 430 #95.1 Fourier Series 432 +9552 Fourier and Laplace Transforms 436 95.3 Moments and Cumulants 437 96 Conceptual Instantencous Unit Hydrographs 441 97 Sommary 449 . References 450 Problems 453 10 eroon routine ss 101 Routing 465 302 Conceptual Models 466 102.1 Channel Routing: The Muskingum Method 468U1 12 102.2 Reservoir Routing 475 10.38 Hydraulic Routing: The ‘St Venent Equations 478 103.1 Solutions to St Venant Equations 482 10.3.2 Numerical Solutions 486 104 Black-Box Models 491 10.5 The Diffusion Analogy 492 10.8 Summery 494 References 494 Problems 496 CONCEPTS OF PROBABILITY IN HYDROLOGY 505 : 11. A Introduction 505 '2 Review of Probability 606 3 Models of Probability 515, 11.8.1 Models of Discrete Random Variables 515 11.8.2 Models of Continuous Random Variables 521 11.4 Nonparametric Estimates of Exceedance Probability 543 "115 Novel Approaches and Future Directions 545 116.1 Derived Distributions 645 115.2 Regional Analysis 548 11.5.3 Paleohydrology and the Value of Historical Information 550 116 Summary 554 Reforences 555 Probleme 657 CONCEPTS OF FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 567 12.1 Introduction 567 123 Descriptions of Drainage Basin Comporiton 668, 12.2.1 ‘Two-Dimensional Planar Descriptors ZZ2Z_ Descriptors of Keliet 582 122.3 Stream Channel Geometry 587 "123. Fluvial Geomorphology end Hydrology 689 12.3.1 Geomorphologic Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 590 124 APPENDIX A APPENDIX covets. xvi 12.3.2 Geomorphoclimatic Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 597 12.3.8 Comments and Further Developments of the Geomorphologic Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 699 12.8.4 Link-Based Derivations of the Geomorphologit Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph €02 Summary 605 References’ 605 Problems 610 ‘TABLES OF WATER PROPERTIES 615 DEVELOPMENT OF UNSTEADY FLOW EQUATIONS FOR. SATURATED MEDIA 628 INDEX 633Chapter 1 . Introduction | 1.1 intRopucTION | dslgy eh tay of water ns omen ml orgs fel 4 its destinations on the earth. Although the hydrologic umbrella would in- | clude water-quality issues, this work will essentially concentrate on the ques- { tions of water quantity | "As a requirement for Life as we know it, water hs been @ souree of con tinvons presecupation for humans sines the beginning of mankiné. The same ‘quostions end inoues of the past are prevalent today. How much water is there? Where is the water coming from? Where is it ging?” What isthe qual- ity of the water and how can we control it? What should we do when we have fo0 much or too little of i? ‘Since our elomentary-seience-course days, we all have a fecling for the ‘movement and location of water. The occan is clearly recognized as the biggest source of wator. Rainfall is always associated with streamflow as well as with climatic and moteorologic phenomena. Water losses due ta evepora- tion and infiltration are not absizact concepts. But these seemingly trivial {dees wore not always eo clearly understood; our predecessors in the study of hydrology did not reach this level of knowledge until relatively recent times. ‘The history and development of hydrology are fascinating subjects. The | render is referred {o,an excellent book by Biswas (197Z] on the history of hy- | Urology. A few remafics are usuful (o create the correct historical petspectivaee 2 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION Early thinkers and philosophers did not understand three basic hydro- logic principles (Eagleson [1970)): 4. conservation of mass, 2, evaporation and condensation, and 8. infiltration. ‘They were worried about how water gets up to the mountains, flows down to: the sea, and fails to raise the level of the latter, Because of what may be called Timited spatial ewarenscs they could not noo rainfall as « suficient |Site of treanfow. To acon fr cheered wer Seavion adergovn’ ‘serves (beneath mountains) were hypothesized. Water was balioved to be Dushol up thesmountains by vacutm foros, capillary aetio, or “rock pres- ure” and eurfoced as streatafiow. The underground reservoirs wore roplen- ished by the sea 5 Vitruvius, during the first century 9.0, stated thatthe mountains re- ceived precipitation tat thon gave rise fa sttamflaw. A Gltation process by ‘thich water percolated into soll was also acknowledged by Vitruvius end Tater by da Vine. Tt wan in the seventeenth century that Perrault proved by measurement that proupitation could account for streamflow in the Seine River, France Similar quantitative studies were mode by Mariotto and Halley during the | same historical period. At this stage, the mase balance concept was pretty wel established although questioning of i entinued well into th twentieth century, "The eighteenth contury saw advances in hydraulie and the mechanies of water movement by Bernoulli, Chezy, and many others. The nineteenth Conbury saw experitiental work on walet flow by people like Daxey and Manning The above names are familiar to ehadants of groundwater and surface-waler movement Until the 19908 hydrology remained a science filled with empiricism, qualitative deseriptions, and little overall understanding of ongoing pro cesses. At that time, people such as Sherman [1932a] and Horton (1940) ini- Sinted e more theoretca, quantitative, approach. Shermants unit hydrograph concept sill romains with us a tho most sucresefal (out not-nocossarily the ‘best) and most well-known explanation of river-basin behavior. Horton's ‘ons on inftration, coil moisture accounting, and runof are sill rexngnized | by present-day hydrologiata "All these conturieo of exporieace and study have converged to form the concept of the hydrologic eyele. The concept in simply that water changes State end is eansported ine clocod ayetns: he earth and ite atmosphare. Tha ele is closed only earthwide, each drop of wator following a path from the ‘tenn to the atmosphero to the earth (through surface or underground mover ment). Energy to keep this cycle going is provided by the sun. Processes in- ‘volved are evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff 112 THE HYOROLOGC CYCLE AND THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET EGUATION 3. ‘The practicing hydrologist is usually concorned with local conditions and is therefore facing an open aystem. Nevertheless, unless the basic hydrologic ‘yele is recognized, he or she will again wonder how the water gets up the mountain, 1.2. THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET EQUATION ‘A schematic view of the global hydrologic oycle is shown in Figure 1.1, This diagram shows the interactions and mass transfers (water in different states) ‘that occur hetween the atmosphere, land surfaces, and the oceans. Note that water appears in liquid, solid, and gesoous states. Emphasis is given to pro- cesses on or within the land surface with no detail of water-transport mecha- Waren igo sl vapor phar coe . a he| Se | aa Ta FIGURE 1.1 A schomatic view ofthe hycrolégic oyte. Transport of water as vapor sinh cated by wavy Ines. Source: Eagleson {1970}4 coweren sf tRODUCTION nisms operating within the atmosphere and oceans: These details will be discussed in later chapters and are extensively covered in the associated fiolds of motoorology and oceanography. ‘A-fow possible new terms need initial definition, Sublimation is the ‘changé of ice to vapor. Throughfall is the water not intercepted by vegetation. Buapotranspiration is tho combined consumptive—evaporative process by ‘which water is released to the atmosphere through vogotation and soil, Bxjil- tration is the rising of soil moisture due mostly to tension and capillary forees. Interflow is the water flow at shallow dapths within the soil structure. Infiltration is water absorption by the soil surface. Pervolation refers to water ‘movement into deep groundwater reservoirs called aquifers Figure 1.2 indicates the magnitudes and distribution of global annual av- erage precipitation. In the figure water quantities are measured in volume per unit area of Iand or ocean. For example, 31 em of runoff over lend is, ‘equivalent to 13 em over the oceans, given the much larger ocean area. Note ‘that more water falls directly into the oceans than over land (30% of total surface area). Fifty-seven percent (41/72) of precipitation falling on land never reches the ocean. More water evaporates from the ocean than it re- ceives directly in the form of procipitation. ‘Table 1.1 shows the distribution of water throughout the earth. Clearly, the ocoans and ieeeaps dominate as sources of water. Using Table 1.1 and Fig" ure 1.2, Bagleson [1970] computes that the global average annual precipita tion and evaporation each total about 100 om, giving a global annual precipi- ‘ation volume of 511,000 cubic kilometers, Table 1.1 shows that the-average ce ia ‘28cm Precetcon pecon 7 FIGURE 1.2 Disposition of global anrual average precotation, Source: Eagleson [1870]. Data from Budyko etal. (1962) 1.2 HE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND THE MYOROLOGIC BUDGET EQUATION 5 TABLE 1-1 Distribution of Worlds Estimated Water Resoureos SURFACE warex, PERCENTAGE "AREA VOLUME ‘OF TOTAL, Location ‘an ‘tex? ‘WATER Surfoee water Freshwater lakes 1355:100 325,100 0.009 Saline lakes 99'700 3104/200 b.008 Stroam channels : 1,900 0.000 Subsurface water ‘Groundorster (less than Yemi deer) ——_128,5650000 471,400 0307 Groundwater (more than %4 mi deep) 129,505 000 417,400 0.307 Soll moisture, ee 129,585 000 66,700 0.005 Teoeaps and glocire 17,880,000 29,199,700, aia Atmneaphere (at sea level) 610,486,000 12,900 0.000 Oceans 861,488000 _1,892,980,600 grat Approximate totals 1,860,188,400 100.000 ‘Source: Adapted fom RL, Nace, "Water ofthe Weld" Natur, Hist, Vol:79,No, 1, Jennary 1864 atmospheric moisture content is 12,900 km. So atmospheric moisture must bo replaced on the average 40 times a year, which implies « moisture resi donee timo of nine days. Quite an active eyle indeed! The hydrologist usually faces an open systom of tho type illustrated in Figure 1.5. The quantification of the hydrologic eycle‘in such a system be- comes a simple mass balance equation, where inputs are equal to the change in storage. The general water budget equation is then Bo1-@ an where J is inputs and Q represents outputs. ‘The hydrologist must be careful in defining the region or control jlume over which Eq. (1) is tobe written, Only then can the terms comprising the inputs F and outputs @rbe defined. Clenorally, tho mows felano ean fm writen ove suds and uidengrouind Water systems. Using Figure 1.3 as 2 control volume, the surface budget ‘equation is P+ Qy~ s+ QE, -T.-1=A8,, | |se the major inflows and logic eyels In an open system: Dozier, Landscepe: and, Sourop: W¥. Marsh and ight © 1906 by Woy. Ropritod by porise fon to Prysoa! Ge oi Wey & Sots IME of interest, Qu and Quy are surface- volume over the period of interest, @ io surface streams, E, is surface evaporation surface moisture, I ix infiltration rate, a rage on the eurface over the period of intarast. Aetadwatar budget equation is " jon over the perio. Qe By Te AS ayo groundvater lw rates in and out of the control vol oa tS Sr Pave dofinitions equivalent to the surface counter- ter in wad out of the : "Palnnco, obtained by edding both equations is pla Qa) Br BA) 4M) ~ Or = Oa) = 88, + 50) 112 1HE HYOROLOOIC CYELE AND THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET FOUATION. 7 ‘The units of the sbove equations are volume per unit time. Using net mass exchanges, Eq. (14) can be summarized as P-Q-G- AS, ae Q caer ee irc eipreeopination P-Q-G-ET™~AS, os wwhere ET is « combined evapotranspiration term. “Generally, more than one of the elements of Eq, (1.5) are unknown, mak- ing the solution of the algebrafe equation impossible, Only in eases where reasonable approzimations of the majority of the values ean be made or ‘wttere one or more terms can be related is it possible to solve Bq. (1.5). ‘The simple hydrologic equation cam, nevertheless, lesd to highly signifi- cant and useful results. An example is the shudy of the potontial water yield GFawampy regions in the upstream reaches of the Nile River Basin. The point ‘ot complete utilization of tho Nile River streamflows has nearly been reached. Therefore Egyptian and Sudanese weter planners are seriously studying the channelization and drainage fone such project, the Jonglet Canal, was ini- Gated) of some of these swampy regions in order to decrease water loses and jncrease annual water yield into Lake Nasser (and the Aswan High Dam Sys tem) in Baypt, which is the main weter-storage facility for both countries. The reservoir holds several years of Nile inflows ‘Figure L4 gives the general loestion of the Macher marshes near the Sobat and Baro rivers; the swamps eloug the Bahr £1 Jebel end Babr El Zora tributaries; and the Bahr Sl Gkazal rogion, covered by swamps near its Gutlet to Lake No, where it joins the main White Nile channel. In order to as- seor the potential of these regions as water sources, detailed water-balance studies are required. ‘Chan and Eagleson (1980] used published literature to make en initisl water balance in tho permanent swamp regions of the three areas involved. Thoir mammary appears in Table 1.2, Thoy used average anual quantities; they assumed that over the year, on tae average, the change of storagé in the system is zaro, This is @ ressonable assumption over many years in w bydro- Togie system dominated by an annual meteorologic and climatic cycle, There: fore AS in Eq. (1.5) is taken aa zero, ‘They had no information on lateral roundwater movement. Its then assumed that ether the groundwater ays fom of these hydrologic units are fully enclosed within the chosen unit vol- ime of abudy (hich ifnot really Phe eas inthis particular sitution) or more Teasonably that the groundwater erstem is in reasonable ctondy state and dominated by the other inputs and autputs to the system, These arguments lead to G = 0 in Eq. (1.6), Surface inpuis to the systom are of two types gaged inflow through channels end uncontrolled over-bank spillage romand Eagleson [1980 ‘transpired water depth of 1.5 m for Machar, for Ghazal. || Tre above analysis ignores potentially i | @. Nevertheless, Chan and Eagleson (1960) | serve as checks on the reasonableness of the | | raure 1.4 The Nie Riverin the Sudan, showing location of mare areas, Source: Chan ‘chennels into the swamps. The hydrologic equation for all three systems then | | becomes (in units of 10" cabie meters or milliords (mad): | P-@ er Macher Ta Oi 35-20 127 GebelZeral 15 —G43+60— 310) 142 Ghazal 160 (06 §0~127) 384 | tm units of depth por unit area of swamp, Table 12 indicates annual evapo- “L1 ta for Jebel-Zeraé, and 2.0 rm important terms such as AS and point vut that these permanent | ramp rogions are covered by papyrus plants and tall grasslands. Indepen, | Seat assessment of the evapotranspiration from these plants yields values of | $a for papyrus and 1.9 m for a composite of papyrus and grasslands | reighted by area, ‘Those numbers agree with estimated water losses and ‘assumptions made. ‘TABLE 1.2"ApParont Water Losses from Major Nile Swamps ESTIMATED GAGED AREA OF ‘SPILLAGE PRECIPITATION INFLOW ‘SWAMP i LOCATION md aa 60 Tigh Hore wl always refer to fhe numberof eubie mers per year. 38 60 zo m0 127 15 73 16.0 3700 EF 36,600 Machar ‘ebsl-Zeral ‘Ghazal Source: Adapted from Chat snd Bogleson (i980). SL lind Go)FIGURE 1.5 The Behr El Ghazal Basin and demarcation of boundaries of subeatehments. ‘Source: Chan and Eagleson (1980). (Chapter 6 will discuss mothods to estimate evapotranspiration from vari- ous surfaces and vegetation. Most impressive to the new student of hydrology should be the proportion of annual wator flow in the White Nile that is lost, mainly through evapotranspiration. The last column of Table 1.2 gives the ratio of losses to Whita Nile flow before its junction with the Blue Nile (see Fig. 1.4), Note that in the Babr El Ghazal region losses are more than the ‘gaged average annual streamflow of tho Nile River at Malakal (see Fig. 1.4) ‘und over 30% of the annual average flow of the Nile at Aswan (84 x 10° m'). ‘The potential water gains from reduced evapotranspiration are immense! 1.2 HYDROLOGIC GYCLE AND THE HYDROLOGIC @UDGET EOUATION TY In order to further define how scme of this evapotranspired water could be recoverod, Chan and Bagleson (1980) studied the Behr El Ghazal région as ‘whole, taking into account the central swampland and the feeding tributary catchments, as shown in Figure 1.5. Individual water balances ware per- formed for cach tributary basin, Still taking AS and G as initially ero in Raq. (1.6), the rest of the terms—-P.@, and 2? —were indepandedtly as- ‘sossed, to tho extent possible, using available data on precipitation, seam- flow, evapotranspiration, and distribution of vegetation, The resuitjof this txaroise given in Figure 16, where P, BT, ont @ denote sanual dverage precipitation, evapotranspiration, and surface runoff, respectively. Water spilled into the Bahr El Ghazal system fram the nearby Jebel system is given by Do. Groundwater seepage or unatiributod inflows into the eentral swam land is represented by G,. Gaged surface input inta the central swamgland is represented by ¥;. Subscripts L, O, and B indicate inputs or outputs into tributary systems, the contral swampland, and the basin as a whole, reepec- tively. Numbers in parentheses ere water volumes per unit area (in mil- Jimoters) over tributary, swampland, or total basin areas as indicated by the Sutapt sen aera aa cel warp anal, sacs (a2 -127 1989 351 me (82 a= 843094? Ae =A e96 4 Agr 812386 in? FIGURE 1.6 Mean annual water balance of the Bahr EI Ghazal Basin. Source: Chan and Eagleson [1980].jee 12 compres t /INTRODUCTION subscripts, The hydrologic budget equation as applied to the swampland be- comes, Po ~ ET + Do ~ Qo ~ Ds + Yu = [All the above quantities were independently assessed except G,, which is groundwater seepage Into the central swampland or ungaged surface flows. Substitution of the quantities yields G, = 19.8 mdm*, Evapotranspiration in the tributaries, E7,, was then obtained by solving the hydrologic budget, ‘equation for the tributary systems BY, = P,-Y,- Gs, Teading to BT, = 951.7 mam’. Tr summary, the maximum amount of water (annual average) that could ‘possibly be recovered by intercepting all flows (surface and groundwater) into the central swampland of the Bahr Is| Ghazal is on the order of 32.5 10° m* 19.8 x 10" + 12.7 x 10), 1.3 scope oF WORK In contrast to other introductory books in hydrology, this one intends to em- phasize, at a basie level, the scientific reasoning behind the various subjects, in hydrology. However, this emphasis doos not imply that practical and useful procodures are ignored. Furthermore, there are subjects where empiricism is the only reasonable approsch at the introductory level ‘The first toni chapters cover basic principles, quantifying the parts and ‘the processes of the hydrologic eyele. Chapter 2 discusses solar radiation. This is the main source af energy for the hydrologic cycle. It dictates the earth’s ‘energy balance and also plays an important role in determination of evapora- tion and transpiration. Chapter 3 describes the atmosphere as an equally important partner with the earth in controlling the movement of water. Emphasis is on a global scale, pointing out global patterns and phenomena that can and do influenes local hydrologic conditions, Chapter 4 covers tho ‘main forms of precipitation—rainfall and snow, Their genesis, chetacteris- tics and measurements are detailed. Chapter 6 covers evaporation and tran- spiration. It also discusses the retention of water in vegetation and surface ponding. Chapter 6 deals with the accumulation and melt of snow. Chapter 7 covers the movement of water in tho soil system. It describes the occurrence ‘and dynamics of groundwater flow and discassos groundwater flow under satu: rated conditions and the hydraulics of wells, Unsaturated flow equations and infiltration are studied in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 quantifies surface runoff from srerenences 19 precipitation and snowmelt, Chapter 10,deals with the mechanics of flow in ‘channels and flood routing. Emphasis is on theory and methodologies. In Summary, the first tén chapters provide insight and tools for indeperident evaluation of the various terms in the water balance (Eq. 1.5). Chapter 11 in- froduces the concepts of probability: most commonly used in the anelysis of the frequency of oocurrence of hydrologic events. Chapter 12 talks about river basin geometry and fluvial geomorphology and its implications in hydrclogy. ‘Not all the material presented heros necessary for an introductory study of hydrdlogy. Advanced topies are indicated throughout the book with an as- teriak. The Proface will help guide the teacher, student, and general reader in the selection of topics. 1.4 summary Hydrology is the study of water in all its forms, from all its otigins, to all its dectinations on the earth. Traditionally, hydrologic science has concentrated fon the fluxes between land surfaces and the atmosphere and oceans. Many of the details of the study of the procasses within the atmosphere -and oceans rust be left to the sister disciplines of meteorology and oceanography, r0- spectively. Nevertheless, the expediency of thié separation should not be {interpreted as encouragement for sharp disciplinary boundaries. The earth ‘processes do not recognize such artificial groupings. "This chapter introduces the hydroiogic cyele and its elements, The con- cept of conservation of mass within this truly-active eydle is presented and il- lustrated with.an example, From the example’ the reader should como to the realization thet itis generally hard to quantify some of the elements of the hydrologic cycle. The chapter also intends to provide a feeling of the magni- ‘de, at global and local seales, of some of the elements of the eycle. “Most of the rest of the book will be spent in detailing and quantifying the procasees tliat control the hydrologic esele. We will begin in Chapter 2 by dis- fussing the fuel of this eycle—solar radiation —and the related energy bel- ‘ance on global and local scales % eo REFERENCES Biswas, A.K. 1972), History of Hydrology. Amsteriam: North-Holland Branson, FA, G.F Gifford, K.G. Revard, and R.B. Handley (1981). Rangoland Hy- ‘drology. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Huns. " Budyko, MEL, NA: Efimova, L.1. Zabenok, and L.A. Strokina (1962). “Tho Héat Bal- ‘ance of the Barth’ Surface” Akad. Neok. USSR, 1-2 u Ser. Georer. No. 1:14 onapTER 1 / TRODUCTION ‘Chan, 8-0, and P.S, Eagleson [1980]. "Water Balanco Studies ofthe Bahr El Ghazal ‘Swainp.” Cambridge, Mass MIT Department of Civil Engineering, Ralph M. Par- song Laboratory. (Technical report no. 261.) Chow, V.T, ed [1964]. Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: MeGraw-Hill, Eagleson, B.S, (1970), Dynamic Hydrology. New York: MeGira Bazieson, PS, end $0. Chan [1979]. "Water Balance Estimates of a Suda Tributary.” ‘Proe, Con}. Water Resources Plan. Egypt, Cairo: OUMIP Technological Planning Program. June 25-21, 1979, p. 538 Gray, D-My ed. [1973]. Handbook on the Principles of Hydrology. Port Washington, NV: National Research Council of Canada. (Reprinted by Water Information Center, ne, Port Washington, N.Y Hoan, CT, H.P. Johneon, and D.L, Brakensiok, eds, [1962]. Hydrologic Modelling of ‘Smnall Watershed, St Joseph, Mich American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE monograph n0. 5) ‘Horton, R-E, [1935]. "Surface Runoff Phenomens: Part I Analysis of the Flydro- “graph.” Ann Arbor, Mich: Bdwards Brothors, Inc. (Horton Hydrology Laboratory, fering no. 101) ‘Idem, (1828, “The Interpretation and Application of Runoff Plot Experiments with Reference to Soil Erosion Problems.” Soil Si. Soc. Am. Proc. 3:340-249. ‘dem. (1940). “An Approach Toward a Physical Interpretation of Infiltration Capac- ity” Soil Sei. Am. Proc. 6:399-417, ‘Marsh, W.M., and J. Dosior (1986), Landsoape: An Introduetion o Physical Geography. ‘New York: Wiley. ‘Nace, RL, (1964) “Water ofthe Work.” Natur. Hist. 79(1). Linsey, RK. Jr, MA. Kohler, and J. LH. Poulhue (1982). Hydrology for Engineers. ‘Sed od. Now York: McGraw-Hill Reudkivi, A.J. (1979), Hydrology—An Advanced Introduction to Hydrological Pro- ‘esses and Modelling. Oxford: Pergamon. Sherman, L.K, [199da}. "Stream Flow from Hainfall by the Unit-Graph Method.” Zn- ‘in, News, Rec 106:501~505. os ‘den. {1982b], "The Relation of Hydrographs of Runoff to Size and Character of Drain- ‘ge Basian” Ar. Geophys. Union Trans. 15:092-259. Viessmen, W, Jr, J.W. Knapp, G.L, Lewis, and-B. Harbaugh [1972]. Introduction to “Hydrology, 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row. Ee eee te eeeneee ee eeeee eee eee eee PROBLEMS 1. Unfortunately, hydrologists throughout the world use a variety of units. Although SI. and melzie systems are fairly universal, itis useful to be famil- jar with the most common unit conventions. Some oxercisea to help achieve ‘thet familiarity follow. 8) Volume per unit time is commonly measured in cubic feet per second (cfs). What is the equivalent, in cubie foet per second, of 100 cubic me- ters por second (m's'? Proouems 15 b) ‘The concept of volume is commonly expressed in terms of a volume per unit area, or a dopth. That is gonorally the ease in measuring rainfall over a known area, like a river basin. A fairly wet region ‘may reosive about 1700 mm of rainfall per year. How many inches of rain fall in the area? ©) Boston gets about 40 in. of rainfall per year. How many centimeters is that? @ If 40 in, of rain fall per year over a rivor basin that is 1000 kam* in ‘arva, what is the volume of water received over a year in cubie metors? ©) An acre is about 4000 m* (4047, to be exact) and a hectare (ha) is 10,000 m? or about 2.5 acres. In the United States, a commonly, used unit of volume is the acre-ft or the volume of water required to cover ‘ono acro of land with water 1 ft deep. How many cubic feet in an acre- #2 How many cubic meters? £) Another commonly used unit of volume is the U.S. gallon. The ety of Boston water-supply system car safely handle about 300 million! gal- Jons a day (mgd) of demand. How many cubic meters per second is that? The mile (1 mi = 5280 f) is another common unit of length. How ‘many acres to a square mile? How many square kilometers to a square mile? 2, 1.25 x 10¢ m* of runoff occurs from ¢ 100-ha plot of unifermly sloping land in a cortain half-hour period daring which the rainfall averages 10 embr", Compute the magaitude of change in storage in cubic meters and fell the probable forms of storage into which it goos during the half hour. 8. A lagoon has a surface area of 360.5 x i0* m?. The average annusl rain- fall and evaporation are obtained as 1850.4 mm and 1142.7 mm, respectively. TF the increase in storage is 247.8 x 10° m? yr™, obtain the net annaal inflow into the lagoon. What are the hydrologic components included in the net inflow? 4, Determine the volume of water lost through evapotranspiration during a ‘year from the surface of a 1500-ha lake located in a region whore the arintial rainfall is 185 em. The inerease in the depth of the lake ovtr the year is 10 om. Neglect the effect of groundwater flow. 5. A city is supplied by water fram a 1250-ha catchment area. The average ‘water consumption of the community is 60,000 m’day", The annual pre- cipitation in the rogion is 412 cm. A river with an average annual flow of 0.35 m's~ originates in and flows out of the catchment area. If the net annual groundwater outflow from the eroa is equivalent to a 16-0m dapth of water, what is the evepotranspiration loss in cubic meters per year, which, if exceeded, would cause a shortage of the water supply to the community? Assume that the storage of water in the area at the beginning end at the end of the year are equal.16 cveten / nrposuCTION 6. The following information was either measured or estimated for the Great Salt Lake of Utah: 1584 00.7 28.00 | TOTAL { LAK LEVEL, ANNA i A THE END oral, annual. | Genera annUatLaxe STREAMELOW TAKE. {| GEETAROVE PRECIPITATION "INPUTS EVAPORATION | wan_TSeatevany “Taxerrs) "acim anc | io80 41986 |} isa 41977 9.46 14489000 433 || tesa ‘41994 18.18 24430000 41d | 3088 4203.4 1743 ‘51133900 409 | 63591700 297 | Using the following elevationaren—volume table for the lake, compute the implied unsecounted lake inputs or losses, in millimeters, during the ‘years 1981 to 1984, Tho lake is terminal, ic., has no outflows. State any ‘assumptions you make. Great Salt, Lako Hlovation~Aroa—Volume ELEVATION AREA VOLUME, weaen) (ACRES (ACRR-FHET 970 398090 125564300 43980 900470 19421890.0 4199.0 9609490 142501400 | 4200.0 30792530 168701800 | azot0 s14go00.0 164814500 | az02.0 41750000 176407000 4208.0 010000 18828700.0 42040 1228000.0 20040700.0 4205.0 3250468.0 212758000 | 42060 11350000.0 225419000 | aa070 13750000 238083000 | 42080 4190000 250747000 «2000 114500000 26341000.0 | st100 34990000 27607300.0 | aniz0 15720000 30669000.0 | aate0 ‘23280000 38671000.0 | antso 25180000 43417000.0 7. In 1985 researchers predicted that the total streamflow inputs to the Great Salt Lake for the following three years would be bounded as follows: MINIEUM INFLOW MAXTUM INFLOW YEAR (ACREYEET) (ACREFSEN 1985 +2000000.0 «49500000 1986 '3500000.0 '8500000.0 1987 3000000.0 4500000.0 “ i a | Prose 17 | If rainfall and evaporation conditions for these years are 20% more than the averages for years 1981 to 1964, find minimum and maximum lake elevation profil, in fact, for the years 1085 to 1987 8. A typical monthly precipitation over a 78-mi area is 5 in. A river goes through the area and brings (input) 19188.8 acre-t per moath. River oatlow is 20921.6 acre-ft per month. The arza is much larger than any existing aquifer and there is no sigificant seesonality in the hydrology. Estimate the sony evapotranspiration in the are. Bxpln and justify esamptions. 9. A river basin discharges water at a rate Tinearly proportional to the amount it has in storage, QnKS. : ‘The ony nonin the basin aif Any rainfall wil init, (Ape no evaporation during storm) The rate of infiltration f is linearly proportional to the rainfall fi where K, <1. Ifa rainfall of constant intensity J and duration t, oan at a al, time when the storage is S,, write an equation for the change in stor the basin, Solve that equation and obtain the discharge as a function of time resulting from the deseribed rainfall input, | 10. Go to your library and find recorde of precipitation and streamflow for a nearby river besin. In the United States, precipitation records are published by the National Weather Service. Streamflow records are published mainly by the U.S. Geological Survey. 11. Figure 1.2 showed s global water balance, Rank the balance from least to most uncertain. Give your reasons. 12, Given that groundwater is so eburdant, why is it not the main source of water in the world? 12, Ibis acoptd that ifthe iczaps were fo mel, lange porioas of tho earth land surface would flood. What-does this tell you, in general, af the! land ee? How much would the ocsan slave rise if its area did not change after the icecaps melt? 114, Given the amount of frosh watar on earth, why are there droughts? ° pments of thoChapter 2 Solar Radiation and the Earth's Energy Balance | 2.1 intRobucTION sho bv lke eie pips fle by saint ery from the sun. In fact, all of earth's processes are dependent mostly on folar radiation, with a secondary tole played by beat sourees from within the ‘arth, In hydrelogy, we are interested in events within the uppermost layer of fhe earth's surface and in the lower layers of the atmosphere. The dominence of solar radiation at those levela is unquestionable. Figure 2.1 summarizes the energy flow ofthe earth. | ‘The distribution of radiation over the globe end surrounding atmosphere leads to heat. imbalances that drive most hydrologic und meteorologie avents, Tn this chapter we will study how plznotary geometry and,motions| affect radiation incidence, leading to an ureven distribution of energy over the flobe, and how to quantify the amount of radiation received and emitted by the earth and its atmosphere, | ‘The main fact to remember throughout this chapter is that radiation is absolute temperature-dependent, All objects with a temperature emit/radie- tion: The detaila of this dependence will be eeen soon. Nevertheless, at this point itis important state that the sun at a temperature of 6000°K Tdogreos Kelvin) i the inain radiation source of the earth. Hotter bodies, suck tr other stars, are to far away to play a role in earth’s radiation balance, Given thet the earth and atmosphere also have a temperature (~=287 0, thoy will slo emit radiation. The net exchange of incoming solar radiation 9 EERE EEE EEFIGURE 2.1 Enorgy-fow daa forthe earth as a whcle in magawats ct power per yea {lhustetion by Willam M. Marsh.) Soures: WM. Marsh, Earthscape: A Physical Googra phy. Copyrigns © 1987 by Wiley. leprintod by permission of John Wey & Sons, In. send outgoing terrestrial radiation is critical in hydrology. Figure 2.1 advances some of the nature and magnitude of this exchinge. ‘Béfore éxplaining the details we must establish our units of measure- ment, Temperature will always be given. in degrees Kelvin (*K). Degrt Kelvin are obtained by adding 273.15 to temperature in dogrece Contigras ‘The relationship between degrees Kelvin, Centigrade, and Fahrenheit is summarized in Table 2.1. In converting from degrees Centigrade to degrees Fahrenheit and viee versa, remember the following equations: °0 = (F ~ 32) x 5/9 en "P= (9/5 x °C) + 82 @2 Rediation rate is measured in units of enetyy, usually per unit area and time. The Systeme Internationale (S.L.) for units recommends joules for energy (J), square meters (m°) for area, and seconds (3) for time. Therefore, ‘radiation is given in Js" A joule is equal to one unit of force, a newton (), applied over 1 meter, In turn, a newton is equal to 1 kilogram of mass ‘multiplied by an acceleration of 1 moter per second squared. Power (energy per time) is alo given in watts (W), defined as one joule por second. ‘2.2 PLANETARY NOTIONS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF RADIATION 24 SABLE 21 Hay Temperatures onthe Centigrade, Fabre, nd Kevin Seales 7 a « ‘Absolute zoro wg6 450670 ‘Normal freezing point of HO" 0 32 MB.6 Normal boiling point of H,0* 100 au. wrB.18 *Atre lvel Sour: WML Marth and J, Doser, Landiepe: An Introduction to Piysial Sepp, rate © sb ier Raita yr ob doh ‘A large body of literature, scientific and engineering, stil prefers to ase te concept fa cnlorie (et) to represent ener. A ealrie is 4.186 joules. ics nore 2 joe is 6.238 calories), Racation per unit area is commonly given in terms of calories per square centimeter (eal em ), One calorie per ‘square centimeter is called a langley (iy). The rate of radiation incidence then appears as langleys per second | ‘(ys”), langleys per minute ‘Gymin™) or lang- leys per day (ly day”). Pe eee eee eee 2.2 PLANETARY MOTIONS AND THE DISTRIBUTION ‘OF RADIATION ‘The earth~atmosphere system receives a small portion of the sua's total energy (radiation) output, afraction equivalent to about 2 % 10 * of the exit- {ed solar radiation per unit area. Basically, the earth is a speck in the part of the universe influenced by the sun. The portion of solar radiation output that we receive ip of reasonably constant intensity, This intensity, at « plane fon the upper atmosphere perpendicular to. incoming radiation, is about 1353 dono, or 1.94 cal em *main-*. This number is called the Bolar constant and is commonly approximated as 2.0 celom{*main"? (2.0 ly min’. But since thé enrth is approximately'a sphére, which rotates on # tilted axis while revolving around the sun, the intensity of radiation received at a plane tan- gent to the top of the atmosphere varies in time and from one location to another. "At any given time, af some point on earth the sun will be directly over. head, so that-a line connecting the centers of earth and sun will be perpen. dicular to a plane tangent to the earth-atmosphere surface at the poiht of {nterest, The latitude at which Uhis occurs at any one time is celled the decl- ration of the sun 8. Figuro 2.2 is a brief review of Iatitudes (parallels) and Tongitudes (meridians) that constitute the earth's coordinate system. Moving ahBade og ae att rnaune 22 Gntttg tos of ate, Unga, and means (0) the eu is EGURE 22 Corea anges eats mesued rower! a sour foe ted aon ag proce (Theo fey lcafon prevents Wenge xu wh oe uta, to orto of tho eth, anh oeten ono eas ote ag a tudo te pina be egal pare, wih bo utes Mt een cra) Snare ro gemetealycoweren oe iat nef on Reel Gooontoy, Goon gana tebe. a0 Teh toa, to peo Malan) Evoy moran a of ea cole re tea ee ator ose Cran Moon, Wich € ut rs Futiscape:& Pye Gograty. Cont © 187 By lng Soe ron ote ly Som re 22 2.2 PLANETARY MOTICNS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF RADIATION, 23 away from the declination Iatitude implies that the earth—atmosphere sur- face is then at an angle relative to the plane perpendicular to solar radiation, ‘When projected to the surface of the earth the solar radiation (solar constant) ts spread over a larger area leading to lese radiation per unit aren at the sur: face, This i illustrated in Figure 2.3. If we denote the angle of the incoming radiation with a tangent plane at come point on the earth~atmosphersi sur- face as a, then the radiation per unit arva per unit time, or the intensity, will be given by : J,= W,sin a, es where W, is the solar constant, I, is the offective radiation intensity at the point of intarest, and sin a is called the solar altitude. The radiation intonsity 1,38 also called insolation at the top of the atmosphere. Trthe earth's axis of rotation were perpendicular to its plane of revolution (@ plane across the center of the eurth and the sun at all times during the 365.242 days of revolution) then a, at local noontime, would be 90° ~ here @ is the latitude of the point of intorest (see Fig. 2.8). Furthermore, there would be no seasons, since all points on carth (given the 24-hour rotation) would be illuminated by the sun an equal proportion of the time throughout the year. On such an earth, it would be colder (less radiation intensity) as we move toward the poles, but, ignoring all other factors, the temperature would tend to be uniform throughout the year. The earth's axis of rotation, though, is inclined relative te the plane of revolution. The imclina- tion is 23°27 off the (vertical) line perpendicular to the plane of revolution.| (24 CHAPTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANDE 12.2 PLAMETARY MOTIONS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF RADIATION 25 ‘This in illustrated in Figure 24, During the winter solstice for the Northern | | Hemiptera snes 2 th eatin ‘of the sun is 23°27" south, its southernmost position, At Uae opposite end ofthe revolution, the doclina- tion is 28°27" north (in the Northern Hemisphere). This is called the summer |__| seit, whieh cours arsund June 22 At the autumnal elember 22) onl ‘vernal (March 21) equinoxes, the sun is directly over the equator, a 0° ds nation. Therefore, the sun is moving dow toward the equator between the summer solstice snd the autummel equinox. It continues going down until | | the winter solstice, ater which it starts the trip upward toward the north. |_| ett northern od nator dination arc th Tope of Caner ani the Tropic of Capricorn, respectively. 7 | ‘The variation of declination with time implies that 1. The projection of a plane perpendicular to radiation pn a plane tangent to | the surface is varying in time since the solar angle, the angle between j the noon sun and the horizon, is changing with the seasons. 2, The duration of daylight is also varying, implying that diferent locations receive different total amounts of radiation, resulting in seasonal climate patterns. ‘The second point is illustrated in Figure 2.6. At the equinox with a dectina- tion of 0 the heraispheres have exactly 12 hours of daylight and night. At the ) | winter solstice the North Pole and Arctic regions never seo daylight, while the South Pole is constantly illuminated. Points near the North Pole have very short days, since they aro exposed to the sun for limited segments of | their rotational circles. During the summer solstice the opposite effects arc |] observed, FIGURE 2.5 Potions of the earth urinated by the sun atthe solatices and oquinoxes. Sovce: W.M. Marsh, Eathscape: A Physioal Gaography. Copytight © 1987 by Wiley. } Reotinted by permission of Jonn Wiley & Sore, Inc | Radiation at the top of the atmosphere is finally dependent on the hour anglo of the oun; thet is, the position relative to solar nooo. Using planetary / geometry (Bagleson (1970), ibis then possible to deduce the following expres Ae x Son toler alte, ip Bg 3) FIGURE 24 The evoilon ofthe eat and the soso Note that th angle of ination sina = sin 5 sin © ¥ cos 8 cos Par, as Ofte eats ane ls he sue nal soogons. Souron WIM Marsh, Earthscap: A Phys ‘ al Geography. Copyight © 1967 by Woy. Roped by pormision ct John Wie & whore 6 isthe declination of the sun, © is local latitude, and + is the hour ‘Sone, nc. Adapted from Byers [1874] rie Be in detain theo nari ore || |la6 charren 2 /SOLAA RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE \yoar (List [1963). Curtis and Bagleson (1982] quote an approximate fornmuls rom tie Tennessee Vallay Authority (TVA) [1972)- 250 [2 are -v)}, an 180 where D is the Julian day (1 = D = 365 or 366) and 8 is in radians. ‘The local hour angle, 0 = 7 == 860, is given by Curtis and Eagleson [1982] a5 ae matectod, pa (Bet I2-AN FATS eo) | hen the sun is east ofthe obsorver's longitude, cr | eo Mega r=@,-B-anr atx ¥ en -| when the sun is west ofthe observer's Iongitude. To determine position of the | JR Telative to the observer, keep in mind that Toca time is given in terms of | Mie Ioagtade defining the thre ene, For ‘example, if your time zone | Seine at 75° west longitude and you aro at 72 wet, then at eal noone | She sam ha passed your potion iti at 76°W or & woot of yor postion | ‘This will be made clesrer in Exazaple 2.1. The above equations are valid only for values of 7 such that cos 1 is positive. in Eqo. (2.6) and (2.7), Ty is the standard time in the time zone of the observer in hours counted from midnight (0.00 28.60). AT, is the time dif- ference between standard and local longitude in hours given as i AD, = 7g @o~ 0)» es) here i = —1 for west longitude and i = 1 for east longitude, relative to Geesich, is the longitude of the standard meridian (meridian where the | eeceiuse tie zone is centered), and 6, is the longitude of the observer | easeslan’ Finally, AT; is the difference betwoon trae eclar time and meen | Solar time in hours, which is usuelly neglected “TVA [1972] suggests a modification of Eq. (2.8) to account for the ellipti- | cat nature ofthe ear orbit arourd the sun which leads ovarinble distance from the sun, They suggest reMane an whore ris the ratio of actual earth-sun distance to mean earth-sun distance, given by 0) £22 PLANETARY MOTIONS AND THE ASTAIEUTION OF RADIATION. 27 In order to compute incident solar radiation over a given finite period ‘At = ty ~ f, Bq, (2.9) can be integrated, keeping 5 and ® constant over At ‘The rebult (IVA [1972) is, Ww, FG, ~ &) sim 8 cin @ + 2 eos 8 os Opin) ~ sin} 0 ‘The net result of planetary geometry is the pattern of total daily radia. tion at the outer edge of the atmosphore shown in Figuro 2.6, The most significant features are the relatively constant radiation near the equator land the inereasing seasonal variation as we move to the poles. ‘Radiation at the outer edge of the atmosphere is significantly altered ia ita journey to the land-sea surface, It is reduced by reflection, refraction, and absorption by atmospheric constituents, The atmospheric moisture of clouds is particularly effective in absorbing soler radiation, The following section ‘will discuss how to quantify all these effects, ‘Average annual radiation received at the earth surface is shown in Figure 2.7. Note that radiation at the oguator is lower than at the subtropics ‘This isa reflection of the persistent cloodiness of the region, which can eff tively reduce radiation by as much as 50%, FIGURE 2.6 The variation in tla dally solar relation at th outer edge ofthe amosphere. (itustration by Jet Dozior) Source: W.M. Warsh, Eathscape: A Physical Geography. (Copyright © 1887 by Wey. Reprinted by pemission of John Wily & Sons, Inc| FIGURE 2.7 The worlduide dlctributon of solar radiation in ions of joules per square | ator per yan kocalros po sure cota pa yer, Sorc HM. aren Earthscope: A Physical Geography. Copyright © 1987 by Wiey. Reprinted by permission ‘of dohn Wie & Sone, In. Map ptojéction by Waldo Tober. Data rom, Bucy (1874) ‘The unevenness of inepming solar radiation, eoupled with nonuniform radiating properties of the earth's mantle, leads to the radiation budiet shown in Figure 2.8. The latitudes near the equator have a net radiation ‘gain, The higher latitudes exhibit a radiation deficit. In order to maintain @ {lobal energy balance there must be mechanisms to move energy from the Tower to the higher latitudes. ‘Winds, ocoan currents, and water vapor play these carrier roles and will be discussed in Chapter 3. The magnitude and nature of the energy transfers ‘occurring by latitude are shown in Table 2.2. . EXAMPLE 24 ‘Computation of insolation . ‘The Commonvrealth of Massachusetts is centered at around 42° north of the equator and 72 west of Greenwich, Nassau, in the Bahama Islands, is 25° north of the equator arid about 78° west of Greenwich. The sharp temperature difforences between the two places are known to all those who snow ski-in “Massachusetts and water ski in Nassau. Local temperature is related to jnso- Tation, 9 lot us find its value at Teal noon on a typical January 1 in both places: - i 8 i LR: : timabeee a a No : ut | LL) i a5 FIGURE 2.8 Disbution wih fattude of absorbed and outgoing radiation. Curve | ews the solar radiation absorbed by the earth and almosphere; curve I, shortwave and long: ‘rave raciatonloeving the almoephere, The sceing ofthe lallude axis is roprsontatve of the areas on the earls surface, Source: WML. Marsh, Eathscape: A Physical Geography. Copyright © 1987 by Wile. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ‘TABLE 2.2 Components of the Fnergy Balance at the Earth's Surfaco (Mean Values in keal per em? per Your) CONTINENTS © BARTH AS A WHOLE OCEANS umm: “RB 7S 2 8 7 OR 8 TS RON 8 % 16 2 D @ 6 MM 9-8 60-50 2 99 16 2% 3) 19H 90 2B 18-1 50-40 Bl os 6 16h BAB BT OT 40-80 8 66 18 16 «DB a7 13 89 2B WB 9-20 «113, «105—'=« BTM mio | 9s) TLD] d2_ 1G: BL_ S10 10-0 ms 804 oBLOCAB HST ots sk 4 BO MOS HL 1020 «3 104 4B '8D OB 20-30 «10L- «100 «7-8 10 «8A BD 1B 4 30-40 2 80 9 TRB MO 40-50 bys 9 TLD BG BOD =E 50-60 2% os 8 -l & 2 1 2 MM 8) “I ‘ial 2 & 8 0 @ % “A Bo 2 0 = net radition balance, 1B = lou of beat by evaporation. {P= ‘orbulent heat transfer. ‘5 © seditribation of eat by ocean currents, Sem: WL. adr, Cliete Changes 27,9 98. Cage by th Ameren Geophys tal Usion 297 30 CHAPTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE, Begin by finding the declination angle, using Bq, (2.6), which is only a function of the date (end year to be exact). The Julian day of January 1 is 1. Raghu 23.45 180 = -0.4 radians | or 229° south of tho equator. The soni, 2s expected, very neat its southern | ost position, the Tropic of Capricorn, at 28°27" south ‘Global tine le generally measured relative t9 Greenwich, England, at | mention Ur very 15" cant of Greenwich implies a Tead of an hour relative to =~ | GrcenwiuhThere are local variations o this role due to constraints imposed | ty solticel, peogeaphie, and other boundaries. Similarly, there are local | ey eetions, sch oa daylight savings time (Strahier end Strabler (1983). ‘Durung Janvary, both Boston and Nassau are within the time zone cen- | tered at 76° wost of Greenwich; this puts them five hours behind Greenovich | Eine: To find the hour angle, we then use Eqs. (2.6) through (2.8), Using a6), we find the adjustment necessiry to Snd true colar time at the fosa- tion of intrest. Massachusetts: an, = hc5 ~ 72) > -0.2 be Nassau: is — 79) = Fp — 18) = 02 br From Fa, (2.6), ignoring AT,, the hour angle is then: Massachusetts (at 12 noon at the 75°W meridian, the sun is west of the 72°W meridian): 12 ~ 12 — (-0.2)]15 = 3° ‘Nassau (at 12 noon at the 75°W meridian, the sun is east of the 78°W merid- ian}: v2 412 O.aHB ~ 95% ‘The radius adjustment ris obtained from Eq, (2.10) 0+ 001 eof 2089 ~ 3] = 0.988. 2geaniaionemsics 31 ‘The solar altitude for Massachusetts (Bq, 2.4) is then sin a= sin(-22.9% sin(42") + cos(—22.9") eos(42") cos(S") = 042 For Nassau, the solar altitude is sin cc = sin(-22.9") sin(25") + cos(—22.9°) cos(26") cos(857) = 067, ‘Using Eq, (2.9), the insolation in both places is Massachuseits: 20.42 = 0.87 lymin* Tass ly mit Nassau: T= 259087 = 189 ly min © aay 87 88m 2.3 RADIATION PHYSICS ‘There are several basic laws that must be understood in radiation studies. ‘The first one is Kirchhois law, which says that at thermal equilibrium the ratio of radiation intensity (radiation per unit ares per unit time, emiasive power, emittance, or radiant flux density) W, to absorptivity a, is equal for bach body in equilibrium. Two bodies in en insulated box, onco in thermal equilibrium, will satisfy WoAi,=WAxy West, = Wess 7 en whore Wp is the box radiation intensity and A, is the surface area of body # Equation (2.12) leads to the Kirchhoff lew statement, in thermal equilibrium, www, 213) ‘A body with absorptivity of 1 is called a black body. The ratio of the emis- sive power of a body to that ofa black body is called the emissivity, B. Emis- tivity and absorptivity are equal under thermal equilibrium. Planck's law gives the distribution of radiation energy from a black body at different wavelengths, All radiation, as commonly known, has varied82. CHAPTER 2/ SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EAATHS ENEROY BALANCE, :| wavelengths. Define Wadd as the radiation intensity of a black body at Wavelongth band dh, such that [me ‘where Ws is black-body radiation intensity. Planck's law states =Ws, ao Way _ 2ehc*T-* . eo ar 215) Te ema T where ¢ is the velocity of light (2.998 x 10" cms, h is Planck's constant (6.625 x 10° Jo), & is the Boltzmann constant (1.98 % 10 J°K™), and 2 is ‘wavelength in centimetars. Temperature T is in degrees Kelvin and Wa, to bbe consistent, mast be in joules per cubic centimeter per second (Jom *s~) or radiation intensity por wavelength. Figure 2.9 shows the spectrum of thermal radistion from a black body. ‘The maximum of the spectral distribution of radiation intensity oocure at the point AD = 0.2898 em*K = 2698 micron “K. e0 see gees a8 8 FIGURE 29 Spoctrum of thonmal redation trom a black body. Source: W.H. MeAdams, Host Transmission, rd ed, McGraw-Hil, 1954. Reproduced by permission. 2anapinnionssics 38 ‘The above shows that the wavelength of maximum intensity is temper- ature-dependent, since as T varies must change to keep their product con- stant. A gray body radiates a fixed proportion of a black-body radiation in all ‘wavelengths for a given temperature. "The Stofan—Boltzmann law ia probably the most important for applica- tions. It atstos wy f° where o is a constant 0.826 x 10~ calem~*min-**K~‘ (6.67 x 10°* ‘Jms-"K-9, In other words, the radietion of « black body is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature (in degrees Kelvin) of the body. Based on the above, the tatal energy emitted by the sun is on the arder of 100,000 Iymin", The solar constant, taken as 2 lymin", is but a smell frac- tion of the total energy emitted. ‘As implied by Eq, (2.16), the highe- the temperature, the shorter are the ‘wavelengths that. dominate radiation intensity. Radiation is thon corihorly divided in shortwaves and longwavos. The sun emits shortwave radiation ‘with the wavelength spectrum shown in Figure 2.10. The spectrum of long- ‘wave emissions from the earth is also shown in the figure. Ws, LdQr) =o, ein EARTH at 180) Des 1318 18 20 10 20 39 a0 30 00 Fraction waver monet (ions) Cl ——— — ——“sorrwave + ——toawave FIGURE 2.10 Tho diatibutlon of intonstes of raclation produced by the sun andthe earth. “The vertical axis represents radiation intorsity of output; the Morzontal axs, in micro meters, represents wavelength. Solar raciaion is concentrated around 0.5 jm Gotween the ullreviolet and infrared wavelengths, wheroas earth radiation is entirely inrared. ‘Source: W.M, Marsh and J. Dozier, Landscape: An Inroduction t2 Physical Geography. ‘Copyright © 1986 by Wiley. Reprinted by permission at John Wiley & Son, Inc34. CHAPTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE ‘As sean in,Gection 2.2 (Eq, 2.9), the radiation intensity received at the surface of the outer atmosphere (insolation) is less than the solar constant due to the angle between the surface and the incident radiation. At the Tand-cen surface the net radiation is even less. The incoming insolation reflected, refracted, and absorbed. Furthermore, the earth’s surface re- radiates some energy, The following paragraphs will present methods for quantifying thie radiation exchange. 2.3.1 Shortwave Radiation Shortwave radiation, mostly resulting from the high solar temperatures, is scattered and absorbed when passing through the atmosphere. The most com= monly used formulas for quantifying these effects are mostly empirical in nature, As such, many alternative expressions ean be found in the Litera ture, Here we give epproaches compiled by Eagleson [1970] and Curtis and Fagleson [1982]. The following paragraph is as given by Curtis and Eagleson (1982. Klein [1948] and TVA [1972] obtain the clear shy shortwave radiation, I~ after accounting for etmospherie effects, 28 1,_o! + 05(1 ~ a’ ~ 4) - 08d, ae i> 1-058, o +4.) a! = expl(0.465 + 0.194u) (0.129 + 0.171e-*#*"F)]Mg em w = expl(-0.981 + 0.09417,)} 20) ry = m((258 ~ 0.0065.3/286°=2)°"° oz m= [sin a + 0.1500(0 + 8.885) "7 * 7 222) d=d+a, 220 whore a’ is the mean atmospheric transmission coefficient for cloudless, dust free, moist air after scattering only; w is the mean monthly precipitable ‘water content in centimeters; T, is the mean monthly surface dewpoint temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit, measured at the 2-meter level; m is the optical air mass, dimensionless; m, is the elevation or pressure adjusted opti ‘al air mass, dimensionless; 2 is the elevation in meters [of the point of intor- ttl; a is the solar altitude in degrees; d is the total dust depletion; d, is the Sepletion coefficient of the direst solar beam by dust absorption; d, is the de- pletion coefficient ofthe direct solar beam by dust scattering; and R, is the to- tal reflectivity of the ground. TVA [1972] provides a summary of total dust dopletion coefficient at different localions and seasons as a function of optical air mass, m (or relative thickness of air mass). Table 2.8 gives typical values, Other references are Kimball (1927), (1928], and [1930]; Fritz (1949); Bolsenge [1964]; and Reitan {1960}. ‘ABLE 2.8 Total Dust Depletion Cooteiert WASHINGTON, Do. ‘MADISON, WIE, EINCOLN, NEB, ABON med mad om=lek med med Winter = 043 z 0.03 i 3 Spring 009 0x8 008 0.10 0.05 ox Summer 0.08 010 0.08; 0.07 0.93 0 Full 0.08 on oor 0.08 0.04 ‘ours: Adapted from TVA (1972), Walter O. Wunderlich, Tannese Valley Autborly Eagt Dearing Laberetry. Summatied by Bolsage {1964) and Uased on data by Kimball [987 ie Labret 11964 sb sed om data hy bal 198, An alternative to obtain clear sky shortwave radiation is given by Eagleson [1970]. Atmospheric absorption and scatiering is approximated by sxpl—(ay + ay + ag)m] = expl—an), 29 ‘where m is the optical air mass given by Bq. (2.22) or approximated by the cosecant (/sin a ofthe solar altitude a under 1 standard atmosphere. Coefi- cients @;, ay, and a, correspond to molecular scattering, absorption, and particulate seattering, respectively. Bquation (2.24) is also expressed as Le) das exo(-nam), where n ia (o,/,), turbidity factor of ar that vasies from bout 2.0 for clear ‘mountain air to 4 or 5 for smogity urban areas. ‘The molecular seattaring coefficient, is defined as a function of the affective thicknoas of the atmosphere, 4, = 0.128 ~ 0.054 logis m . > 226 Curtis and Eagleson [1982] point out that the form of Eq. (2.25) should nly be valid for radiation at a singio wavelength (TVA [1972). Nevertheless they argue forthe simplicity of its use. Cloudy skies further reduce total net radiation at the earth's surface. Absorption and scattering by clouds cen be significant, depending on cloud ‘ype, thickness, and eltvation. “Bagleson [1970] quotas from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1956] the following relationship to obtain net rediation I; after accounting for clouds, Le -a-_N, @an € ctouds| 96 crweten 2 (SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE || where xis the fraction of cloudless sky insolation reveived on a day with | rrereast cies end NV fs the fraction of sky covered by clouds, which takes « | Satu offer eompletaly overcast skies. The factor X is obtained asa function ct the clouc-base altitude ascording to the formala, eS ee am | where 2 is the cloud-base altitude in kilomoters, The above is a close epproxi- Tnation to the English-unit equation given by Bagleson [1970]. ‘Gurtis and Hagleson [1962] point out that the difficulty in using 12g, @.27 lies in the nature of the available data on cloud-base elevation Cloucbase altitude is only reported when N > 0.50 and for lesser values itis (ven as “unlimited ceiling.” A simples relation, not dependent on = is given by the TVA [19721: & ik ‘The above equation may overestimate attenuation as N approaches 1 for high ‘and thin clouds, To avoid this problem it is recommended to use total opaque SRoud cover instead of cloud cover, This parameter is usually reported in || stations that tneasure cloud cover. ‘Vegetation also reflects and absorbs incident net radiation, If; is the | radiation above the vegetative cover, the net radiation on the ground Tevel can be oblained using, ~ 0.85. a2) Tg Kl, < @s0) where Ris « tratsmission coefticiont function of density, type, and condition | Srevetatinn. Tuble 24 and Figure 2.11 give some values of K, for grass and & | Forost canopy. . | ‘TABLE 24 Typical Extinction of Inspation by Grass | THBIGET OF GRASS am Shem em | ‘Source: Data from 0.G, Sutton, Micro- meteorology, MeGrav-Hill, 1965. d ‘Bispocd Sen Bago (1970 2anaoumioneHyscs 37 of Behe 3 : g i | Shoes oes [FIGURE 2.11 Tranemiscion of insolation by coniferous forest canopy. Canaby density is {hs poroeniane of forasiod erea the! i covered by a horzontal projection ofthe vegetation anopy. Souroes: U.S, Army Corps of Engines [1866] and Eagoson (1970) ‘Albedo is the ratio of rellected radistion to incident r Q i ‘The average albedo for the earth is 0.34, although each individual wiate- rial end surface shows a different value (Table 2.5). Albedo of water surfaces A oan TABLE 2.5 Albado of Natural Surfaces SURFACE ‘ALBEDOA SURFACE ALBEDO A Wit oo ig 29 one generis wats | | Black, dry soil 014 Winler wheat 016-028 : ‘Black, moist soil 008. Winter aye 048-023 i Geay, dey soil (025-080 High, dense grass 0.18-020 \ Gray, moist soll 010-012 ot | ‘Blue, dry loam 035 Ble, moist loam 016 l Desert loam, 029-081 | ‘Yellow rand 035 i ‘Write sand 034-040 0.30-0.22 River sand 043 Rice ficlé Bright fine sand 037 Letince Rock % —oan01s Boots Dentoly urbonized areas + 0.15-05 Potatoes Snow (soe Figs. 2.13 and 24) 040-085 Heather Sea ice 036-050 Sourse Bagieon (19701. oo etn tims sam oa| 1 gp ere 279.08 TIN ARTIS NT BALANCE al 0% che T Seated coats] | oss areaie som s| ine ue i 2 a a Ay Me tego i sun cloud cover and solar altitude Fig. 2:2). Ovr snow, it decreases wee tn maulative temporature index. Table 2.5 and Figures 2.18 and SUE hen ot ; ro iv nang shorbrave radiation is then given. by = Ade ean 8 (930956 BO 500 AO SOD GOT FOE 800 BO TA00 Sannin of daly wasinun fongeaires sige las somal “F ue 218 Varin flo of eon gua wr amie oronrare indox, OEE US. Amy Compe of Engrears [858 end Eagleson [1370 2a nncinrionrivsics 39 080) — 000} § ow Attest si ke y * oso] [Stes | i I oxo] oe] , a a ne of sw sutace days FIGURE 2.14 Timo variaton in albedo of & siow surface. Sources: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers [1956] and Eagleson [1970} “Effective incoming radiation incident on a water or snow surface suffers fan extinction effeet with penetration depth. For water, this ean be repre ee \ pop LAKES eke - I a ipa pes, 239) whore If is the effective incoming radiation; 1), is the effective radiation at location z beneath the surface; and f apd # are parameters given by Table 2.6. ‘For snow, the extinction formula is, L tr 7 230 where the coefficient J is given in Table 2.7 as a function of pack density. ‘The possible paths and disposition of incident shortwave radiation are summarized in Figure 2.15. EXAMPLE 22 Computation of Shortwayo Radiation Boston, Massachusetts "can suffer days of considerable smog and cloudiness. Tt us compere the net shortwave radiation reaching the earths surface in ‘Boston under smogey overcast conditions (cloud base at 1600 m) and under clear skies, Let us assume, for simplicity, the location, day, and hour given for central Massachusetts in Exeunple 21. |140. CHAPTER / SOLAR RADIATION AD THE EARTHS ENCROY BALANCE ‘TABLE 26 Extinetion Coefficients in Water Eee ‘CONDITIONS. eke Pre water* oes 0.052 ‘Clear oceanic water* 064 0.081 ‘Average oceanic water’ 0.680.122, ‘Average coastal sea wotar 0.690825 ‘Tarbid eonstal sea water — 0.69 0.425 Distilled water ‘Natural Tight 075 0.028 ‘Mereury-veper Iamps 182 0.60 Infrared lamps 0.80 Natural lake lear (Lake Tahoo) 0.05 ‘Durbid (Lake Cestle) oz Lake Mondotat 0720 "Trout Lake! 1.400 Big Ridge Lake" 110 Fontena Lake 9.980 Biguation valid afer 2 eter “uation valid ser 3 tar. ‘equation valid altar 2 meter "gustion valid aes 0.5 meter. Souree:Adaplad fra Deko and Horlersan (1965 wm (iaT}; and TVA (1972), Waller O. ‘underich, Tennestae Valley Authority Bgi- ‘eering Laboratory. One alternative would be to use Faq. (2:18), but not enough information is given. On the other band, there is enough information to use Eq. (2.25), 1, i= exp(-naym) ‘TABLE 2.7 Extinction Coefficients in a Snompack SNOWPACK DENSITY EXTINCTION COSFIGIENT @ en) mea 0.280 22 O84 a. 0,08 448 0.108 i Source US. Army Corps of Baginoers, (1956) and adapted fom Eagleson 1970) ee [erat _ FIGURE 2.15 Summary disposition of shorwave radalon, Source: Eagleson {1970}. ‘The relative thickoss of the atmosphere m is defined by the cosecant of a From Example 2.1, sina is 0.42. The cosecant (1/sin a) of is m = 2 ‘Assuming that n = 2.0 for clear skios in Boston and using n = 5.0 for semoggy conditions, tho molecular scattering coefficient is 44 = 0.128 ~ 0.054 logy 2.4 = 0.107. ” ‘Therefore, the net radiation under cear skies is, I.= I, expl-naym) = 0.87 exp(~2 x 0.107 x 2.4) = 0.52 lyin", For smoggy conditions, 1, = 0.87 exp(-5 x 0.107 2.4) = 0.24 ly min”iene 42. coneTene/ SOLAR RADIATION AND TE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE ‘Updar overcast skios tho last value is further reduoed according to iq, (2.27) ‘The reduction factor K takes the value, K = 0.18 + 0.0853 x 1500 x 10° =031, which, substituting in Eq. (2.27) with N = 1 results in I= 1{L-@— KINI a1 Kk 24 (0.81) ,07 Ty mine ‘at we had uscd eq, (2.26), the result would have boon 0.08 lyin Clon the peanble reductions in incoming shortwave radiation can be extremely signifieant. # 2.3.2 Longwave Radiation “Apeorption of radiation heats up the earth's eusfaeo, atmosphere, and vonet3> tion, The heatod bodies emanate longwave radiation. \ anewave radiation from clear skies is strongly related to wate: content ctéee S61): Incoming, longwave radiation from the atmosphere wader clear sky conditions is given by tt le op= ose, 235) Hf = Be 0740 + 00040 hore Hg is atmospheric emissivity; Wp is black-body emissive powens qeetion of wir temperature IT, at 2-m elevation; and ¢ is vapor pressure im rmllibars. WiberS j972] and Curtis and Eagleson (1962] cite several other alterne- sivos to Eq, (35) some of them depend only on temperate: Brunt [8921 E,= a+ 0)" 238) ‘Angstrom (1915, 1996]: Ec a-be™ aa Swinbanl (19681: E,=aX10-Tt 2anapimionrirsics 43 ‘TABLE 28 Coefficients of Atmospheric Fmissivity Formulas ANDJACKSON UNE 8 INVESTIGATORSITE BRUNT'S FORMULA e ‘Kimball (Washington, D.C) oa “Angrtesin (Califernis) 050 ‘Andereon (Oklahoma) 048 Eckl (Austria) oat ‘Goss and Brooks (Davis, Calif) 0.86 ANGSTROM FORMULA 2 5 yy m8 “Angstrom Gweden) 0.806 0.288 oans Kimball (Vitginia) oso 0.326 0.154 Heke (Anstria) pmo = 0.240 0168 Anderson (Oklahoma) 1107 0.405 0.022 Linke’s Meteocol, Taschenbuch, Vol. 2, Geest and Pertig, Leipzig, 1958, 0.790 0174 0.08. SSWINBANK FORMULA e ‘Avstvalia/Indian Ocean. 0987 {DSO AND JACKSON Us6a1 e a ‘Phoenix, Aria. 0.281 4a 10-0 “ovrns bln Rom VAG, War 0, Wank, Tne Vly Assent Bune ‘ing Laboratory. aut . {dso and Jackson (1959): B,= 1-0 expl-de7a ~ 7.)') asa) aso [1961 B, = 0.70 + 5.95(10e « exp(1600/T.) ~ eso) for 245°K <7, = 926°K, 3 mb = ¢ = 28 mb. Tall the above e is air vapor pressure in millibars at the 2-m elevation; ‘Tis air temperature in degress Kelvin at the same level; and a, 6, end c are ‘empirical constants. Sample values ofthe constants are given in Table 26. ‘Over snow, the clear sicy longwave atmospheric emissivity is taken as ii _ z, = 0781. eanAA. cnapren2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EATS ENERGY BALANCE ‘The presence of clouds increases longwave radiation, TVA [1972} eaggosts the following correction factor for a variety of conditions. T= KET, en “where coefficient K is related to cloud cover by K=(+010N). es ‘Water vapor in the atmosphere is an effective radiation absorber. Because of this, clouds radiate very much ike black bodies. This is the assumption ee dde indor overcast conditions for atmospheric longwave radiation, Hence, ‘ander overcast conditions radiation may also be estimated as I= oTt, aw ivhore T is absolute temperature of air a the cloud base. ‘Longwave albedo for water is about 0.08 and is essentially zero for all ciher granular surfaces. Net incoming longwave radiation is then given by n yoIt= (i AMM. (2.45) For water, a. (245) becomes If = 0.9708,Tt- (2.46) Yor other surfues the rot loigwave radiation is simply, It=oBTt, (ear) where’, is surface it tomporavure nd Bis defined according to Bas. (2.98) Through (2.40), dopending on alméspheric concitions. “Tee iective longwave back: radiation or the net exchange of longwave pack redhtion between the atmosphere and the earths surface is given by Ryn It Tey eas) where If is atmospheric radiation and J; is surface back-radiation. Water Gmissivity is 0,07. All other earth surfaces are assumed to radiate as black Paice, according to the Stefan~Boltamann law with temperature 7 of the surface. Suminarizing, clear sky net longwave ridiation 's 249) — 2a AKDIATIONFNSICS 45 re Paps Py | eldest sean Mat apts |rsina FIGURE 216 Summary aisposton of longwave radaton. Source: Eagleson {1970} ‘The eect of forest cover on longwave radiation atthe ground surf is considered like that of the overcast sky sitantion,black-body radiation atthe temperature of the bottom of the canopy, 7). Therefore, Ry oft} — BE 250 ‘whore 1; is ambient air temperature and R; is net radiation exchange be: tween solid canopy and surface. The total exchange is then proportioned according to eanopy density, F(0 = F = 1) Ri= FR, + PR, esp Figure 2.16 gives the disposition of longwave radiation. EXAMPLE 2.8 Net Radiatlon—The Greenhouse Eftect Given the radiation data seen in this chapter, you decide to go scuba diving off the const of Nacsaun a Jenviary 1 at noontime. ‘There are, as expected, Clear skies and clear water. You dive toa 10-m depth. Assume that the parcel of water you are diving in is in thermal equilibrium with surroundings and- ~ effectively re-radiatas all shortwave radiation it receives. What, would the ‘water tamperature be?{AG cHAPTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY GALANOE From Example 2.1, the radiation ineident at the top of the atmosphere is L.3@ lymin=* The solar alfitude, sin a, was previously computed as 0.97, hich implies a = 42.1°. To calculate the atmospheric effect on shortwave Tadiation, use F, (2.25). Following the stops of Example 2.2, 128 — 0.054 logy 1.49 119 1.89 exp(--2 * 0.119 x 1.49) = 098 ly min’ ‘the above J. is incident radiation and is partly reflected from the water surface, From Figure 2.12 with a = 42.1, the albedo is approximately 0.066. ‘Therefore, the not radiation at the water surface is Tr .98(1 ~ 0.065) 92 ly min” {In going through 10 m of water, the above radiation is further reduced according to Bq, 2.53). Brom Table 2.8, we may use the extinchion coeflisients efclenr oveanie water. This leads to # ~ 0.64 and b = 0.081 m *, Substituting in Eq, (2.88), Ti, = 0.92{1 ~ 0.64) exp(-0.081 * 10) = 0,5 lyin ‘To approximate the water temperature, assume that it is radialing a © black belly everything it receives. Black-body radiation is given by Ba. (2.17), ‘whieh ean be equated to 0.16 Lymin'* (0.15)/o)", Using o of 0.826 x 10° Lymin"**K"* results in, T= 064K ‘or about ~66,7°C, This is an impossible answer! Where is the error? The in- correct assumptions are many; two are as follows: 1. The layer of water at 10 m is not isolated from its environment: There is ‘heat transport from other layers by turbulent mixing, conduction, and ad- vection, es will be discussed in Chapter 8. rererences 47 2, ‘The upper layers of water serve as insulators of the lower layer. The 10-m layer simply cannot radiate everything it absorbs, since there is # net ‘exchange of radiation and temperature with upper layers that effectively ‘Catablishes a higher equilibrium temperature. Thie “greenhouse” effect fccurs because the medium is solective in the type of radiation that goes through. Shortwave radiation can go through water more easily than Tongwave radiation can go out. This effect is also the one that keeps cour planet warm, with the atmoepaere playing the role of insulator, or the glass in the greenhouse. Withrut atmosphere our planct would be frigid. © 2.4 Summary ‘The study of radiation is necessary to understand the energy balance of the earth. As we have seen, planetary geometry conspires to create areas of sur- plus and deficits of energy. The astailished gradients drive global scale Gnergy transfer processes like winds snd ocean currents, as we will sce in Chapter 3. ‘As toon in Table 2.2, large quantities of energy are also carriod by water ‘vapor, energy absorbed Guring the change of phase from water to vapor. AS ‘ye will study in Chapter 6, radiation is agein the energy source leading to ‘evaporation. At that point the radiation physics techniques seon in Section 2.3 ‘will become extremely useful, even at the level of « specific location. pe reetn eeeet eet reenact eee Pee eee eee REFERENCES Anguizém, A, [1915] "A Study ofthe Radiation of the Atmoepes Mise. Cotte. 650:1~159 dem: (1996) "A Sty of te Radiation Dorng the Seva! International Polar Year "Guckhviny Meddelanden an Statens Meteorological iydology Anstls, 08). Bel Mea Doub Some of Glotel Redation for Closets Ske. Hanover, WHT US. Army Material Cosmond, Cold Regions Research and Bagineering Taboretary (uckaicl report na. 160) Brunt D [19321 "Notes on Radiation inthe Atmosphere.” @. J. R. Meteora. So. ‘360-18 ‘Bulyko, Wo. 1974). Climate ond Lift. New York: Academic Pres. Ta Hatt, Climat Chonges, Washington, D.C: American Ganphytiel Union Bs, Mis o a 11960) "Than Heat alana ofthe Surface of the Barth.” Soviet ‘Geogr Res Transl 163-16 Byers HL 1974, Generel Meteorology th ed. New York: MoGra Hi Ghar $0. and P'S. Eagleson [1080], "Water Balance Seaiee ofthe Bahr Bl Ghazal Song. Ganbridee, Mess: MIT Department of Civil Engincering, Ralph M. Parvo Laboratory. Dacia] report no. 261) Smithsonian.4B CHATTER 2 / SOLAR RADIATION AND THE EARTHS ENERGY BALANCE “Gharney, J.G. (1977), "A Comparative Study of the Bifecte of Albedo Change 18 Declaht in Semi-Arid Regions.” J. Atmos. Set. 4(8)1866-1385. Gare DO, and B-8 Bagloann 19823. "Constrained Stochotie Climate Simulation? “Gporidge, Mess: MIT Department of Civil Engineering, Ralph M. Persons Laboratory. (Teebnieal report no. 274) Dek MK and D-H.E. Hariemen (1966. "An Analytieal and Expert) vt, igo of Thora Stratification in Lakes and Ponds” Cambridge, Meee: ST Departinent of Givil Buginoering. CHyérodynas Baglesen FS, and 8-0, Chan (1079), "Water Balance Estimates of 0 Sadi Triiy eer goelings afte Conference on Water owourees Planning, CUT Teck TaDegeal Planning Program, Cairo, Beypt, June 25-27, 1970 Eagleson, PS. [1970], Dynamic Hiydrolons. New York: Met cade aol “Soles Radiation During Cloudloss Days” Heat, Venti. 46:69-74, ree PTta8r) "A Set of Equations for Full Specrum and 8; 34am and 205° “dium, Thermal Radiation from Cloudless Skis.” Waver Resources Res 19):2095-804. sor Band Bei, Blad (197). “The Bet of Air Temporatare Upon Net and Solar "Radiation Raletions.” J. Appl. Meteorol. 1604-605. ae pen RD, Jecsson (1068), “Thermal Radiation from the Atmombere.” "J, Geophys, Res. 74:5997-6403. Kimiall PHL (1027), "Measurements of Solar Radiation Intensity and Determinetion tite Depletion by the Atmosphere” Monthly Weather Ren. 6§:156—169 Laer (taat"* Arsount of Solar Radiation That Reaches the Surface of the Barth 9 eae aaandion tho Bea ond Methods by Which It Is Measured.” Monthly Weather Re, 55:393. 598, Teen igh), "Measurement of Solax Radiation Intansity and Determinations of Hs “Dopletion by the Atmosphere.” Monthly Weather Rev. 5849-62 in BH UDI) "Caleuations of Solar Radiation and Solar Heat Lond on Man” J, Meteorol. 6():119-129. is RL LISGS), Smithsonian Meteorological Tables. 6th rex. ed, Washington, D.C ‘Smithsonian Institution, Marah: W.ML {1987}, Horthacape: A Phyoicel Geography. New York: Wiley. Marat WME, and J, Dodier (1086). Landscape: An Tntreduetion to Physical Geogra- hy. New York: Wiley. Med HCH, 1984), Heat Tranamisson. rd ed. New York: MaGrow Hi Seen) M, (2962). “Prediction of Temperature in Rivers end Reservoir.” Poe “hin, Soc, Cuil Eng, J. Power Div. No, POR, Paper 8200. Beiter Ge {1960}. “Distribation of Procpitable Water Vapor Over the Continents] ‘Tiited States.” Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 44(2):70- Strabler AN, and AH, Stabler [1988]. Modern Physical Geography. 2nd 8. New “York: Wiley, Sotton, 0.€. [1958], Micrometeorology. New York: McGraw Hil aan 9 SiL0, 1068), "Long: Wave Radiation from Clear Skies” @. J. R, Metro. ‘Soe. Lond. 88:358—4%, tensnatee Valley Authority (1972), "Heat and Mase Tranafer Between a Water Sur” settee the Atmosphere.” Norris, Tenn: Tennessee Valley Authority. (Laboratory ‘port no, 14; Water resources research report no, 0-6803) promens 49 srrewartta, 6-7: [1968]. An Introduction to Climate, New York: McGraw-Hill ‘Trowarthe, GT, and LH, Horm (1980). An troduction to Climate, 6th ed. Now York: "MeGra weil US. Army Comps of Engineers {1956), Snow Hydrology: Portland, Oreg: US. Army ‘Gorpe of Bngineers, North Pacific Division EES EEo CeCe eee eeeea CEE Pesce eee PROBLEMS 1. Find the effective incoming shortwave radiation [? in langleys per min- ‘ute under the following set of conditions: latitude, 16°N; dato, July 10; hoary ‘noon; clouds, overcast at 3000 ft; sir turbidity, smogay; surface, gruss-covered ground. (Prom P.S. Eagleson, Dynamic Hydrology, McGraw-1ill, 1970.) 2. Vapor pressure is 36.1 mb and air temperature is 90°F, Calculate the clear sky not longwave radiation exchange between the atmosphere and a ‘rater surface, where the temperature af the latter ie 85°F. 3. Suppose te albedo of tho panel ect x 0.94 with rspat to sla rai epee Shut tho ourth radiates as black oy, neglect alnespheio oe seroe fhe tarsal radiation, and calealte the earth’ Mackay ‘Sipe Cpa ih empl me of 2 se on ec duanred. (fom PS. Eagleson, Dye Hydrology, MeCra- ‘Bill, 1970.) a 4, Large clouds of dust and smoke are expected to occur in the event of a ms- Jor nuclear exchango. In such an event, the total air's absorption—seattering coefficients @, would be 2. snd 13 for smoke and dust clouds. The net radia- ion 7! will be 10% of the incoming “clear” sky shortwave radiation 1, ‘For the location and general conditions of Problem 1 compute the incoming shortwave radiation in the ground for both dust and stacke clouds, “Assume that the atmospheres ozone layer does nob suffer enough to change the earth’s eolar constant. What are the turbidities of dust and smoke clouds? Comment on possible climatic effects caused by a major nuclear war. 6, Bind the net longwave and shortwave radiation on a Take using the fol lowing infermation: latitude, 15°N; date, July 9; hour, noon; overcast (cloudy) ‘with 3000-1 cloud-base elevation; smoggy air conditions; temperature of ‘Water, 18.38°C; emissivity of water, 0.8; cloud-base temperature, 20°C; albedo ‘of waver, 0.1; temperature of air, 26.67°C; relative humidity of air, 0.85. 46, Assume that the ofirth ie a rotating ephere with an axis perpendicular to line from the oenter of the sun to the center of the earth. What would be the ‘annual total radiation at latitudes 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 90?150 CHAPTER 2 / SOLAR AMADIATION AND THE FARTHS ENERGY BALANCE +1, Discuss what may happen to the earth’s energy balance if all of the Ams: cr ine le were eat and razed to bare soil. How would the global ws. Fenn ime effected? Are there relations between the energy and water Galances? (7 Shulela cance Minto CI $) 8 Ifyou had a photoclctrc cel that converte solar radiation to eect ichy seeee Uiicieney, what arca would be required to produce 1000 megnyatis “Poowers the eqelvatent of a good-sized fos or a madlear power Plant? 9, Discuss and quantity to the extent possible what may happon if the ‘artis axis tilt were to become 30° rather than 23°37", 10, The hour angle ofthe sun ris given Gin degrees) by the simplified expres sions a (fy+12— ST) x15 east of observer's meridian, t= (fy 12 AT) X15 west of observer's meridian, where T5 ~ standard time at observer's site counted from midnight in hours ost <2) A, = 75s ~ 80) 1 for west longitude (relative to Greenwich) 41 for east longitude; 4, ~ longitade of standard meridian, where the cbsorvar’ time ne is centorud (every 15° east of Greenwich adds an bour relative to Greenwich); and 6, = longitude of observer's meridian. 2) Compute analytically the incident solar radiation over & period heat, — f, in hours) ata specific site and day of the year 1). Obtain an estimate of the daily insolation outside the earth's ata” Gitte at latitude © ~ 20°N on the Greenwich meridian and on May 81. {Contributed hy Dr. Angelos Protopapas, baxed on the work of Curtis and Bagleson [1982]) 11, Assume that some chemicals are injected in tho upper atmosphere. The Tianinais are such that they allow the incoming solar radiation to penetrate fey, but do ot ellow reflection from the spl surface to escape back fo SPs. fully, pot het the effective transmissivity of the atmosphere and chemicals is Phat is, tho radiation reaching the ground is & Xf, where Fis the radia prosieus 51 so pres te oy of he hei ner Te eo eh FP tana ofthe chermeal lager Sede Think of «simplified eon jaation like the figure below. a Seeman A atmotere Aon a) Compute the total radiation flux absorbed by the earth. 1) Sketch the total absorbed radiation flux Ry as we change ar ftom 0 to 1. (Hint: oe Pitatatente <0). ‘(Contributed by Dr. Angelos Protopapas)Chapter 3 Principles of Meteorology: The Earth—-Atmosphere System 3.1 intRoDUcTION In the previous chapter we studied solar radiation, tho ultimate fuel of the hydrologic cycle. The uneven temporal and spatial distribution of radiation loads to an uneven distribution of temperature throughout the earth— atmosphere system and, effectively, « lack of balance of energy. All active moteorologic and hydrologic processes originate in order to redistribute ‘nergy throughout the system. The earth end the atmosphere are the medi through which tho energy transport commonly occurs, involving large trans- fers of mass, These transport activities dictate climate and weather as we know it "The extent to which the atmosphere or the earth (land masses and ocoans) dominates climate is unclear. The land masses are mostly moisture sinks and play a somewhat passive, but important, part in climate through topography, temperature, and surface albedo cheracteristics. Vegetation on Jend is also important in moisture recycling through evapotranspiretion, ‘which will be studied in Chapter 6. The oceans and the atmosphere are more tetive participants in redistributing mass and energy. This chapter will con- Contrate on the atmospherie and oceanic activities—subjects of meteorology fand oceanography. The rest of the book will emphasize activities over, on, or ‘under land, which are more commonly related to hydrology. 5354 CHAPTER a/ PANCPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATVOSPHERE SYSTEM ‘This chapter will cover the dominating atmospheric characteristics such as temperature, pressure, winds, and water content of the atmosphere, Ocean currents will also be discussed. Iti intended to provide adequate background for the hydrologic subjects to follow. eae see ese eee eee ee 3.2 COMPOSITION AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The gases surrounding the earth are usually divided into upper and lower at- imospheres, the demarcation being st an elevation of about 50 km, The upper ‘etmasphere plays, a8 far as is khowm, a secondary role to climate determination. ‘The lower atmosphere is where most of the critical mass and encrgy transfers occur: It is usually divided in two parts: the stratosphere and tropo- sphere. The atmospheric layers are defined in terms of the temperature dit- ‘tribution, A typical temperature profile is shown in Figure 3.1, "The troposphere is the atmospheric layer in direct contact with the ‘earth's surface. It is the layer whore most of the energy, momentusn, and mass transfer occur. As such, it is where we observe the development of winds ‘and precipitation on the earth's surface. Monaepore af crucaton ish opts hit Oe) 80-40-20 0 2D la ea FIGURE 3.1 Temperature profilo ofthe atmosphere, with subdivisions. This change in temperature wih alte Is considered to bo typical inthe mile lattudes and ts called the US. Standard Aimesphere. The bounderies between the subdivisions are termed pauses, mearing change, Source: Wi. M. March and J. Dozier, Landscape: An Introduction {fo Physioal Geography. Copytight © 1986 by Wiley. Reprinted by permission of John ‘Wiley & Sons, In. |32 COMPOSITION AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATHOSPHERS BB A few tropospheric characteristics are ‘Variable thickness, 8 km at the poles and 16 km at the equator; Decreasing temperature with elevetion; “Well-defined pressure gradients; Generally well-defined distribution of moisture and suspended particles; and . Sharp velocity gradient, starting ct 0 at the earth's surface and develop- ing over e 2700-m-thick boundary layer that seriously influences micro- climatic conditions. ‘The most common gases in the atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen be- ‘swoon them they compose about 99% of the atmosphere by volume. Table 3.1 TABLE 3:1 Composition of the Atmosphere BY VOLUME as IN TROPOSPHERE, NOTES Nitrogen OND) ‘Tae Oxggen (0) 20.986 Has developed with the ‘evolution of plant life in past billion yoars. Argon (A) os ‘Carbon dioxide (CO 0.33 Only 0.029 in instant contury, absorbs long ‘wave radiation in the 1-6 and 2-14 ym range. ‘Neen (Ne) 0.0182 Helium (Fe) o.000524 Mothane (CH) 0.00018 Krypton (2) o.ano1s Hiydrogen 3) 9.00005 [Nitrous oxide (V0) 0.c09085 _Absorbp radiation above 1am. Important Variable Gases ‘Water vapor (H,0) Oo “Absorbs radiation in the 0.85-6.5-ym range and _ ‘the range Jonger than 4 18 wm. Ozone (03) 9-0,000007 at ground Absorbs ultraviolet Tove (0.00001-0.00002 radiation in upper i steatospbere and atmosphere. smescephere) ‘ounce W.M Marsh end J, Deion Londscope: An Introduction to Physical Geography. Copyright 181066 by Wiley. Reprinted by prmissicn of Joba Wiley & Sons, nc56 crueren a / PANCPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EAATH-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM ives a complete accounting of gaseous components, The so-called permanent eitituente do not show considerable temporal and spatial variations, The Stniable components usually decrease with increasing elevation and vary ‘widely in time and space. saeseecseseeceeee 3.3 TRANSPORT PROCESSES ‘The inequalities in heat balance seen in Chapter 2 drive a series of branspore ‘processes that spread the available energy, 25 well as existing mass and mo, rimctum, over the earth-atmosphere system. This exchange snd transport Secure Hetwoen and within the ceeams, land masses, and alsmosphere. ‘The main transport processes are conduction, convection, and advection. Gonduction is the interchange of molecules between adjacent substances due fe molecular movement. Momentum, energy, and mass can be transported in this amanner. Conduction is characterized by a transport rate proportional and fn the direction of the decreasing gradient of temperature, concentration, oF Mijosity. The proportionelity constant is usually only a function of the eub- stane or medium, "Heat transport by conduction is given by ~haT/dx, on here y ia the rate hoat transfer per unit aroa (heat flux) in the 2 direction; Grae the temperature gradient; and kis the thermal conductivity in calo- ries per degree per cantimeter per second. _yjeMomentam transport i lamina low i given by = -ndu/de, en hore wis local velocity (meters per second); jis the coefficient of dynamic Tyrensity, a function ofthe fluid (newtans per socond per square meter or Kilo- trams per meter per second); and r,, is stress (momentum flu) on a plane ‘portal to z (aewtons per square meter). "Mass transport is given by Fick's law of diffusion, yy = Daz ye, es) where Jup is the mass flux of diffusant in x direction in. grams per square moter per second: C, is the local concentration of diffusant; and Das 38 nelecular diffusivity, e function of the medium and diffusant in grams per meter per second, “Vapor transport in air is partly accounted for by molecular diffusion. Mo- Jecular diffusion also playe a part in heat transport processes. sstransronreracesses 57 EXAMPLES, Shear Stress in Laminar Flow ‘To illustrate transport by conduction, assume you have water at 20°C, with a dynamie viscosity of 0.01 gcm”'s" The donsity of water at 20°C is (0.99821 gem™*. Assume the water is flowing in an open channel with @ veloc ity profile of the following form: w= 100 — 1006", where wis in centimeters per second and zis the depth of the water measured Trom the bottom in centimeters. The gradient of the above velocity profile is du a 100(0,0054)2°°™* = 0,540", Atz = 100 em, that would give, du 4 & = 05158". Uf the flow is laminar, then shear or momentum transfor at z = 00 em will be (using Fa. 3.2), = -0.01(gem"*s7)0.315 =* ~0,00815 gem *s*. # allt Convection may be of a turbulent or a thermal nature, Turbulent con; vecticn renuits from the xandora movements of eddies of various sizes and Titenvitios, Those rotating vortices move about haphazardly, carrying and Gistributing their cargoes of energy, 0088, and momentum, Turbulent convee- Ser gooounte for considerably moze transport activities then diffusion, which fe usually Limited to stationary contitions or laminar flow in fluids. ‘By analogy with diffusion, and resulting from a probabilistic analysis where turbulence is aeon as a random, statistically stationary, component ‘Rporimpoeed on @ constant mean behavior, turbulent convection tales the following forms: For evaporation, a B= - phe ie ) rin tho vr Mo fat apr in lograms pr gee eter et wore th veri vig, vomporal mean mrs of water per Uni sxe Eh i vy in sere els per seo58 cH 19 / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATMOSTHERE SYSTEM ‘and p is the density of water vapor in kilograms per cubic meter. The above ‘equation will be discussed extensively in Chapter 5. For momentum transfer, a peg Cc) whore ris vertieal flux of momentum per unit ares in newtons per square Teter (also shear on « horizontal plane); 0 is the time averaged fluid velocity in meters per second; and is the kinematic eddy viseosity in square meters por sacond. Proportionality factors in turbulent diffusion are not only a fune- tion of medium but also of the system state. "Tho rate of turbulent convection is usually several orders of magnitude larger than that of molecular diffusion, Turbulent,transport plays an impor tant role in the redistribution of energy mass and momentum ovor the earth. Turbulent evaporation leads to moisture recycling as well as tremendous atent heat transfers (gee Section 8.7.1). Turbulent momentum transfer seri- ously influences winds and ocean currents, which are the major advective ‘mechanisms discussed in Section 3.6. “The following sections will describe the spatial and temporal distributions of properties that drive the transport processes. 3.4 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION ‘vue nonuniformity of radiation and beat budgets is reflected in the variabil- ty of tamperatures throughout the earth and the atmosphere. This tempera tute distribution has a great influence on climate as we know it end affects everything from our daily routines to the genesis of precipitation and ovean currents, 3.4.1 Temporal Distribution ‘Usually, air temperature rises during the day and falls at night, the peak temperature lags beltind the peak daily incoming radiation by several hours. ‘This lag is due to the lag in maximum radiation leaving the earth relative to the maximum daily incoming radiation, as illustrated in Figure 3.2. A typical daily fluctuation of temperature is shown in Figure 3.3 for clear and cloudy days, The implication is that cloud cover buffers the maxima of incoming and ‘atgoing rediation. In fact, on any given day the local metoorologic conditions may destroy or even reverse the expected daily temperature fluctuation. The daily temperature fluctuations are, on the average, of larger magnitude over ‘continental land masses than over oceans. An ocean distributes heat more ef- ficiently throughout its fluid mass, thereby preventing large and quick tem- perature fluctuations. ary ts —> ‘Tenpeatre —> Fan ONS | twetone se. —— repeess” Tua oagorg ane (Bes acer FIGURE 3.2 Peak period of daly outgolng longwave radiation. Souroo: After Oke {1878} WM. Marsh and J, Dover. Landscape: Ar Introduction to Physical Geography. Copyright 18 1960 by Wiloy, Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Ine. Degree F Degrees "€ (approximate) 2 6 i is 2 Hour FIGURE 3:3 Dally movement of alr tornperaturé at Washigton, D.C. on cleat and oud ‘Saye The data ropreadht deviations fror tho 24-hour mean. Each curve fs the mean of {days at about the fm ofthe autumn equinax, when days and nights are nearly equal ‘The selected days had a minimum of edvection. Source: After Landsberg (1958), @.T. ‘Trowertha, An nroduetion to Climate, 4h od., MoGraw-Hil, 1968. Reproduced with permission,(60. CHAPTER 3 / PRINCIPLES OF NETEOAOLOGY: THE EAHTH-ATMGSPHERE SYSTEM AVERAGE RECORDED SOLAR, p EMMNEMSRAESRORTR QU, AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AT E PNOVERATERIOD OF VERS RIQSIEGR, Wisconsin oe ee mo Saser Bilder aker ram eles ‘pened 98 yeas E poo z ai 3 4 Lio 3 ecw a a es “PBS ay 68 yg 2 6 g 2oa°3 8 2 2 a ae ‘Week beeing Weck begining FIGURE 3.4 Maximum and minimum temperatures lag @ month ot so behlad maximum EG inimum solar radiation, The sole radiation curve has been smoothed stightly. Soutoo: G. Trewarhe, An Introductin to Climate, 4th ec, MoGraw-Hi, 1968. Repro ‘duced with permission. ‘The seasonal air temperatures also follow closely the annual cyclo of incoming solar radiation. The pattern is illustrated in Figure 3.4. The ob- served lag in peak temperature relative to peak radiation again responds to the delayed peak in the earth's back-radiation, This buffering effect is more significant over oceans or ocean-dominated climates..In such cases, maximum fand minimum temperatures occur in August and February (northern hemi- phere), respectively. On the other hend, continental climates peak in July fand register minimum temperatures in January. 3.4.2 Horizontal Distribution ‘Figures 3.5 and 3.6 give the time-averaged temperature distribution (maps of ‘equal temperature Hines) over the carth for the extreme months of January tani July. The temperatures shown have been adjusted to sea lovel in order to ‘liminate local topographic effects, Except for the deviations caused by laze Tand masses, the isotherms follow the parallels, See to ich ressive equal solar Fuiatoi The effect of continental land masses is particularly important in the northorn hersisphere. The winter-summer drift of the isotherms again ‘oincidas with the general annual movement. of belts of equal radiation in- duced by planetary motion. The maximum temperature occurs somewhat ‘above the equator, possibly because of the cloud effects in that region. The “greenhouse” effect of the cloudy tropics, together with a more uniform an- nual radiation budget, makes this region the one with the smallest termpera- ture fluctuations throughout the year. FIGURE 3.5 Average 20 atures, January, Sour: 6.7. Trewertha, An into 4988. lopeoduiced with permisskon. level tempor Guetion to Climate, sh ed, McGravetih? j Sate MSUTURE DISTRIBUTION 69 the sea-level isothermal mopp shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6, the results the swaps of temperature anoinalies or jganomalies of temperature. These _, Sfaeaut regions with average temperature that are unusually high or Prt es 8.7 and 3.8 are isanomalies for the months of January axd July. The igri: shown rflers tho oceans’ ability, relative lo the land masse, to #89 feats winter and colder in summer. Most significantly, though, are the tus of ocean currents on air temperazure, (A willbe seen in Seckion 5.62, et poual winter warmth of western Burope is due toa war acean current the unt shores, Similary, the lower Uamperatures of western Chile are due along (4. nteretic currents, Tho largo lund mass of northeastern Asia leeds to cal cant negative and positive temperature anomalies in winter and Summer, respectively. 1 the temperatures expe + from radiation received are subtracted from 9.4.3 Vertical Temperature Distribution in the Lower Atmosphere ‘As montioned previously, the troposphere shows a well-defined gradient of 2s mare, wih the higher temperatures ut tho earths surface, As Wow soon go, anospherie temperature is very much dictated by heat from the earth's surface. “Ths temperature variation in the troposphere is reasonably assumed to bbe linear (or piecewise linear) jy. Source: G.. Trewartna At Inoue ‘oGraw-Hli, 1968, Reproduced with permiasion T- re Os oo here TT is ambient temperature at elevation z, and T, is surface tempore weer mo rate of cooling a is called the ambient lapse rate; it usually varies SCkm, — 4P, w lapas Fate plays a tiajor role in establishing the stability or sea-level temporatures, 28 cnalobiify of air masses, which in turn lead to no precipitation or preciPite; Bs sana ctively, Stability hore refer to the ability of air masses fo rie due ge te thermal convection in the atmosphere. They will rise only if theis temper ze aanermermer than the surrounding air. Therefore, the ratiof cooling of fhe 3s ture ie weTMjative to the ambient af, fsa critical thermal stability factor. S ‘This will be discussed in detail in Section 3.8. 2 z ‘Grusually stable weather occurs when the temperature ofthe ait = in creaming with elovation rather than decreasing; this condition is ealled @ = creasing Wrorsion, in euch an atmosphere, any rising (snd therefare cooling) E (gee Section 8.8) air mass will always be heavier than the ambient oi and ining’ft low elevations, unable to condense its water Vapor-voysenuved tam peonporderd 886}

that DY intopation af i, O.18 we obtain P=P, oo|-“* I. ean Density varios are sid with rss aio by he al En 1 ae esi tho troposphere is then even DY ite a 8) p= Figure 9:12 plot typical pressure and temperature distributions, Prseerintncty 90 oe ae oes 6 8 2 ‘yates — ear” So to 50 AO 80 29 eM FIGURE 3.12 Typical profes of wator vapor, temperature, and pressure In the eimor sphere, Souroo: Eagieson (1970)172. cuarteh 3 / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTE-ATMOBPHERE SYSTEM EXAMPLE 3.3. Pressure Distribution In the Atmosphere ‘A warning commonly given to scuba divers is to avotd flying shortly after diving beeaase of the very quick pressure changes that occur. Assume You a°= giliver-pilot enjoying yourself in the eunay Caribbean with ground-level ait femperatures of 27°C. The ambient lapse rate is 6.5°Ckm*. After diving io & soe epth you immediately jump into your single-engine plane and fy to 2O00 sn What is the total change in prossure you endure? To answer the atestion you must find the pressure reduction in going from wor 20 m of Sees ta atmospheric pressure at sea level and then the reduction in moving 3000 m up into the atmosphere. Tho water pressure the diver experiences is nearly hydrostatic; therefore Po pebts whore 2 is depth The donsity of water py is about 1 gom'* and the accelera- Yon of gravity is 9.8 ms. Therefore the undarwater pressure Is (1 gem )107(ag g79) X 10%? m9) 9.86ns"7) * 206) 19.6 x i0* Nm? = 19.6 x 10% mb. ‘The pressure at 3000 m of elevation inthe atmosphere is obtained using iq, (616) with P, = 1013 mb and T,~ 27°C. Ambient temperature at 3000 m is T= T,~ oe 27 — 6.5(8000/1000) = .5°C ‘The dry-air gae constant R is 2.876 X 10° erscc-*“K””. Degrees Kelvin are given by "K=O + 273.15, 0 the lapse rate remains the same in degrees Kelvin as sn degrees Centi- grade. Tho pressure at a 9000-m elevation is then (Ea, 9.16) ara.as + 13) mime tenant Ase He »- walsh) =T2mb ‘The change in pressure from sea level to a 8000-m elevation is then 1018 = 712 = 301 mb. Therefore the diver~pilot suffers 2261 mb (1960 4 801) of total pressure change—about 2.29 atm. 116 AOXECTION BY WINDS AND OCEAN CURRENTS. 73, Bi eee 3.6 ADVECTION BY WINDS AND OCEAN CURRENTS Chapter 2 pointed out that, the higher latitudes of the globe, both northern ‘and southora hemispheres, had radiaticn deficits (amounts of outgoing radia- tion larger than that of ineoming radiation), while the lower latitudes had energy surpluses. ‘The presont temperature distributions on the esrth are possible only with a major redistribution of energy—the tropies must supply energy to the northern latitudes to achieve the anergy bslance. Of all the transport pro- ceases discussed, advection by winds and ocean currents is the only possible method of energy transfer ablo to deal with the magnitude of the problem. 3.6.1 Atmospheric Circulation “Atmospheric circulations are generally of thermal origin and related to the earth's rolation. Also, they closely follow the global pressure distribution. A honrotating earth would result in simply north-south thermal circulation, ‘es shown in Figure 3.13. The warm tropics would induss air messes to rise, Jeaving a low-pressure “vacuum.” The warm masses would circulate along « FIGURE 2.19 Atmospheric‘crculaton pation that would develop on a nonratating planet ‘The equatorll bel would hea intensively and would produce low pressure, which would in tunect into motion a gigantic convection system. Each sie ofthe syst wouk! span ‘one hemisphere. Source: WM. Marsh, Eathecape: A Physical Geograpty. Copyright © 4987 by Wiley. Reprinted by parmission of John Wiey & Sons, Inc7A. caapTens / PANCHLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH ATHOSPHERE SYSTEM FIGURE 2.14 tution ofthe Cros effec. Sua: WM. Mash ane. Coo, Land- 14 Mate > yecalGoography. Copyaght © 7886 by Way. Repteg Py ‘permiasion of John Wiley & Sone, In. the upper atmoephere tothe pols, where they take the pace ofthe cold air fhe woper jriny to replace thera in the tropics. The heavier cold! a HOE aseoy rw hve eurface, In auch nonrotating-earth models, the poles are hhigb-proseure centers. ta el thermal circulation is signiicanty altered by the eas of the die votation: the Coriolis foree and friction of tho lower sr Teaser te earths es surface. The Coriolis effect is really an apparent free Tt wien ttcoan the perception of an observer who moves with 9 rots AOe earth ear holes at an wnattached moving mass. A simple and cleet explanation is given by the folowing example from Marsh and Dosior 13986)" a esonatrate the Coriolis effoct, imagine that you are playing 9 Gi of dase Teepe disk rotating in a counter cloicvse direction 6 3.14] hr pains on the disk havo the same angular velocity Gc he Me umber AL ponte on Ue Minute), but hoso farther from the canter have « 6° a ero eigliy a they travel a grealer distance ia the same anor of time. act eat of tho dart game, to facta must be considered: |) he ‘board is er cia a circular path and will continue to do eo after Yor release the i Spe dart is moving oven before you release Stand wil fete this com- sor of ta velocity afer you throw it, although it will travel straight pone of ak that rotates enuntar clockwise, you will always main She board vine aight, regardless of your position relative to the board.” Figure 3.4 frum WM. Mars and J. Deir, Landtcpe An Introduction o Phil Gvtrophy. Carr, {toe by Witay. Roprsted by perelasion of John Wiley & Sons, Ine- 36 ADVESTIONBY Wn AND OCEAN CURRENTS 75 demonstrates this for throe separate positions of the im Figure 8.14 are as follows: rotation of the edge of the disk over # timo period '; movement of the thrower after the dart is released; movement of the dart board after the dart is released; tive path ofthe dart as seen by an observer removed from the rotat- ing disk; and ‘As apparent path ofthe dart as seen by an observer on che rotating disk: If the disk were rotated clockwise, the Coriolis effect would make the darts tooe to the let. The magnitude of the Coriolis effect dopends on the an ieior veloclty and the speed of the moving objects it always acts op « plane rerpendicular to the axis of rotation. rrrith and Dozier [1986] also explain why the Coriolis effort increases ‘foo tteinely save at tho equator to maximum at the poles, In reality the from pr speed ‘othe sane ot allocations over the earth, go the net Corais rae eee no, perpendicular to the exis of rotation (Pg, 8.15). Neverthe tree oe decompasing the fore in components parallel nd perpendicals 9 de ec ccufar, iti clear thal: the component parallel to the surface dis. seocars at She equator (Fig. 815) Is sis eomponent parallel te he earth's sense thal affecis our peresption of wind directions. Therefore, for our Pu Sates the Corili foree disappears atthe equator, The Coro fores et 18 sree Jeon the northera hemisphere Ge rotates counterelockwioe relative the cbscrver) and to the left in the southern hemisphere, disk, Letter designations yee c-Horzora compare he Coste ecioton eanponert of he Cocos ec FIGURE 3.46 The Coots fect (hea arr is he product of ts horizontal snd Vere! stot te poles, where [ts equal 10 te horizontal campo, ts equal othe vertial component. Source: W. ML Marsh ets a Sgonpo: An trodveton to Physical Geograpy. Copyrant © 1668 BY Wey, Repriied by permigsion of John Wray & Sons, Inc,“76. cxwpTens | PRNGPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EATH-ATHOSPHEE SYSTEM ‘The noed to conserve angular momentum ao alters the idealized scheme of Figure 2.18. ln parca, the cceuating xls extending m8 ‘the equator Sr ees are st pocsble. Also, the doftctin given toe ‘winds by the Coriote force would imply, without proserretion ‘of angular momentum, ‘bands of accelerating air m: ing the earth. : The not effect ofthe Coriolis force and engalar moments sommarized in Figure 3.16, whore a circulatory model over a homegensous smooth sphere shown. The main features are Convergent winds on the equator of easterly evigin, These Convergent in 2 Tan eovergs inthe ow prone belt cede Tauatoril convergence zone also called the ‘iatertropical (equatorial) com vergence sone. a, Areal letitudes we Sind the prevailing westerly winds ascociated ‘with high-pressure centers. eae wide eae ae ewes aman i ) lat Ab Fa ronsnsvocilon =~ pemceertes FIGURE 8.18 tose crouton ofthe almoephore a the ears suiee showing the Principal areas of pressure and bets of 2 iia se Copyright© 1087 by Wey Roped by pemision ot mn wiley & Sons, Inc. ‘a6 AOVECTIONY WINDS AND CCEAN CURRENTS. 77 3; Counteracting the westerly winds are highly variable and relatively un ‘known polar easterly winds. 4. The poleward circulation of tropical air masees is broken into limited gyros, Keaping the banded or tubular structure around the earth Tn reality, the topography and variable thermal effets of the land masses ‘and abe conte farther alter the pattor of Figure 3.16. Figures 3.10 and 3.17 Show the prevailing mean wind patterns in the extreme raonths of January arm ay. Besides the yeneral zonal kehavior already described, the moss ane eaature is the rotating Winds around the somipermanent high and sreteeuren already described in Section 8.5. Rotating winds around lo roeuure points are called cyclones. They rotate counterclockwise tse ero ern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Winds aoe clockwise around high-pressure arcas, anticyclones, in the northore TeeNS nove. The opposite rotation is observed inthe southern homisphere, As tee eittsare contere, these eyelones an antieyclones represent averdges over Jong periods and are of e semipermanent nafre, ‘ike cowiperinanent wind structure of Figures 8.10 and 8.11 do much ‘9 establigh the mean weather patterns over the earth, The tropical easterly cea a convergence rone of air masses of similar temperatures and rand er Tide results in ill-defined contact surfaces. Air is displaced upward, dene indate inflowing mances, resulting in high cloud formations end + ration, This ia why the tropics ere charactarizad by a igh frequency of ‘ratpitation of a showery nature, short duration, and limited exten. hls airs prediction of weather in the tropic fairly difficult. Note that the eRe rteopieal convergence zone migrates northward during the noxsherr Hrvnlephore summer. Because of the Coriolis force and low-pressure een}2rs teieiale latitudes in this season, zhere are somo significant components Stitvopleal westerly winds. This behavior explains some of the well know® cease or wind reversals over continental Hand mastes: Monsoons in south aeaeeee particulary evident in Figures 8.10 and 8.11 Inthe winter, a args setepclone sila over contral Asia, directing winds in an easterly Shion ancy (he Indian Ocean. Tn the swamer, the high-pressure center bas mi tawed northeastwerd Ia ite plac thao ik a more outherly (also migrating rated not) low:preavure center. At the seme timo the intartropical conver, oe dine moves north, The Coriolis free and the cyclonic formation the sees cat reverse wind direction. Tropeal, warm, and moist air flows inte coisas ‘Asia rom tho Indian Ocean, resulting in stormy and wet weather. “The bigh-prowsure gents in idl latitudes also affoct average wee her pattchas is olor way, The easter, iden of the antegclonas usualy brig aa rater air af diveraing nature. This commonly Teads to very low an ce eo eraperature inversions thet prevent rising air and lead to stable strong temPhr ttle procipitation. Some of the major desert regions in the mates rn Sahara in northwestern Africa, the Chilean-Peruvian Desert wee America, and regions of southwestern United States—are on the astern side of semipermanent-anticyclones.ues OF METEOROLOGY: THE| EARTH ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM se anncnon ey wos AND ocean cunRENTS 79 | 78 coyerens /PRNCH nesta on fre rom Gueis trip over the tropical ‘oceans. This leads to canst ible rising eix ‘which yield good amounts ‘of precipitation. ‘This SESE SSE EE owes sie nh recs on th wn side of the ‘anticyclones. Saon apnea tester rn SST “en te orm et See ot vena of a me The mest ae Arforent temperatures and Benaies fe ‘the warrd air to rise along extensive ‘well-defined bounds Eee cS a ce ey ne a eC a ir masses ti ‘a front commonly result in con- la Th weston tc tn fe wate rota or AES Sar a ited ressure, adients, Coriolis force, and friction on the o = ‘The net effect of Pr of pregnte, radeon Ged rlais Se agit votes cst aCe higher leytions, th iene Fey Ow reset: he mv ig tate by a balance bebmata Cot 7 WE Pe ate eramen Sn ned neni SO) of bel eaten preawure. THE CIPS of PStnematieal arguments leading 6 ee t19701 nears of geostraphic “winds is that they move almost ere, paricalariy i regions with ‘portant Cori- Sas * . ee ‘at elevations corresponding 500 eee of sare and ‘higher, there are high-vel locity wit sas gem tates esc rma cose ie shown in Figure 7 Speads of 160 to 240 kur * ere ‘common gen ga ms a othe i 4 streams are ofa ‘wemipermanent ‘nature and play a major role in, grwuntevel id patterns and weather. "The winds exhibit 2 counterclock- FIGURE 2.18 Upper.ar waves on tho jt stroam, which bing parade Cf ry FLOUR sr mare, The typical sequote, cafe an fx oy 8 abe? wont Pe unlting jt () goes ito eves age cetafions 25 North of perigee polar a, ar sth o warm topical a, The en, Se cary tras te Tdi ana flow tts end trp a a the ‘and high lat pola a ro Tend waves re ci of, aang cals of cok he and ces, ray, Be enh (2), Source PS. Eagison, manic Myre, Mere Hi, 1970, ‘wige circulation in the northern Hemisphere, The owilations observed 1 i cece alco tory corr. These istabites ean be Gomer Figure 9.17 9 produced it lboratory experiments Baglsn> [1W701 cr) cxpleingd amd pro nG80). At high levations and high spean the cxoe- Trewartha oMtaet break dows into self-contained ells, asin the sequence shown in Figure 3.18, wo in Figure fluence climate and weatherby moving large mass of cone et Sea ES their associated eat contents, Eneursions of te i emt the lower ltatudes imply the transfer of large cold Bove streams do us effi on tmperatre. These excursions to [ow alitutes wre generally centored around a high-lttude low-pressure cont ‘rough. are generally cy evens commonly develop abe ofthis tough, Sn 8 Gramm ve te iopical wasn ait masses aro moving toward the Poles vane sr apemperatg at alach eets cee rants) Serna ay. Ses eae the eee al Saatchi omne omerrewertha and Horn (1980). The jet stream plays an important sole Creare wot of aycoate evens. At the peak ofthe jt treanls osc | Gon warm at reaches the higher Iatitudes, Whon the et sree ‘breaks into |) an ar ty of cold ait tay be found at lower, oberwige warm latitudes iRise warm regions may be confined to the higher ltitudes || eo. comeruns emacs oF VEEOROLOGY: THE EARTH ATHOSMERE STON | \ 3.6.2 Circulation in the Oceans | Oemn caronie and crclation are dominated by wind fess, cnr rvs Ceca cares tbermal or density currents aro of seesndary nature Wich and ar T davulation pattems, Figare 3.19 shows a theoretical creular the be gr iealized ocean basin limited by an lita boundary. Te pattern jn oy follow wind pattarns and form gyrations and ovuntercorrenis for conservation of mass and raomentur. | forcanery a creation (ig 8.20) every sma, wih the continents | sin tet forcing oveanie gyrations. The establinhed current are SoS ‘ting low rang to the latitudinal path of the water Tho oeean currents FET frelon Ret istrioutors, moving hea othe higher Iatitudes Fo% 8 | | epic sone, With fovorable winds ond contrasting tempore the opie eignicantly olter temperatures and climates en the contincot Soa oan athe North Atlantic current makes western Burope's Winter For example, re od, given its high latitudes. A significant ocean influence sallder them Ooo meatorn coast of South Ameria. ‘The Pore current males FIGURE 3.19 Surface cucents fr @ hypothetical cosan surrounded by land, Bearer i wort Weds . sply: an iroducton to th Marino Envrcrmert. Gopyight © 72 ey Repented by pemiasion of John Wey & Sone, In. March and Dever (1986), rewartha, An intro= on. 968. Reproduced wit permiss £ Ee 8 8 8 g é é i FIGURE 3.20 Generalized scheme of ‘duction © Climate, 4th 60, McGraw-H(82. CHAPTER / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY” THE EARTH ATNOSPHERE SYSTEM the coast of Chile and Peru much colder than expected. The cool California current effectively reduces summer heat in that state. 3.7 ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY ‘The most variable atmospheric component is humidity. It also plays the otar- ring role in elimate and weather determination, with obvious hydrologic ‘offocts. Water exists in the atmogphere in all three phases: vapor, liquid, and solid, It is the vapor phase, though, that is most prevalent in the atmosphere. ‘Ap already seon in Chapter 2, water vapor ia a very officient absorber of radiation and o is very important in the incoming and outgoing radiation balance, Ite movement and phase changes are crucial to earthwide heat and ‘mass balance, Upon evaporation and condansation, ‘heat is absorbed and released, respectively. Since both processes rarely occur in the same location, ‘Vapor is a carrier of energy and mass from one part of the globe to snother. Tt 3s the liquid and solid precipitation of vapor that ultimately controls the land: ‘based hydrologic processes that we will study further in this book. 3.7.1 The Phases of Water ‘The transitions of water between liquid, solid, and gaseous phases are shown in Figure 8.21 as functions of volume, temperature, and pressure. Solid lines represent oquilibrium between phases Dashod lines represent isotherms iat votme #54 og" (ities i samc ss Vie a \ FIGURE 3.21 Tho pheses of waler. Soureé:S.L. Hess, introduction to Theoretical Metoo- flay, Hot insert and Winn. Copy © 1980 y Seymour ‘Hess, Used by a7 arwoseentc Humiorty 83 (equal temperature lines). It is important to study the conditions under which ‘condensation and evaporation may occur Point A in Figure 3.21 is in the vapor region. Moving along the corre- sponding line of constant temperature will result in a volume reduction Gnereasing density) and inezessing pressure. At point B, condensation starts, fand occurs with minimal changes in pressure as the horizontal line implies, ‘At C. all vapor has condensed. Due to the incompressibility of water, fur- ther increases in pressure barely decrease the volume as the nearly vertical dashed lines imply. ‘A rising air mass suffers changes in ambiont temperature as well as pres sure changes. Clearly then, the condensation path is not generally so sizaple. "A particular condensation path—that gt constant pressure—results in the definition of dew-point teraperature. Moving horizontally (from right to eft) in Figure 8.21, along a line of constant pressure while reducing tempera ture, results in a volume reduction. The tempernture at which saturation ‘occurs is called the dew-point temperature (P.). "A few interesting points in the phase diagram are the critical point and the triple-state points. Only at the critical point are vapor and liquid indisti guishable, At the triplestate point, ice, water, and vapor coexist. “Any phase change (represented in Fig, 3.21 for water) results in a release cor absorption of heat, This latent heat does not necessarily change the tem- perature of the substance, but is necessary to meintain the overall energy Palance. Hach state has a different lovel of internal energy and each state change involves some work resulting in density (unit volume) variations ‘Tabig 8.2 gives the signs and nomendature of heat production during the ‘phase changes of water. The sign is postive if heat is absorbed by the chang ing substance. ‘The unite of latent heat are calories per gram (cal g") or joules per Kilo- gram (J kg"). Latent heat represents the amount of heat exchange required for inducing, the state change per gram of subetance. Latent heats are a func- ‘tion of temperature. TABLE 2.2 Latent Heats STATE ‘STATE? SION OF 1 Liguia ‘Vapor T= latent heat af evaporation (vaporization) + Vepor Liquid Ze ~ latent heat of condensation - kee Vopor L, = latent beat of sublimation + ee Liguid 1, = latent heat of melting + Liguie Tee T= latent heat of freezing Gsion) - ‘Sure: Buyeson (1970)184 cxarren / PANCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATWOSPHERE SYSTEM Common approximations ta Jatent heat are (in calories per gram) Evaporation LZ, = 697.3 ~ 0877 = Te Sublimation: DL, = 677 ~ 0.07 a) Melting: Ly = Ly 198.0 where Tis given in degrees Celsius 3.7.2 Vapor Prossure and Humidity Imagine a closed container with equal volumes of water and air at Ube oosmo fonparatare. If the air is initially dry, evaporation will take place. Watts aereeries, vapor, will oscape from the water and into the air. Some of the wiejesules return from the air and condense, but the net effect will be evapo: Titles until the air becomes saturated. Saturation implies that for the given Temperature the air is holding the maximum possible amount of water vapor. ‘Kt this point, the vapor behaves as an ideal gas. From thermodynamics; We Soe thet ine gaseous mixture each component contributes proportionally to the total pressure. So, at equilibrium, the vapor pressure is the maximum ‘ovsible siainable, or the saturation vapor pressure, At this pressure, walt Praporating and condensing through the air-wator interface yields zero not Carat an open aystem, this balance is hard to attain, particularly whee’ other transport methods —e.g., wind—remove the water vapor fom, the aiz Under guch conditions, evaporation will continue, ‘Avalying the ideal gas Inw to Water vapor, we obtain en expression for ‘vapor pressure, RT, 20) where ¢ is the vapor pressure (in milibars) p, is vapor density in mass per wag Golume (gm), Fis absolute tomperatare (assumed the same as that of Tree te mized with) in degrees Kelvin, and 2, ie the vapor gas constant, ‘The vapor gas constent ie Felaled to the universal gas constent, Re (2.9887 cal mol") 2M, 2 ie 20 where M, is the molecular weight of the water vapor, M is the molecular Wueht of dry ais and Pio the dry-air gas constant (2876 x 10° ensec °K) ‘Therefore M gp asst. ase 7 ATMOSPHERIC HMO 85 p= OSG ea) ‘The vapor density p, is also called the absolute humidity of the atmo- sphere. The idoal gas assumption is good under moet conditions, with the Creoption of the point of condensation. A curious and useful implication of fq, 6.28) is that it ays that the density of water vapor is 0.622 that of dry air et the aame temperature T and pressure c. SEP represents the total atmospherie pressure (including only dry air and ‘water vapor) then PS Puy te. 20) "Tho density of tho mixture of dry air and vapor is given by equation (3.25) shows the interesting result that’ moist air is less dense thon ary air af the some temperature and pressure. Pause and think about the ‘meaning of the above statement. “Virtual temperature is defined as that temperature required for dry air to achieve the density of an air mixture (moist alt) at the sunie pressure, Virtual ‘temperature is then Tt = T/(A = 0.878e/P) 22) p, Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the vapor density (or pres- sure) to the saturation vapor density (or saturation vapor pressure) at the same temperature: r= 1002 ee oof > am Note that p, and e, are functions of temparature only. Specific humidity is the mass of water vapor per unit mass of moist air: fn 0.628 gp0% a= Be = pa ~ 00025 - 628 ‘The mixing ratio is the mase of water per unit: mass of dry air:86 charTen.s / PRNCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATIVOS?HERE SYSTEM 3.7.3 Measurement and Estimation of Humidity and Vapor Pressure ‘Saturation vapor pressure can be obtained from tables (see Appendix A) as fa fanction of teinperature, dew point, andior wet-bulb depression (a concept explained later in this section). There are several simple approximations, ‘Over a temperature range of 25 to 55°F (U.S, Army Corps of Engineers [1056)) Gai + 0.3397, ~ 92), in millibars, Gao) as baglecon Gui3 eon 0480 + 0.017, 82) ein inches of meroury, where Tiris the dew-point temperature given in degroos Fahrenheit; Satura tion vapor pressure over water can be approximated within 1% in the range 50 to 55°C (—58 to 131°F) by «¢, = 98,8639[(0.007387 + 0.6072}* ~ 0,000010|1.87 + 45| + 0.001316] ean (Bosen [1960), where e, is in millibars aiid 7 is ambient temperature in degrees Celsius. ‘Seturntiou vapor pressure over ica end water are not the same, being longer over water than over ice for temperatures below freezing. The ratio of over ico and water ie given in tables or approximated by * fei = 1 + 0.009727 + 000004277, 37 svheree, isin millibars and 7’ in degrees Celsius. Aocuracy ofthe above js to Within 6.1% of the true ratio for the range 0 to ~0°C (82 to ~58°F) Bosen 1961). pee “The dow point can be approximated in the température range —40 to 50°C (-40 to 122°F) to within 08°C by 1 Ty~ (455 + OMET)x + 1S + 0.007T HY + 059 + O1TTT 39) sihere T'is ambient temperature and x is the complement of relative humidity expressed in decimal form, z= 1.0 ~ 1/100. Relative bumidity can be approximated from air temperature anil dew point, (Bosen (1958) by (ata) 00 ash 12 + 09T v sr amwosnicnc Humor 87 FIGURE 8.22 Sing psychvometer. The wet-bulb thermometer is covered with the gauze Fock Soutoe: WML Marsh and J. Dozier, Landscape: An Inroducton fo Physics! Geog ‘pty. Copytght © 1986 by Wiay. Reprised by permission of John Wey & Sons, Ine Humidity is usually measured with a psychromoter (Fig. 8.22). This is an instrament with two thermometers. One is e wet-bulb thermometer, coverod wri cloth saturated with water, The other is dry. Ventilated, by rotation or Mihvewise, tho temperature reading of the wot thermometer 7, is lower bo- cance of evaporation, The difference between the two readings is called the SrSttbulb depression. Appendix A gives a table (Table A.2) relating wot-bulb dopreseion to relative humidity. wR simpler and mere emveniont kumidity measurement can be obtained with o heir hygrometer. These instruments depend on human hair or other Tiutinic matarlal that expands when wot and contracts when dry. Although of Thalted avcuraop, these proceduras can be useful in remoto sensing applications. EXAMPLE 84 Distribution of Moisture end Evaporation Our diver-pilot is also a runner, Ho is given the cheice of running marathons fe two locations of equal temperature (T' = 21°C). The diffeyence is that in. the place tho peychrometer shows a wet-bulb depression (7 ~ 7) of FC and Sere cther depression of 7°C is cbserved. Both placee are equally windy 1 Gotherwise similar, Which should be a more comfortable place to run? Tp study the situation we should find where evaporation is larger. Given = 21°C and using Eq, (8.31), we find that e, is about 24.9 mb in both places, ‘The relative bumidity in both locations can then be obtained as a function of ‘wet-buib depression fr8in Table A.2 in Appendix A. The table yields Location 1: 0.75, Location 2: £ = 0.46.BB. CHAPTER: / PAIVOFLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATHISPHERE SYSTEM “the corresponding vapor air pressures are then Location 1: 0.75 x 249 = 18.7 mb, Location 2: 0.45 x 24.9 = 11.2mb. From Bq, (@.4) we know that evaporation is proportional to the gradiont of spesific humidity. Given that the locations are similar and that prossure does not change much with elevation, Eq. (3.28) implies that evaporation is effex Gvely proportional to the vapor pressure gradient, We can. assume that the ietdhion cunner will effectively be a continuous, unlimited, source of water Taweat) in both locations. Since everything is the samo, it is reasonable io ‘State that the vapor pressure at the skin level e, and the constant of propor. fonelity in Eq, (24) are the same in both locations. Due to the amount of Gator 2, =e, The ratio of evaporation in both places’ ean then be approx mated as 249-12 249 - 18.7 22, ‘Tho runner should be cooler in Location 2 because of the heat removed by the evaporating sweat; nevertheless, he may be better off in Location 1 in terms of energy and body-fluid conservation. ¢ 3.7.4 Distribution of Atmospheric Moisture ‘As stated proviously, humidity is a highly variable atmospheric component. Nevertheless, itis possible to make several statements relative to average nelsture convent, Generally, water vapor, by volume, reduces with elevation fae chown in Table 3.3, Temporally, specific humidity increases and decreases seasonally with temperature. The daily variations are masked by local «ir Terbulence that may transfer moisture away from a site, particularly over Jand areas. ‘Specific humidity, a measure of absolute water content, is highest in the tropies and low latitudes, sharply decreasing toward the poles (Fig. 2.20). Relative humidity, because of its temperature dependence, shows peaks in tthe tropics (high moisture and temperature) and in the poles (low moisture with lev tomperature). Two minima are found in the middle latitudes, coin- Zldent with the high-pressure anticyclone regions. This is jIlustrated in Figure 3.24, Note that the large desert rogions exhibit low relative humid. ity_-e.g, the African Sahel region, northwest Mexico, southwestern United States, central Australia, and west central South America —although their specific humidity is relatively high on the average (see Fig. 3.28) Since rela: tive humidity measares not only water content but the ability of the air to sr arwocercnicHuMinmy 69 TABLE 9.3 Average Vertical Distribution of Water Vapor in Middle Letiadas HEIGHT WATER VAPOR Ge ol ia) 00 13, 05 116 19 101 15 ot 20 08 25 ot 50 049 35 oat 40 037 50 oat 80 os: 10 0.09 80 ‘Source: Landsberg 1968) and "reward (106) Parerenrearee ee Goiotase to a0 oto wo SOO Neg Sout FIGURE 3.25 Distribution by latitude zones ofthe water vapor cortant of he a, Space Frwy i highest In exuatori atudes and decreases toward the polos, Source: & © aaeiey ea noduotion to Climate, ath ed, MeGraw- Hil, 1968. Reproduced with Per risoion. (Alter Hauratz and Austin [1944))= = =r | go. comerers seniscie eS 0F METEOROLOGY THE EARTH-ATIACEPHERE SYSTEM a7 arwoseuenic HumorTy 91 i —_———$——$___—-— ‘The above equation can be integrated analytically if we know the ¢ — P | ® pohavier, Numerical intogration is always possible by summing over diserete 2a) ayers that are taken to be of constant pressure, Diseretizing Bq. (8:57) and i introducing conversion factors leads to } a) | i ur inches) ~ 0.0004 5 AP, \ Wicd sae a ae Oa 50 TID ae Neri south Latina w, (mam) ~ 0.01 YG AP, | FIGURE 3.24 Distrbuton of relative humity by latitude zones. Note that zonal Nt, Fear soictvo humiy is gull cflerent from distfoution of specttchumidly. Govrce: tor clcantia, An lroduction to Climate, th ed. MeGraw-Hil, 1968, Reproduced with permission. whore Gis the mean specific humidity (in units of grams por Kilogram) ber twoen @ layer with a pressure change AP (in millibars). It should be empha- ‘sized that for the above potential precipitation to occur, al! the moisture must condense and fall to the earth. This would be very raro and difficult. Chap- hold moisture, it plays an important role in the condensation process. This ter 4 will discuss the necessary conditions leading to precipitation will be discussed in Section 2.8. The knowledge of the vertical and spatial distribution of moisture per- smite the computation of the potential precipitable water in em area. To com ‘ute the total amount of potential precipitable water w, in @ layer between ‘elevations 0 and z, we need to evaluate EXAMPLE 35 Computation of Procipitable Water ‘Assume that the vertical pressure distribution and corresponding moisture distribution of a column of atmosphere is fines, : (235) I PREssURE VAPOR PRESSURE ‘oo evanox “SS hori te cnet ope dnt nth eam, suing ee es Tee ste datbation, 3 ee 3S Ed % ui i os e - Z wo Ms \ i 3s 3 a | erp ta int ef nny =p no Te a oe 8 . | zt 36 50 103 7 me 7 | ahem oan $ &s iu | & 0 5 c. "0 os iis 2 fqar, am % aaa as ee ‘The precipitable watot is obtained by first compuiting the specie humic, Jn grams per kilogram for each layer. Specific humidity would be given by Bq. (3.28) (eultipliod by 1000 to convert to grams per Kilogram), After the average % for each layer is obtained, En. (8.59) may be used. The following table summarizes the computations. where qq is the specifie humidity. Simce q, ~ 0.622¢/P, gaa (6, oP e239) w,(92. cHAPTENS /PRINCELES OF METEORQLOGYSTVE EARTH-ATMDSPHERE SYSTEM other wunvaTTON sf OP carer nao cet wa 15 1985 0s 6 ni 5 815 1 us no 15 1680 15 04 10 38 1500 20 26 oa 1640 25 a e4 1260 ; 30 1 115 Meo 3s a oo 35085 40 8s a) 50 56 sis 1185 60 “ 42% 160 10 a ss a5 80 22 paar ~ 10888 ; —_———... far ondevsson! “Te potential prespitable water is thon + [Pt ve wpe 001 18585 — 184 ae te / 3.8 ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND CONDENSATION Precipitation depends, among other things, on the condensation of ats Tinetie moisture. For endeasation, the moisture-laden air mast lowes is ‘eraperature, increase ‘or reduce volume according to the phase dia- teaeetpown ia Figure 82 Ia the atmosphere, condensation generally occas ey by temperature reductions resulting from the ascent of air masses, ty By loton of Gh rising will be further discussed in Chapter 4. Here wo ail lacie how the rising is enhanced or restrained by convective, ther- ‘mally induced turbulence. anc arsity or instability of an air mass depends on ite rate of cooling relation tn tho afanosphors lap rate. The rato of cooling ofthe air mass de- pends on whetber condensation occurs or not {38 AINOS*HERIG STADILIY AND CONDENSATION. 99 ehh 3.8.1 Adiabatic Cooting “Assume we have a parcel of dry oir that is heated. Apply the first law of ther Shodynamice under adiabatic (no heat lost) conditions. dQ. = db + dW, Gao) “hare dQ is net heat received by the system, al ie the jnerease in internal Thargy. aud dW is the work done by the system on the surroundings. Tn oxpanding gas with no external forces aw = d(PAz), ean where P is the pressure and Ax is the displaced volume, For small volume changes, aw = Pav 342) Equation (8.41) must have consistent units to be used in Ba. (40), Dealing Equation (tance, and dividing by mess, Eq, (3.40) can be expressed in unit mass terms, dq, = de + dw. a9) tn the absence of motion, gravity, electricity, and magnetism, the interna! enor ie just a fonetion of temperature and volume, Refer now to de aa dis then dg, = du + Pdv, aan ‘whore w is the specific volume p ‘For perfoet gases, tbe internal energy is only « function of temperature, ‘and under constant voliime conditions, we have 4 (ou/aT), = C, = specific heat at constant volume. 80, dq, = 0,40 + Pao’ (945) where df is the change in temperature 7 ofthe rising air mass. Using the Tiemon equation or a perfoct gas Pu = RT and differencing, Pdv= Rd ~ od, 46)(94. chApTEm.s / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EARTH-ATMOSTHERE SYSTEM whore B is the gas constant of dry air in equare centimeters per square sec ‘ond per degree Kelvin (cm#s"?"K" and 7 is absolute temperatare in dogroes Kelvin, Substituting Eq. (3.46) into Hg, (2.45), we then have da. (0,4 RAT ~ vd? = (0,4 RAT — RTD an ‘but by definition C+R=C,, as) ‘where C, is the specific heat at eonstant pressure. Then, a, = C47 - RTE. ea Since we are assuming adiabstie rising, da. at Rae TGP , which results in 60) ‘which can be integrated to obtain r_ (py me qh . e asp where 1 — n = R/O, ~ (CG, ~ C,)/C, or 2 = C,/C, = 1/141 for dry air, Ti beolile temperature at absolute prossure P, 7 is also refered to as the po- tential temperature @ at mean sea level (P, = 1000 mb); therefore r_ (Py (fa) osm aoe ‘ofpolantil temperature ¢ remains onan: dating cess [This implies that on cooliag heating) the air parcel will return to its original, initial, temperature. If a percel of dry air is moved verticelly, it will expand or contract be- cause of a change in atmospheric pressure. Assume adiabatic conditions; then, using Bq, (8.50) and difforentiating with respect to 2, Gsm) |38 ATMOSPHSRIC-STADLITY AND CONDENSATION 95 where 1” is the absolute temperature of the ambient atmosphere at elovation 2, and substituting in Bq. (8.68) restilts in, a -et- T : e pe 50) dT [dz = Vis called the dry adiabatic lapse rate or the rate af which a rs ing pareal of sir cools with elevation under adiabatic conditions, The dry adiabatic lapse rate I is approximately 10.0°C km *. “The relation between I'and the ambient lapse rate a definos static eon- vective stability in the atmosphere: Tlal < [F, tising air cools faster than the atmosphere so once the lifting force is removed, it will sink (aince it is denser) to a stable equilibrium. If a > [C, rising. air is always warmer 90 it keeps rising once given an initial impulse, This is unstable equilibrium. If Jo| = [f], the rising air parcel will remain in indifferent equilibrium at any clevation. ‘The above discussion dealt with the rise of dry air, If moist, unsaturated air rises at the adiabatic lapse rate, it will reach a position where the relative hhumidity becomes 100% and saturation is established, Further cooling by His, qng will result in condonsation. During condensation, latent heat is released Gee itis ubsorbed in evaporation [see Sertion 3.7.1) resulting in a warming of tho air and a reduction in the lapse rate. The resulting lower rate is called the saturated adiabatic lapse rate I". ‘This condensation process, which will be discussed in Section 3.8.2, results in precipitation. Precipitation carries heat, brealsing the adiabatic ZJecumplion. Nevertheless, removed heat is small end the temperature lepee {rate is close to I” and the process is also calle’ pseudo-adiabatic ‘Onee condensation oveurs, sf the parcel of air descends, it will heat-up at the foot ary adiabatic vate. This is because moisture has precipitated out of tthe aystom, This nonreversibility results in the observed behavior on Or0- raphe barriers like mountains where the lee sido is usually warmer than the windward side. Figure 3.25 illustrates this. 3.8.2 Condensation by Pseudo-adiabatic Cooling ‘The following paragrapps tse some of the terms defined in past sections to describe analytically the pseudo-adiebatie condensation process, which was defined when discussing the adiabatic lapse rate. ‘Assume that a unit mass of dry air saturated with p, grams with a temperature T' and pressure P is forced to vise in the atmosphere, The Tsing will rule in w presbure drop dP and temperature change a7 with re- waite, condensation du, whore 1 isthe original mixing ratio w, ~ p/p =196 GHAPTERS / PANNCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE EART ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM FRQURE 2.25 War ot moist air through orogranhle precipitation, Source: Eagleson 1970}. pa since we are deoling with « unit mass of dry air, Assume, es before, thet Poe peat of condensation is entirely absorbed by the 1g of dry alr and ie Seroved by the condensate, An energy balance (Bq. 3.49) of the process ‘will result in In the above equation, the leftchand term is the latent heat of condone. tion: remember that £, was previously defined as negative. The firs term 0° TEE Lieut accounts for internal energy and the second tern for work due to volume changes. We have previously seen thet ase) So, Bqs. (855) and (8.56) can be jointly numerically intograted. An Sppr=RI so ae ype above is obtained by ignoring e, relative to P, This resulta im Pe SF sn Recall the dry adiabatic temperature-pressure relation, "Pr, 58) 3.8 ATMOS: ERIC STABLITY AND CONDENSATION 9 bere @ is the potential temperature, From the above and using the defini: tion of a total differential, 2p. % ao Baw Bar, aso itis easy to see that = rT i @P sap pein — TGP PPT ar ap Fao 7 een by approximating die,/T'~ d(w,/T). Equation (3.62) ean be integrated to obtain 8 (Hee) 660) a7 GT) ‘vers 0s the equivalent potential emperataro ofa parcel of ar after 2 e ee eee ae condenged and precipitated out, and all Intent heat retained 6s vanible beat. In using Eq. (8.63), remernber that L,,rmust be talsen as & neg: tive number; and hence, 3, > %(98 cHAPTENS / PRNOWPLES OF METEOHOLOGY:THE EATI-ATHOSM-ERE SYSTEM Figure 9.26 shows a diagram of pressure, temperature, lines of potential temperature for dry adiabatic rising, lines of equivalent potential temperay ture, and lines of water content (mixing ratio). This diagram is obtained eing Eqs. (056), (658), and (3.68), a5 wel asthe temperature~prossure rela: tions seen previously. "The peoudo-adiabatic condensation diagram is « very useful tool in the prediction of precipitable moisture, Example 8.6 will serve as illustration. EXAMPLE 36 usration ofthe Use ofthe Pseudo-adabatc Dlagram Assume 2 mase ofa ot 24°C hits a mountain barrier and is forced to rio. JRE fate relative humidity of 75%. The mountain range has an elevation Br 1S00 fe After elnring the mountain tp, the air mass will go buck down fo sha level, whore i started. Using tho previous information and fe pecudos sSiabetig diagram. it is thon possible to obtain precipitable moisture and temporetare ofthe ir mass at various locations ins Totus find te mixing ratio. To do that, use Bq (8.20). The required vapor presgure is abiained using the relative humidity and a table of sabx- YeRa Vapor preacues (or, alternatively, 2a. 831), From the tables in Appon- Tk the eltuatod vapor pressure at 22°C can be interpolated to be about go i, Wie salntve humidity of 75% tha implies an actual wapor pressure Sean mb. (015 x 80), From Bq. (6.29) the mixing ratio is then approxi= Stately (0.622 x 25/1000) = 0.014 gg! or 4 eke” “Te yscudo-adiabatie diogram is then entered at the intersect 1000-mb pressure with the isotherm (solid lines slanting to the right) of 24°C. ‘Thus ls pein A in the insert of Figure 426. From this point the sit rses and sans Following the dry adiabet (slid line slanting to the Tef) thet crosses Seine A, This dry adisbatorisopotential temperature line (Eq, 2.62) glo cor- raetors to 24°C, Rising continues along thi curve until tho 14 Bkg ” mixing Tots Line i eraced (nizing ratio lines ae dotted, slanting to the right). Thio Tenis lily guicly, at an elevation of about 600 m. At tis point B in the seca condessation begins. The condensate releases heat, which reducs the Teneo hat of the king air mass, Further rising oecurs along a Line of eon- “itt oquivalent potentil temgeratore (Eq. 8.62), erossing point B. The iso- SMuNelent, plectial tomperatare lines are shown. as dashed curves slanting tthe left Iotarpolting, we choose « line of @, = 20.5°C. The isothermal line at the point indicates a temperature of about 18°C, The chosen pseudo-adiabst is then followed to the maximum mountain height of 1500 m. At that point (point C in the ingort) the mixing ratio is bebween, 10 end 14 gkg™', approxi- nately 12 gkg'* The air temperature is about 14°C. The implication is that in rising, ebout 2 g of water por kilogram of rising air has been condensed. ‘At the lee side of the mountain, the air will descend to sea Jevel. No fur- ther condensation oozurs, 20 cooling follows the dry adiabatic Tine Gnopaton- {Gal tomperature ling), eroseing point C. This corresponds to approximately Temperature, © Stratton Satgcationminiog Siimats eae, BOI Be FIGURE 3:26 The pseudo-adabate amram. Souos:Adapad fom WM. Mar Earth. ‘scape: A Physical Geograpty. ‘ohm Wey & Sone, Ie. "Gooyrght © 1087 by Wiley. Repitod by permission of4100 ciaPten 9 PANCHLES OF METEOROLOGY: TH EARTH ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM the 26°C line, When sea level is reached (D), the air is warmer by BC OO" — aoe ae Uehavior was already illustratod in Figure 3.25, The conditions fF aoe ale are somewhat analogous to what occurs on the island of Puerto aa ee he teade winds sopply the moisture that falls on the narthery Be ae gland, which is closely approximated by @ £0- to S5-milewide rectangle divided lengthwise by a mountain range. ¢ ‘the ealeulatod precipitable water can be converted to an approximaie Fain aie per unit area if we knew the veloityv of the rising alr. The formula would be ost) “here Aw isthe condensate in gram per kilogram, 7,1 the spesific weight of weet air in kilograms per cubic meter, vis updraft velocity in meters per S05 sane the specific weight of water in grams per cubic moter, and Ps ittaion rate im masta (of watar per socond, Details ofthis calculation end {ts limitations will be given in Chapter 4. 3.8.3 Further Comments on Thermal Convection and Stability in Section $8.1 we diecusted thermal stability of alr masses by compatiog aa ec lapee rate to the dry adiabatic hapse rate, Due to the smaiier, te fin adiabatic (or wet or saturated) lapse rate, the concept of weil pooado- saa od Tu poeible that an oir moa i initially stab (lol < Ih aa oe table when forced to rise or example, by an obstruction) an mn may be such that ‘vos the pseudo-adiabatic (or satur peratures and pressures. “Up to tis pont the stability arguments have been basod on the behave ofe parcel of sir with no vertical dimensions. In reality, thoagh, 8 ms of oa eT extend vertically and will have elevation-dependent. tempereinrss air wi Gui conditions, The not effec is thet afferent partons ofthe Sir ana Tei follow efferent cooling paths, Sequently redueing or enhancing instability at aa ond Horn (19801 give two examples of enhanced instability for sing air masses with extensive vertical development, The fist ove it for rng ay Figure 8.28. A dry air mass originally extends from point A ‘a0 ATMOSPHERIC ABILITY AND CONDENSATON 101 983 3000 \ weet 2500 ose ausaotice Pp : axis ; East is E 3 a an veo * va sm ‘9 , “Temeratuc,"F § o Bee “Tempersture, °C (approximate) FIGURE 9.27 Conditional instabilty. Air that was originally table is mado unstable By forced sevens, suring which neat of condensaion le added. Cource: Adapted from oe Rewartha, &tlntrodvotion to Climate, 4th ed, McGraw-til, 1968. Reprocuced with permission. ‘TABLE 3.4 Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (6/100 x) PRESSURE (nb) TEMPERATURE CO) 1000 360 70” 00 o =030 0.29 =027 20 043 040 037 032 ° 065 0st -05t -051 2 086 084 -081 0.76 40 =0.95 =0.95 ~084 = 998 del eat ct eet eg rr eee Cee tere um ALvoy Uid pple srt ope ran gl ey ae ee a eG i00 m. At higher femperatre, the difloence is mych greater ‘renune more water i condensing Sous Undertanding Our Atrespheric Braronnen by Morris Neltbarges otal. opreght © Oris ions, 18s by WH, Freeman un Company. Used by permison4402. creer / PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGY: THE ENTIM-ATMOBPHERE SYSTEM rercnonces 103 7 _ —J | Net 7 “ s, cores, NY aa heat Ny S r9f dy son Se 3 PANE pecp pat Lae é eae etl os cae fs ae wha « Hae ca ow 2 0 & aS empee ve cam Ne URE 9.28 tt upon een es fhe tig and sbedoce of atk a ma crane S. FOUR pled from 7 Tewarte, At Induction fo Gla, 49%. woGraw-H, : sso S 4968. Reproduced with permission. | Dry adiabat —s\ 199|———1- 1-1 A ely ce Rh ee “Temperature {000 ma to pent B (G00 mh. The air exhibit avery stable tomperatore A (3000 Parmer ait oi tthe mma 8 forced ori, points ong version i Ml the dry adiabatic lapse rate to punts A! and B”. There's Me onion of the air column (Gu o lower pressures), resulting an cbvious oePeporatures for B’ than for A. Te original inversion £6 for colder fins te ificant redvetion of temperature with height, which 1s ‘prone fo instabilities within the air mass oa aio in given in Figure 8.29. Hare, the original afr mass is oh ary larger moiatre content ia point A than in point Bs 9 Sm sharactriaod © "Upon rising Of forced to do so), eit in point A wil Yogte aa ares than air in point B. At the condensation point, one canteen adnbeti (een wet or saturated) lapse rate, The nek Toole fa pie Beane ch more than point A. The new profile A Svs is that point B cteravre gradient, which is more apt support instil foo of rising air parcels within the system. FIGURE 2:9 Musureofocte on convaave ntaity. Source: Adapted NS FOUR ei docn to Cina, ath ed, MeGran-Hi, Yebe, Represieed wit permission. ‘This chapter is intended to provide the necessary meteoralogis framework so ene eke ultimate origins of the hydrologic process 49 Be studied tee Obviously, its goal is not to train meteorologists THiaphaaia has boen on the earth-atmospheric parssne\er and patterns Co aie cal weather the mest, Atmospheric moisture fan result in 40cm in 12 to 24 hours seul in 40 ong ress from conworgnce of sir matin ot Te Fete or abaros and of different character They generally 9500 ferent empetmone due to the convergence of Polar easteles GT rmiddle- emperate THe pigare shows the concep of frontal 56% latitudes Wwestears when warm air impinges on cold it: The warn OP sar at oe ively ger slop of 1: 100 ta 1400, Boma of over tho old ec, ara fronts have associated beraling owas 02 stow, Taiow extending 800 to 600 kana ofthe curfaee fot pation neg cold sir moves under o warm st me ogg yee Smper ping nteriace (1:26 f0 1100s nerve. leat sae iemal are inited to about 80 kan abead ofthe font rainfall aeang are steady and extend over large eres, The) AP erent eaten with el fronts esing more Waal fon so rainfall of shorter duration. fal of shorter ef cyclni or frontal weather pattern is pices A Fie Soe that the soem dovslps tro fons, a war fons SOS Figure 42 Notch tend to converge. The fronts rotate in o avclonie BAST cold font, which ory contr. "he fstor- moving cod front Sally exee 9 around Toy er ererutting in an ozchuled wave. When this occurs thO-Wa ‘hoist ai i effectively separated from the cold tr at a catalyst tat induces (by iting) condensation nF ean ca pom the warm ai. Tbe moment ocluson occurs this ener reiecoing mechanism stope andthe system begins to die, ae esti ele dnappear when they move away Gum ‘her ere of ee oT enol warm a sees roof marie end mae of tropical origin. the more extensive cud caver develops M. Marsh) Souree: WM. Marsh and J. ‘Geograpiy. Copyright © 1908 by Whey. ‘of Jean Wiley & Sons, nc ut erm front, and associated features of middle latitude oyetone, stration OY Intracicton to Physical ‘long the coi to ission FIGURE 4.1 Cold Front, we Turbulence is greatest along the warm front. ( Bozler, Landscape: An Reprinted by per‘The path followed by cyclones was studiod by Klein (1957), Figures 43 wi tracks for the months of January and July, respec- th the observation that cyclone tracks are Yery sre controlled by the osillagions of the upper atmosphere'sjot streams iat Bash Fecuawod in Chaptor 3, The fast-moving oscillating streams provide the ery anion to remove the rising air masse ofthe cyclones, encouraging tele Govelopment. Like the jet stre ‘west fo east, moving south during during the summer. ‘Orographic cooling occurs when stroctinn ke a mounigin. Figure 45 illustrates the process. As discussed in condensation and rain in the windward side of and 4.4 show the prineip tively. The figures agree wit ‘Godske etal. [1875].) troduction to Physical Goo Chapter 3, the end result is the mountain with eotrasting srtant orographhic effects exhibit relatively high precipita; ea mel as ineroased frequency of events. This is an overall vr te effect, t should not be construed as bebavior that ean be easily de- avers ealyele af point precipitation ofan event. The spatial variability of weit ecpitaion ean often obocure any elevation effects on the intensity oF focurnulation of an evant. rape: An I tion eeeumulation ‘Sons, Ino. (Aer Fe ‘42.co0uNe ANDUFTIG FRoceSSES. 113 jams, the preferred cyclonic tracks are from i the northern hemisphere winter and north, masses are farced to rise over an ob- dryness in the Tee side of the mountain. fa cyclone. Source: W.M. Mash and J. Dodi, Landso “ploy. Pepsnted by permission of John Wiey by era We FIGURE 4.2 Development of FIGURE 4:3 Pipa wack o northern hersphere sectevel cyclone in anuary, Sd tos donc mest requ, wel Ses donot mest Kesmeed rons ot goes ae Indcaled where tasks tei A efi a par eye roquoncy i @Tocal mim, Source: Ken (1857) ‘raphy. Copyright © aww414, cyuren « /FAECHTATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUTEMENT soe Low sow FIGURE 4.4 Principal racks of northem herhere sea-level cyclones in Jy, Soke nes crue ae oaent, wo-dlined tacks, dashed fies, less frequant and loss wel Cerone ate aly preted regione of genesis are indicated whero tracks Pegi. A evneads snd wore ojtone frequency Is @ local minum. Source: Klein (18571 Convective cooling is caused by local differential heating of air masses, qeading to air instabilities (Chapter 8) and updrefts. Thunderstorms or Sm eect dorms They are high-intensity, short-duration events and are common yreNThe topics, Because of their high intensity, these events are important ‘in urban hydrology. Maen argos develop in stages. The cumulus stage is characterized by the Frention of cumulus clouds (commonly excesding 8 km in elevation) seen atzeng updraft at velocities of up to 60 km hr. Air entrainment dariog Thi Niod provides moch of the required moisture, The second stages te this period Piven condensation and growth occurs. Updrafts and downdrafts) aaaereth winds up to 115 km hr in the former and 30 kan kr in the Iatter! cae Ti ny, This stage laste 16 to 90 minutes and isthe period of peat pare istonsty, Dazing the dissipating stage, dawndrafts predominate antl Tocanvertive eell disappears. Figure 4.6 shows the history ofa thunderstorm, Ganvoutive lifting commacnly occurs in conjunction with the other fing mechanisms, In particular, once condensation occurs and the temperature profes are unstable, continuing rising and condensation follows the eonves- tive pattern. (scape: An invaduoton 9 Physicel fission of dan Wiley & Sors, Ic. Ysvende the leeward slope and heats acia- 1986 by Wiles. Reprinted by pet Lands on resus when moist at Is forced over a mountain FIGURE 4.5 Orographic preciitat ange, lative humiily drops wines ‘he alr do WAM. Mareh end J. Dozier, batoaly. Source: graphy. Copyright © 1FIGURE 46 Formation o a thunderstorm ture, and dlssipating. The ft is charactor Grats, and heavy ran, and the third by dowr IM. Marsh.) Source: W.M. Marsh, Eartiscape: by Villy. Reprinted ty perrission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. cen be described in three stages: cumulus, ma rized by updtafis, the second by updrats, down mndats, ad light ran, (Uustration by Wiliam 'A Physical Goography. Copyright © 1867 Sec eee eee 4.3. RN INTRODUCTION TO CLOUD PHYSICS arantee precipitation. Within the cloud f thermodynamic and me- “Lifting of moist air masses does not gu system, there are several complicated interactions of chanical nature that control the occurrence of procipitation: 1 Without the catalytic effect of nuclei, the efficiency of condensation would . Hiydrometecrs must grow in or will be blown off the cloud ‘must be large enough to achiev ‘velocities of upflowing air. . Precipitation particl ‘occurring in the path between cl A brief discussion of argely based on Eagleson [1970]. The discussio in the second half of Section 4.8.2, and Sections and quote large portions of Georgakakos and Bras [19842] size, otherwise they will remain suspended updrafts. The hydrometeors sve terminal fall velocities I ies must be large enough to survive the evaporation loud base and ground level. ‘the above points follows. Sections 4.8.1 an m of hydrometeor distribution 43.3 and 4.3.4 closely follow 4.3.1 Nucleation Condensation under homogeneous conditions require conditions and high activation ene dynamics of nucleation. Any change es bremondous saturation srgy. Bagleson [1970] discusses the thermo- ‘of phase involves a change in the energy Aa AN INTRODUCTION To cow eHVses 117 state ofthe aystem. The portion of the energy eapable of doing work is called ‘ee snergy. The added free energy involved in condensation of vapor to water tr sublimation of vapor to ic is ealled the activation enctpy. ‘Reactions or phase changes move in the direction of minimum free en- ergy Under coniitions of no impurities, and if vapor pressure ¢ is loss than Srey. ation, minimum free energy is achieved with zero radius, i-e.,no com Jenation or nucleation of vapor orsurs. Ife > ¢,, minimum activation energy een be achieved by no change of phase or by droplet growth beyond a eritical sate Ser which requires a minizium level of activation energy. The rate of Bee fen or drop formation, goes up as the squaro of tho degree of super ‘Pituration, Bagleson [1970] states that under conditions of no impurities, the Tate of nucleation remains small until e/e, approaches 4 “the introduction of impurities or nucleating sites reduces the amount of activation enorgy required for condensation. As stated above, degree of seporsaturstion of is demanded by the homogeneous (no impurities) case. In Jeasegencous conditions (impurities), the change af phase occurs with ¢/¢, near Iya more typical condition in the atmosphere. Tn high clout aystems, with below-freezing temperatures, ic particles may be fermod by freezing of liquid droplets or by direct sublimation from sr again, the phase changes are aided by nucleating sites or irapuritios. Far ecarsple a Iya (eicron) ice particle is formed from water under homoge; regan conditions if the temperature is about ~30°C or colder. The same-sized seetle may form under he:erogenevus freezing at slightly below 0° ‘Homogeneous sublimation of ie from vapor would require temperatures of about “80°C, Under heterogeneous conditions, sublimation of a O-1-ym Grasticle may oecur at temperatures a2 high as ~4°C (ove Eagleson [1970] for Aetails leading to previous statements). ‘Vertuaately, the atmosphere is relatively rich in nuclei that assist in phase changes. Nuclel are mostly soil particles (clay, foosl-fuel combustion reducls, ammonium slts, and seawater salts. Condensation mucle! must be larger thon ebout 0.1 xm. src elevations where iemperatures are below freezing, lngesized nuclei ‘are scarce, As the temperature decreases, though, freezing begins to occur nto emaller particles, and many more potential nucleating sites become ac. Ge, Nuclel us large as 10 pam, mostly sea nalts, can bo vory effective in in- ‘acing condensation under werm clouds (abovo freering) conditions 4.3.2 Growth and Bistribution of Precipitation ‘Before falling, droplets forined by condensation, ot ice particl fg size and weight capable of overcoming updraft velocities in the cloud. Tni- tial growth is achieved by condensation due to supersaturated conditions in the vicinity of the droplets. This mechanism can be reasonably effective in the case of ice particles. Supersaluration is small inthe atmosphere, so it cannot support continu ing growth of the type just mentioned, The mostéffective growth:mechsnism118. cyarteR 4 / PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE: AND MEASUREMENT tn alld conlosance and results fom repeated collisions and aggrogations of fang preiplaionGeinly mater) putils, The eoalescono or collection ef- || alongs of partes tn measured in tor of efelivecros-aectional area fhept bys flling particle. Assume there isa larg particle of radius rand a Small paste of sdioe f, Tho falling lange pare wil overtake, collide ‘ich, and potisy aborb the small price if he stall parle i within Tedtun tare, ofthe contr ofthe lange patil. The collection eiciency isthen defined a 2-8 an ‘The rads of inttuence is ry + ray if the éynamics of particle mo- tions do not af. clliion probability Le, «stati aalogy. In fact ela {ve partite motions and sizes may induce or prevent callisions effectively increasing or reducing 2. ‘Under th stati aoumption, Eagleson (1970 pointe out that B-> Las rite amd B+ tan y/femrt, The maximum eficenses ecu £0 /r, ‘Be larger thon abnut 8.6. Bicone of ellison goes to zero ifthe large fertile are ama (20 po) and tho radi rao i Toe than 0.3. Ilo goes to Tero if eal and large purces are of similar szo and have diametars Less {an about 0 um, Parts Larger than abot 80 pa become vory ecient al coalescence as he pares distribution becomes vniform (y/r > 02) ‘The previous ciscussion refers to couosconce of woter droplets. The sew of sinks some to recut mostly fom olisions with ic crystals (@agleson (1970). Ste roaling distribution of hyrometeor sas resulting fom the growth sechaninms is fairly undofined, Nevertheless, can be inferred (Mason {ists Prappechor abd Kiet (1878) that the disibotion MD) of tho mun. | ber of particles per unit volume of diameter within the interval (D, D + dD) |S ese dat Se Snecetenstooply for amallD to reach a mgximum and pos- || sesses a very mild slope for large D” (Georgakakes and Bras (1982). ‘Several forms for N(D) satisfying the above characteristics have been | suggested (Mason (1671, Pruppacher and Klett (1978), but they are all tainted by the dificltes of massuring hyérometeor cio in the flea. Errors te induced boeaue of inability to measure particles smaller than a given ft, inbity to measure simultaneously at diferent locations, or toubles ‘vith inalrarmentcalibrtion and relibility under freeing enditions ‘Many inveatigetars have then suggested the use of a simple exponential form fo he hydzemeteor sive distribution ata given elevation. Th form ND) = Noe? (4.2) (see Fig. 4.7) has been used by Marshall and Palmer [1948], Gunn and Marshall (1958), Georgakekos and Bras [1984a,b] among others. The pa- fametar cin Bq (4.2) i the Inverse mean diamler eta given level "The pons objection to. (42) is that it inplin hySrometoors at di ameter approaching zoo. The aractiv alternative would be to use a disti- As auintRooUucnON rocLowPisiCs 119 ution starting at zero and peaking somewhere in the small-diameter region. Georgakakos and Bras [1964al argue that given the acknowledged uncertain Gos of measuring the number of emall hydrometeors, Eq. (4.2) is in fact ade- uate, Furthermore, ehey argue that the swnall-diamcter region plays a small Wie in the macroscopic meteorologic and hydrologic behavior. For example, the water-eqaivalent mass due to hydrometeors of diameter in the interval (D,D + dD) at a given level per unit volume is 5D) = pNDED*. as) “The corresponding rate of mass precipitation would be PD) = ND) EDAD) ~ VI, “a where p, is liquid water density, V>(D) is the terminal velocity of a bydrome- Tae elon Dr and V is updraft velocity. Assuming (ee Section 43.8) that Vp(D) = aD, where « is a coefficient, and normalizing Eq. (4.2) by N, and Eqs. (4.8) and (4A) by xp.Ns/6e° and pyN,«/6c*, respectively, results in the curves shown in Figure 47. FIGURE 4.7 Normalized umber of hydromoteors N{O), water-mass content X(0), and - precptation rate P(D) due to Fycromoteors of diameter in the range (D, 0 + dd) versus {he normatizod diameter oD. Source: K.P. Georgakakos and R.L. ris, “A Hydrological Useful Station Precipitation Modo: 1, Formulation,” Water Resources Fos. 20(11)1588, 1034. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union. sit Se1120 cHarTEn A / PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT ‘The normalized size distribution, liquid moisture content, and precipita tion rate are given a¢ a function of the nondimensional hydrometeor size setoure cD. The result is that most of the moisture and precipitation is due Jp dinmetars well above the mean of 1/e. The peak liquid water equivalent oc; QQ at D = 3/e and the maximum water-oquivalent mass precipitation at We Only 19% of the total liquid water equivalent is contributed by hydro: vvioieors Tees than 1/e in size, The equivalent figure for the precipitated mass rate is 0.37%. “The mean diameter of the bydrometeors should be larger near the bottom of a cloud and smaller at the top. This is a reflection of the expected nuclel Sise distribution and the coalescence mechanisin, This distribution is very Hard to establich beeause of the sampling difficulties. Georgelakos and Bras [1984a] suggest a simple linear distribution for the value of 4.3.3 Terminal Velocities of Hydrometeors ‘The fall of hydrometeors in the cloud system can be reasonably essumod to ee fall theiy terminal velocities In quiet air and for an isolated bydrome- Goon Pruppachor and Klett [1978] do argue for a constant terminal velocity, ‘geoct solutions to the equations of motion for a felling hiydrometeor do not eniet, Nevertheless, experimental and approximate numerical studios of Tingle particle behavior do exist. Beard (1976) compiled data on free-falling Sg Groplets im sir, Droplet sizo varied from 1m to 7 mm, He obtained wpRsions for yolocity Vs a2 a Fonction of dinmetar D, particle density Py, Gre tho tomperature (T) and pressure (P) of the ambient air. Figure 4.8, aaesee and'2, show bis results for T = 273.16°K, P ~ 800 mb (curve 1); and Prego. 15°K, P= 1018 tab (carve 2). Terminal velocity decreases as the temperature and prossure increase. Feateary to lguid precipitation, solid precipitation paricls of the same nse chow a wide varity of terminal velocities. This is du to their varied ad Stputer shapes. Figure 4.8 also shouts observed terminal velocities for Reidue types of slid prosipitation. Curves 3 and 6 are Beards [1976] results sealed sohores of densities 500 and 100 kgm‘, respectively. Curves 4, 6, ees T are dimple power fonctions Vz = aD*, Curve 4 corresponds to results by Tocatellt and Hobbs (1974) for “lump graupel.” Curves 6 and 7 are for. "be Ugonal geaupol” and aggregates of “dentritc crystal,” respectively. Tho re- sults are elso from Locatelli and Hobbs (1974). in reality, the velocity of particles in groups may be larger than that of jsolnpod hydrometeors, The terminal velocities increase as the particles be- rane clocer together. The effect is also influenced by the Reynolds number cout the total number of particles. Particles separated by distances larger {han 30 or 35 diameters behave very much like single particles, 4.3.4 Evaporation of Precipitating Hydrometeors Hydrometeors exiting through the cloud base will suffer evaporation throughout their trip to ground level, Evaporation is driven by the difference aa ANiNiO|UCHION To GLOW PavCS: 121 7 Daa 7 oe, @ ‘6! ¢ aeaeeeeaegtaty ee sa FIGURE 48 Terminal velocity as a function of rysrometeor diameter. one 1 cure 2: curve 3: ‘Ouro 4: Cur 5: une 6: Cuno 7: Raindrops, T = 273.15°%, P = 800 mb (Beard [1876D. aldrops, T ~ 298.15°K, P = 1018 mo (Board (1876). toe sphore, p = 00 kart’, T = 273.15°K, P = 1013 mb (Beard [1976) ‘Lump graupel (Locatelli and Hobbs (1974). toe sphere, p = 100 kger®, T = 278.15°K, P » 1018 mb (Beard [1976). Hexagonal graupal(Locatelt and Hobbs (1974). ‘Aggregates of dancitic crystals (Locatall ané Hobbs T1874). Source: K.P, Georgakakos and R. L. Bras, “A Hydrologiealy Useful Station Precstaton Jewett romulation Wator Resources Fes.,.20(11):1091, 1984, Copyright by the ‘American Geophysical Union ‘between the vapor pressure at particle surface anil that in the ambient air. At the particle surface, the vapor pressure can be assumed saturated at the wet- bulb temperature r,. In the ambient air, the vapor pressure would be equive Tent to that at saturation et the dew-point temperature T,. Since it expected that T, > To, then e,(T.) > e,{7), and the vapor-pressure gradient fs favorable for evaporation. This evaporation is enhanced by the ventilation tffect on the particle moving relative to the surrounding air. “According #0 Byers [1965] a motionless droplet with surface temperature 7, loses mass at the,following rate: as) where D is the droplet diameter; tis time; 9, is the droplet density; Ris the ‘gas constant for water vapor (461 Jig” } and D* is the diffusivity of ‘water vapor in ait.422. CHAPTER « / PRECIPITATION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT Pruppacher and Klett [1978] give the diffusivity as where D* fs in square maters por second when 1° and P* have values 6 seer oe igI06 gms (1018.25 mb), rospectively, Equation (6) 27 a ambient air temperatures 7, botween 293.10°K (40°C) and 313.15°K (40°C), oe ean fora hydrometeor moving at trminal velocity Vo(D) a venti lation effect factor is introduced into Eq, (3.5) aD _ 4D*f(D) Pe tT De R, Based on experiments, Board and Prupgacher [19715 euggeat the fllow- sng forma for the ventilation factor acting on falling apherical meteors for WSR" = 14 for NERY > 14 f(D) = 1+ 0.108 NER 18 + 0,808 NER where Reynolds umber R is defined as n= 2D ws 7 ont ree a we In the above equations, p (kgm) is the air density at temperature T. and prousure Pend ji he alr dynamic viscosity (eg '=°) at temperature ‘Ty The dynamic viscosity can be obtained by perma (a) Gfogers [19T9), whare the ambient temperature, is in degrees ett. Be Ie Spange of tho hydrometaor postion is given by the termine? select deft = -VetD), Using the above in Ea, (41 yields an expression in Yelecty @e(Srotion and dizimeter that in turn can be integrated betweon & a. 7 aa) “ag ANINTRODUCTIONTO CLOUD PHYSIOS, 123 indl diameter Dy at clevation 0 nd an inital diameter at the loud-base ole vation Za: Av, apt [ose) _ (ta oof PP a = | Bele) 8 Ha wan ite utc hana side of, (4.1) is reasonably approximated by a cosstnt soe ee epproniustion i good fora range of a igetlooi precntation Georenkakos sormparatnas 5 Qing Unt epproximatin on B40) rnin p= i ee [eae ee a ia 410 ot Georgnkakeos and Bras [1984] further approximate Hg (4.12) by foes” sng that Tr and 7, as wel a prossure conditions, do not changeover te elo: ing Cnet sd bago Zs. Under these isothermal and isobaric eonditions, Bq, (4.12) becomes D}= D3 Note that Ea. (4.18) can be expressed as By = GD) As (Dey oo -1- ). we were D, isa eitical diametar such that particles smaller than D, completely erMporate on thelr way to the ground. The eritical diameter is (Ts) * oa) 7 It ie assumed that during a storm 7, ~ To Ba, (419) simplifies further: eT — A , ao4124, cHABTER 4 / PRECIPITATION CCCURRENDE AND MEASUREMENT aaaninrmogucrion To cLoun arses 25 precipitation as a function of eloud-base elevation, relative ity, and precipitation © tuo ngure results from Eq. (18) with 7. ~ 7, and the val- tues of C; previously discussed. | EXAMPLE 41 Evaporation of Hydrometoors srrne you have the following meteorologic conditions, The everage 1 ‘peettare ap to cloud base 7, is 90°C, the cloud base is of 1008 7. relative bu- rere 70%, and average ground pressure is 1000 mb. A drizie falling. rlbity 2 fe required water-particle diameter at cloud base to suryis) Sct What i the et ul op ground level? The question really is: What i the eit ‘al diameter D, defined in Eq, (4.15)? Seometge do not have the wet-bulb temperature, we eit mate it rom 7, and relative humidity r or essume that 7s reste Moually not a bad assumption during periods of precipiatice Ta this cane, though, it is not very compe Srey may uso the ties in Appendix A giving the relative humidity timate Ta Me of wet bud depression. From Table A.2 for 7 = 70%, and a5 8 funtion vet a depression of 4.6°C, which would imply 7. 2% Fayre The saturated vapor pressure 7, is obtained from Ba. ( 31) ‘a5 a function of Ts: FIGURE 49 Inia daretor at oud base D, os a funtion of for arent valass ot FIGURE to ty sumo rigrtioneeouts in Batt and Prunpacher {0711 Dashes Sol Late) wih Dy = D2 Mn, 7,~ PTGS", ond P, = TOS mb, See: Fe aoe ale ane FL, Bras, “A Hycrolgicaly Useful Sion Precptaion Mods Fe || anata Aesouroes Res, 20(V1) 1585, 684, Conant by the Amarcan Geo ‘physical Union. where 7 is the fractional relative humidity 2 Ta) re eT.” Figure 4.9 shows numerical ~osults (Beard and Pruppacher {1971) ofthe ini Fee tguired to end with a.0.2-mm final bydrometeor diameter nfs tial diame Fhe nero level is the ground. Also show in the figure are the aeemations reslting fom Fa. (416). Figure 4.9 corresponds te anid ‘oplets and uses a C, value of 7 % 10" kgm "= Me an eof C, depends on the nature ofthe bydrometeor. Georgekalce and Tees 11082] argued that an approximate C, valu for snow i8 14 © Bo bene te! Figure 410 gives the ertcal diameter D, roguire for nonzero a(n) = A. a639(10.00738(90) + 0.80727 ~ 9.000019)1.8(80) * 48] + 0.001318} = 4241 mb = 424. kg [Again fram Bq. (8.31), we obtain e,(Z.}: e(P)"~ 88:8690(0.00798(25.5) + 0.8072) ~ o,000019)1.8(25.5) + 48| + 0.001916) : 32.62mb ~ 8262kgm0" ‘The saturated vapor pressure at dew-point,vemperature e,(7.) ip simply Ai) = 0.70142.41) = 29.69 mb = 2969 Kem”! tne of Bq, 15) requires a factor Cy which we take 08 that vee the text for rain: Cy 4p’ kgm *6 The diffusion factor D* comes from Be (6), where 7, given in degrees Kelvin, 7) = 808.485: FIGURE 4:10 Ina! diameter Dat cloud base, ofthe largest completely evanoretng Insenriaeicdp le2 aa into of 7, for cere vatuos of = Pye a ingrpe, T= 20 15%, P,~ 1019, For sow parle: ey cae ny Fi mb. Gout: KP. Geogattios and Fu. Bre, Myton pb ont x 10°(2838) 018s Zaay Dselut Stallon Precipitation Model: t, Formulation.” Water Resources Fs = 2.617 x 10m"s* : f20(11}.1594, 1964. Copyright by the American Geophysical Union.1126 cHAPLER 4 /PREGIPAION OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT assronwstrucrune 127 Now, evaluating Ea. 15), 0 1» 1 4(.617 x 10° zea __2069.\|" 2.x 10% = 02mm. i Had we made the assumption thet T, ~ ‘T,, the answer would have been taal 0 § Osman. # g perenne eee joe 4.4 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION 5 3 Classification of precipitation forms is generally by size of the bydrometeor a 0 ‘and state of the water, usually Tiquid or solid. Table 4,1 gives 4 ‘summery ca npr Se i a at Me tocsing bydrblogis-engineor is mosty concsfned wits rainfall and pn athey provide the loads to common structures. As wil Ae discussed aa pers rainfal in of interest ab the place and time of ocesn 2 ee aan anow becomes important daring its melting Peon, which oo ae stcurs lng after inital aecumulation and isa funtion of ‘tho history cof precipitation events. recipiation orf rainfall or snow and the shape and sie ofthe byron teeny ear Touch a function of the meteorologie conditions a5 te place of Hot ie We iaad of the texsporature profile in the atmosphere, Nevertheless, 7a 0 RM BO [FQURE 4.11 Frequency of octutenes of rain and snow a various termperatixes, Sree: US, Amy Cores of Engineers [1856]. ‘igure 4.11 shows the frequency of occurrence of snow oF rainfall 8s & fune- Biewre fund temperature. Clearly as a rle of thumb, snow gocurs When the temperature is below 0 to 1°C. TABLE A Forms of Precipitation 4,5 STORM STRUCTURE “Any given storm can be classified according to identifiable component ‘and in NAME DESCRIPTION Sze ue —_— Sea acee eeeTEGaE Any given sum? gland spatial characteristics. Houze [1968] bas confirmed Driale ‘ister droplet, low, 01-06 mm ar ine ave compocee of well-defined elements of different fimes end spa Intorsity (Liab) tial extents, ain ‘Water/érope 05 mm orient sccolo is composed of convective ces of short duration, gener ally about half an hour, The spatial extent of ces ison the order of em in ally about oa gutve cells, as handoretorms, ar fairly violent in nature, Re- saat ralfal intensities aro very high and sporadic, Small s=l's move St, Light: =25 mmbr* ‘Moderate: 2.57.6 marr"? Heavy: >7.6 mabe cine co coating, formed bY Specific gravity = 08 culling ive largo calls deviate tothe left of uppar-layer winds (et sear) feeding of rain or Arie Gants, watkern hemisphere, They Go not follow the general storm direction Rime ‘Omaue, granular ie deposit Specie gravity = 02-08 Fa aa the order of 30 to 60 kan br. Cells follow a seauce of shaw deo eryetals, hexagon! average spect gravity = 02 frowth, mabority, and death typical of eomvective disturbances, fan aia a nae ae "febonate activity gposists of a unit of developing cll, each at ditesort Pale ce crecsr0 eaeieerrs 5 epee dovelopmontat stages end moving in tnison isa preforred direction, Mae cee {foeot defined small and large mesoscale, The large mesoscale covered an sa pala = (19 aerG0 to 700 Kast whale amall mesoscale units extended over 150 10 Too pelts, ‘Transparent, Fane = = im G0 kin?, Rainfall intensities aro moderate when averaged ove: ‘the mesoscale sree’ Figure 412 illustrates the movement of a mesoscale with = member Toa R R Tinley, fn, McA, Kotler od JL H Poulbus, drole for Bs are apy and moving to the left in the northern hemisphore) of the average Sours: Sour, i, Coil © 1982 by McCraw, Used ky permision sasemaaiaiuabenecvacinainliocin «. osrase puma tpiaiiainmaatetleyatie Pets ee428 HAPTER 4 / PRCIPTATION COCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT Hysrology, WeGraw Hil. 1970. ‘conglomerate of colls. The fami spond to the mesoscale. FIGURE 4.12 Cel gronth and propagation within a storm, Soures: PS. Ea jeson, Dynamic direction, A thunderstorm is a typical mesoscale unit, composed of an chive rotating arms of & hurricane also corro- "The conglomerate of mesoscale units forms the eynoptie seale, This is he ‘rackground climatic disturbance of very large events. The synoptic scale ca | ee eereverel thousand square kilomoters—for example, a typical hurricane ‘Figure 4.13. Houre [1969] studied several event in Table 4.2. | FIGURE 4.13 Typical instantaneous Eagleson, Dynamic Hycrology, McGraw Hit, 1970 cereal hundred kilometers in diameter. Frontal climatic events are aleo WHEhin the synoptic scale. Average rainfall intensity ovor the synontic area is mall. Velocities and mean travel directions are also clearly ‘maekly, mewostale unite form bands within the synoptic seal, as illustrated in ‘discernible. Com- ‘New England and obtained aver- age characteristics for ther eomponents. Some ofthese results are compiled TABLE 4.2 Charactariatios of General Storms DURATION DENSITY INTENSITY ea (On the order of a few days 0.01 to 0.08 ia.he* (025 to 02 embe“)) "0" wo 30° mit (26,000 to 260,000 kes?) Synoptic 8 40,8. = s58 E 3 fe i aeae 4 Hoine yy ba 2ege2l a Bee a3 Eb 2 8 &8s ag 2) i fpf as #2 a%e Lbs ea, bee REE tH al i z- anienel putea a age il 83 32 35 (a 88 38 Ze |? aay (8 si ai 2 it Hae Ul 129480. cHseres 4 / PRECIPITATION OCCURFENGE AND MEASUREMENT ‘The previous physical description of storms has been weed 43 the ase for angi vimatbtion exercises. Among the investigators explicitly Hong for raingel sim Gaayman end Engioson (1972), Amorocho und Slack (10701, eebte and Waymive (1979), Waymire etal. (1084], and Rodrigues Ju and Eesloson (1987) The details of those simulations are beyond the ste of this ea aeibeless, they all rely on the random occurrence of the different storm structures. Fare oteorological structure previously discussed storms of 910" eatin waa bo described by thelr “exterior” and “interior” statistics, Storm o> cation cam ily refers io total depth of, duration of, and time betwesn stor tert ruresteristics are generally eccopted to be probabilistic in. navars ‘Thay ean be described by loeation and seasonally dependent probabilistic dis- They can be charactareticn are generally not statistically independont {tibatigns Maries in space and exhibite spatial corelation between point ‘Donth is related to duration. Large duration is generally associated with Pree epi although the opposite relation exists between average inten: sity and duration. ee Mntrior refors to the time and spatial distribution of inteneits® turowgout a ator, Iti observed that for given locations and eimat® condi- throughon’ foe of events exhibit similar histories of rainfall cccurmulat on fone Srcemtaye-mase cazve i a plot of normlizod cursuative dep by Se a ee aaron, Figure 4.14 ahows how typical eurves are obtained “oF aan ar gad eyelonie ovents. The derivative (elope) of those curves is & tragh of intensity versus time. This graph ie veferred to ex the hhyetograph 00 = arte a a Puceniny ct erm duran FIGURE 4.1 Typical peroantago mass carves of afl fr understonns ar for topea jeomes, Soutes PS. Eagleson, Dynamic Hyratogy, MoGraw HH, 1970. ascrommeucione 131 inal scamoltion ‘a Te FIGURE 4.15 Typical storm hyetagraph in histogram (ot bar dlagram) form. and is usually given in histogram lorm (Fig. 4.16). Note that, eccording to Paha fla, taundorstorms have triangular (or moundlike) hyetograph treulca eylonos exhibit intensity diagrams that resemble a distor bell wih long tails to the right, nore interiors are important in urban hydrology, where histories of sninfal sad flow are required, Thay are also becoming inereasingly more n- ted coneeptu- aera ef conot-generation, mechanisms that will be seen later. Severs] aaa gators Plgrim ot al. (1969); Marsalek (1978) havo attempted 6 de invostigetmmvage interiors for design purposes, with some success. Others dara 1a/abh Bras and Rodrigue ture (1976) have hypothesined ob craatfal and time strucburo of storm interiors, suggesting some eave ta erenten the histories at diferent points in space, all related by an aver- age velocity of translation for the ovent. SeeGtig: storms generally exhibit one or more contrs of maxini: depth. The tolal dopth of point rainfall over an area is then a decreasing func~ deen rHatance from the storm center. Lines of equal precipitation, isohyets, thon form close loops around points of maximum precipltation vserral equations, mostly of local natare, have been suggested 69 Tero, soit the dosey from the point of maximuim preciptation. Some relations are Sorm-centered and others are geographicelly centered. racer ered Precipitation is usually expressed as a percentage of She so er ectibe, The difference between the area-averaged depth and the storm-conter value 1. decreases with inereesing total rainfall depth, which implies bigher mnie ormity of heavy storms; src obit