Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Global Biogeochemical Cycles and The Physical Climate System
Global Biogeochemical Cycles and The Physical Climate System
Global Biogeochemical Cycles and The Physical Climate System
Atmosphere
Ecosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
GCIP Staff
Advisory Committee
Arthur Few
Rice University
John Firor
National Center for Atmospheric Research
William Moomaw
Tufts University
Ellen Mosley-Thompson
The Ohio State University
Jack Rhoton
East Tennessee State University
John Snow
University of Oklahoma
1999 by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. All rights reserved.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommentations expressed in this publication are those of the
authors and donot necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
For more information on the Global Change Instruction Program, contact the UCAR Communications
office, P.O. Box 3000, Boulder, CO 80307-3000. Phone: 303-497-8600; fax: 303-497-8610;
lwarner@ucar.edu or carolr@ucar.edu
http://home.ucar.edu/ucargen/education/gcmod/contents.html
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Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Chapter 1: Bigeochemical Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Chapter 2: Biogeochemical Cycles and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Chapter 3: The Modern Coupled C-N-P-S-O System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Chapter 4: Carbon Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Chapter 5: The Important Nutrient Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Chapter 6: Phosphorus and Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Chapter 7: The Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Study Questions and Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Supplementary Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Global Change
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Preface
discipline than in another. Also, each discipline
has a unique vocabulary. (Most of the interdisciplinary vocabulary in this module is defined
within the text or in the extensive glossary.)
Furthermore, the language of chemical equations
is used to describe processes operating within the
ecosphere. Therefore, it may take some additional
work and perhaps reference to basic texts in
chemistry, ecology, meteorology, etc., to digest
the material of this module.
The text begins by introducing some important biogeochemical processes. This material is
not a laundry list of processes but a selection of
such processes as photosynthesis, weathering,
and deposition of sediments in the ocean as
examples of the nature and variety of biogeochemical processes. The next subject is the historical (geological) nature of environmental change
on the earth. Emphasis is on the biogeochemical
cycles of atmospheric carbon dioxide and oxygen
through the past 600 million years of the history
of the earth. The major processes controlling
these cycles and their tie to climate are discussed.
We will see that for much of this time, the planet
has had a more equable climate than at present.
Finally, the text deals with parts of the modern biogeochemical cycles of five of the most
important elements essential for life: carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and oxygen. These
elements, along with hydrogen and a suite of
nutrient trace elements, interact through the
processes of photosynthesis and respiration
and/or decay. Processes and feedbacks within
the cycles are described in the context of the
potential for a global warming brought about by
human activities that have changed the composition of the atmosphere. Keep in mind that the
approach can be used to interpret the interaction
between biogeochemical cycles and climatic
change of any naturewarming or coolingand
at various space and time scales.
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Introduction
The global ecosphere is the thin film around
the earth where living things (the biosphere 1 )
interact with the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere
(water), cryosphere (ice), and lithosphere (soils and
shallowly buried rocks) in a complex system
involving biological, geological, and chemical
processes and cycles (Figure 1). This biogeochemical system of spheres and processes is powered
mainly by energy from the sun.
The ecosphere is made up of individual
ecosystems, such as tropical forests, grasslands,
tundra, coral reefs, and estuaries. Matter and
energy flow between and within these ecosystems in interconnected biogeochemical cycles.
Gaseous chemical compounds are produced and
consumed in the ecosystems and exchanged
Figure 1. The ecosphere, our life support system, showing its relationship to the other important spheres of the surface system of the earth
(after Christensen, 1991).
Atmosphere
Ecosphere
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
1 Terms in italics are defined in the glossary at the end of the text.
Global Change
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Biogeochemical Processes
Innumerable biological, geological, and chemical processes cycle elements throughout the ecosphere. The few discussed in this section should
give the reader an idea of their variety and complexity. As an example, consider a group of organisms called the prokaryotes: the bacteria and bluegreen algae. The processes that these organisms are
involved with (summarized in Table 1) include:
Process
Summary of partial
chemical reactions
Examples of organisms
involved in process
Carbon
CO2 fixation
CO2 + H2 (CH2O)n +
A2 (A = O, S)
Photoautotrophs:
cyanobacteria, purple and green
sulfur bacteria
Chemoautotrophs:
sulfur and iron oxidizing bacteria
Methanogenesis
COO- + H2 CH4
Methanogenic bacteria
Methanotrophy
CH4 + O2 CO2
Methanotrophic bacteria
Fermentation
(CH2O)n + O2 CO2
Respiration
(CH2O)n + O2 CO2
Sulfur reduction
SO4 + H2 H2S
Sulfur-reducing bacteria
Sulfur oxidation
H2S S0
S0 + O2 SO4
N2 fixation
N2 + H2 NH4
Nitrification
Nitrifying bacteria
Sulfur
Nitrogen
Denitrifying bacteria
Denitrification
NO2, NO3 N2O, N2
__________________________________________________________________
After Stolz et al., 1989
(2)
In chemical processes, matter cannot be created or destroyed. Thus, when a chemical equation is written,
the total number of atoms of any particular element on the left-hand side of a chemical equation must be
made to equal the total number of atoms of that element on the right-hand side of the equation. This is the
process of balancing a chemical equation. Balancing the equation expresses the fact that molecules usually
react in such a way as to bear simple, integral, numerical relationships to one another.
If these relationships are known, it is possible to calculate the masses of reactants and products by using
known atomic and molecular weights. In chemical terms, the amount of a substance is expressed in moles. One
mole of a substance is the amount that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 grams of
carbon. This number is termed Avogadros constant, and its value is equal to 6.022 x 1023. In the chemical
equation given above for the equilibrium of CaCO3 and its dissolved chemical species, one mole of CaCO3 will
dissolve in water to make one mole of Ca2+ and one mole of CO32-. In terms of mass, 100 grams of CaCO3 will
react to give 40 grams of Ca2+ and 60 grams of CO32-. If only 10 grams of CaCO3 were to dissolve, then the
same proportions of Ca2+ and CO32- would be present at the equilibrium: 4 and 6 grams, respectively.
Figure 2. Periodic table of the elements. Each box includes an elements atomic number,
chemical symbol, and atomic weight.
Table 2.
Chemical formulas and names used in this module
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kaolinite
Ca2+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .calcium ion
CaCO3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .calcium carbonate
CaSiO3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .calcium silicate
Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .carbonate fluoroapatite
CH2O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .carbohydrate
(CH2O)106(NH3)16H3PO4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .organic matter in marine phytoplankton
CH4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .methane
CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .carbon dioxide
CO32- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .carbonate ion
CS2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .carbon disulfide
C6H12O6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sugar (glucose)
DIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .dissolved inorganic carbon
DMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .dimethyl sulfide, (CH3)2S
HCO3- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bicarbonate ion
HNO3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .nitric acid
H2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .molecular hydrogen
H2O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .water
H2S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .hydrogen sulfide
H2SO4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sulfuric acid
H3PO4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .phosphoric acid
H4SiO40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .monomeric silicic acid
KAlSi3O8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .orthoclase feldspar
MSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .methane-sulfonic acid
NaAlSi3O8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .albite
NaCl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sodium chloride, common table salt
NH3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ammonia
NH4+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ammonium ion
NH4NO3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ammonium nitrate
(NH4)2SO4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ammonium sulfate
NMHC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .nonmethane hydrocarbon
NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .nitric oxide
NO3- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .nitrate ion
NOx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .oxides of nitrogen
N2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .diatomic nitrogen
N2O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .nitrous oxide
OCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .carbonyl sulfide
OH* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .hydroxyl radical
OH- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .hydroxyl ion
O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .diatomic oxygen (pure oxygen molecules)
O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ozone
PAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .peroxylacetyl nitrate
PH3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .phosphine or swamp gas
PO43+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .phosphate ion
SO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sulfur dioxide
SO42- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sulfate ion
SOx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .oxides of sulfur
SiO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .silica
Photosynthesis
We begin with perhaps the most important
biogeochemical process of all, photosynthesis. It is a
photoautotrophic process, that is, an autotrophic
reaction in the presence of light. Nutrients such as
phosphate (PO43-) and nitrate (NO3-) are also necessary for this reaction to occur.
In the early stages of our planets formation,
the atmosphere was very different from that of
today. There was no free molecular oxygen (O2),
which most of todays life forms require. In fact,
oxygen was a very powerful poison for the simple organisms that lived in this early, oxygendeficient (anaerobic) world. Both the organisms
and the earth had to evolve to a stage where the
organisms produced oxygen and emitted it to
their environment before more advanced life
forms could evolve. Photosynthesis, the process
of constructing complex organic molecules from
simple inorganic ones in the presence of light,
was a critical step in the evolution of life and
allowed the mass of living organisms to grow to
the level of today. In our world, the mass of living
organisms on earth is equivalent to about 600 billion tons of carbon. More than 99% of this carbon
is in land plants; the remainder is stored in
marine plants and in animals.
Photosynthesis is basically a chemical reaction
or process in which carbon-, hydrogen-, and oxygen-bearing chemical compounds (carbohydrates)
are synthesized from atmospheric CO2 and H2O or
another chemical compound that can act as a
hydrogen donor. The generalized reaction is
DRAFT
Weathering of Rocks
Another very important set of biogeochemical processes is that involved with the breakdown of rocks exposed to rain, wind, and ice.
Weathering prepares rock for erosion and transportation. Its products are dissolved chemical
species and solids derived from changes in the
primary minerals of the rock being weathered.
The solid products are predominantly clay minerals; there are also dissolved products, predominantly calcium, carbon, and silicon. Ultimately,
the products of weathering are either carried by
water, blown as dust, or carried by glaciers to the
ocean. Of the approximately 20 billion tons of
solids and dissolved materials reaching the ocean
annually from the land, more than 80% is delivered by rivers. However, high-temperature chemical reactions in the presence of seawater along
the great submarine midocean ridges are significant sources of dissolved calcium, silica, and iron
for the oceans.
An example of a chemical weathering reaction is the weathering of the mineral albite (the
inorganic chemical compound NaAlSi3O8), found
in igneous rocks like basalt, to the clay mineral
kaolinite [Al2Si2O5(OH)4]. The reaction takes
place principally in the presence of soil water
and groundwater that contain significant amounts
of dissolved CO2. Although the ultimate source
of the CO2 is the atmosphere, much of it does not
come directly from the air but is produced in
soils by the respiration of plants and the decay of
dead plants and animals. Because of these
processes, the concentration of CO2 in soils may
be one or more orders of magnitude greater than
that of the atmosphere. The elevated CO2 levels
give rise to acidic soil solutions, and these corrosive, low-pH soil solutions are responsible for the
weathering of rock minerals like albite:
(CH2O)106(NH3)16H3PO4 + 138O2
106CO2 + 16HNO3 + H3PO4 + 122H2O
(6)
For an example of respiration and decay in an
anoxic environment, let us consider the reduction
of sulfur in sulfate (SO42-) in the pore waters of
anoxic sediments. Bacteria use the oxygen originally bound in the sulfate to oxidize organic matter. Again using phytoplankton as the organic
matter, the equation for this chemical reaction is
(CH2O)106(NH3)16H3PO4 + 53SO42-
106CO2 + 16NH3 + H3PO4 + 53S2- + 106H2O (7)
This time, in addition to carbon dioxide, phosphoric acid, and water as in reaction 6, the products include ammonia (NH3) and sulfide (S2-).
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Historical Framework
It is worthwhile considering at this stage
how the earths biogeochemical cycles and climate system functioned prior to human interference. It is impossible to consider the functioning
of all the biogeochemical cycles of concern
because of space limitations. Only the global biogeochemical cycles of carbon and oxygen are
used as examples in this section. We will end
with a brief summary of environmental conditions just prior to major human interference in
the biogeochemical cycles and climate system.
Carbon
Carbon composes approximately 50% of all
living tissues. In the form of carbon dioxide, it is
necessary for plants to grow. Carbon dioxide also
helps to sustain an equable climate on earth. The
concentration of carbon dioxide in the
12
(a) Photosynthesis-respiration
CO2
CO2
Decay
Uptake by
rocks in
weathering
Organisms use
carbon from the
ocean/atmosphere
to construct
organic matter and
shells of calcium
and carbonate,
CaCO3
(b) Subduction
Figure 3. The biogeochemical cycle of carbon prior to human interference, showing (a) the short-term cycle, i.e., photosynthesis and
respiration; (b) the long-term cycle, involving accumulation of organic C and CaCO3 in marine sediments, their subduction, their alteration,
and the return of CO2 to the atmosphere via volcanism; and (c) the medium-term cycle, involving storage of C in organic materials in sedimentary rocks. Ultimately this carbon is returned to the earths surface and undergoes weathering; in the process, O2 is taken out of the
atmosphere and CO2 is returned.
surface waters of the oceans. The primary producers, the photosynthetic phytoplankton and
benthic plants in the oceans and plants on the
terrestrial surface, transform inorganic carbon as
carbon dioxide into organic carbon within their
tissues. Light and nutrients, like phosphate and
nitrate, are necessary for this reaction to occur.
Some of the energy from the light is used in the
growth of plants, and some remains stored in the
tissues of plants as carbohydrates.
Plants remove about 100 billion tons of carbon as carbon dioxide from the global atmosphere each year, which is about 14% of the
atmospheres total carbon. Most, but not all, of
the carbon dioxide taken from the atmosphere
during photosynthesis is returned to the atmosphere during respiration and decay. The annual
13
ATMOSPHERE
Carbon in CO2 gas
Living plants
extract CO2
CO2 from
deforestation
CO2
from
cement
manufacturing
CO2 to
weathering
of limestone
and silicate
CO2
from
burning
of coal,
oil, and
gas
Buried
organic
matter
CO2 from
decaying
organic matter
and
respiration
BIOSPHERE
Organic matter in
plants and animals
Oceans
absorb CO2
Aquatic plants
put CO2 into water
CO2 from
alteration of
organic
matter and
CaCO3
HYDROSPHERE
CO2 dissolved in ocean
Precipitation
of CaCO3
Coal, oil, gas
LITHOSPHERE
Carbon in buried plants, animals, and sediments
Kerogen
Figure 4. The major reservoirs and fluxes in the biogeochemical cycle of carbon. The shapes surrounding the spheres are called boxes.
Arrows represent the processes and their directions that transfer carbon from one box to another. The carbon cycle can be conceived of as
a series of interlocking circuits in the reservoirs of atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and shallow lithosphere (crust). In our time, the
cycle would be in balance if it were not for human interference by burning of fossil fuels, cement manufacturing, and land-use activities
(e.g., deforestation) (after Skinner and Porter, 1987).
14
taken up from plants is released from the animals body as carbon dioxide gas.
Besides the carbon stored above ground in
living and dead vegetation, there is carbon below
ground in the root systems of terrestrial plants.
When the plants die, some of this carbon may be
released as carbon dioxide or methane gas to the
air trapped in the soil, or it may accumulate in
the soil itself as dead organic material. This dead
organic matter may be ingested by consumer
organisms, such as insects and worms living in
the soil.
Some of the organic carbon generated in land
environments is weathered and eroded, and the
organic debris is transported by streams to the
ocean. In the ocean, some of this debris, along
with the organic detritus of dead marine plants
and animals, settles to the ocean floor and accumulates in the sediments. However, some of the
debris is respired in the ocean to carbon dioxide.
This carbon dioxide may leave the ocean and be
transported over the continents, where it is used
again in the production of land plants.
The long-term carbon cycle
The long-term carbon cycle (on the
order of tens to a hundred million
years) requires that we consider the
earths history over the last 600 million
years or sothe period covered by the
fossil record. Figure 5 defines the
terms and intervals of geologic time.
The long-term cycling of carbon
(Figures 3 and 4) involves interconnections between the cycling of the
minerals calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
and calcium silicate (CaSiO3). This
series of processes dates back to the
beginning of plate tectonics. This
cycling includes not only the land and
ocean reservoirs but also that of limestone rocks. Limestone rocks are mainly composed of calcium carbonate and
are the fossilized skeletal remains of
marine organisms or, less commonly,
inorganic chemical precipitates of calcium carbonate. Limestones are great
storage containers for carbon. Most of
the carbon near the earths surface is
Figure 5. The geologic time scalethe calendar of the earth. Geologic time is
divided into the intervals of eon, era, period, and epoch. The boundaries of these
intervals are based on absolute age dating using the radioactive decay of certain
elements (e.g., uranium, potassium, rubidium, and carbon) in rocks; the distribution of fossilized plants and animals found in the rocks; and certain worldwide
geologic events recorded in the rocks (after Skinner and Porter, 1987).
Eon
Phanerozoic
Era
Period
Epoch
Cenozoic
Quaternary
Holocene
Pleistocene
Tertiary
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Paleozoic
Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Precambrian:
Proterozoic
Archean
Hadean
4600
15
Figure 6. Model calculation of atmospheric carbon dioxide during the last 600 million years. The horizontal axis shows time in millions of years
before the present (top) and geological time period (bottom). The left vertical axis shows the number of times todays C level that existed in the
atmosphere of the time; the right vertical axis shows the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. For example, 500 million years ago there was
about 14 times as much CO2 in the atmosphere as there is today, with a total amount of about 37 x 1018 grams (after Berner, 1991).
Time
Millions of years before present (BP)
500
400
300
200
100
0
50
18
C
O
S
D
C
P
Tr
J
K
T
16
14
12
10
Cambrian
Ordovician
Silurian
Devonian
Carboniferous
Permian
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
Tertiary
40
30
20
6
4
2
0
10
Present day
Paleozoic
Tr
Mesozoic
16
Cenozoic
600
17
18
In the oceans, phytoplankton produce slightly more oxygen than is consumed during the respiration and decay of marine life. As a result,
oxygen is released to the atmosphere. The organic carbon not decayed by this oxygen, along with
some of the terrestrial organic detritus mentioned
in the preceding paragraph, is deposited on the
seafloor and accumulates in the sediments of the
ocean. If this accumulation were not counteracted
by other processes, and no other factors were to
intervene, all the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would disappear in less than 10,000 years.
The oxygen content of the atmosphere would
double in less than several million years.
Fortunately, the overproduction of oxygen in the
oceans is balanced by the weathering of fossil
organic carbon and other materials in rocks on
land. During this process, carbon dioxide is
returned to the atmosphere.
If the burial of organic carbon in sediments
were enhanced, oxygen might accumulate in the
Figure 7. The biogeochemical cycle of oxygen. This cycle is strongly coupled to that of carbon (Figure 4). The boxes represent the
major reservoirs of oxygen, and the arrows the fluxes of oxygen
from one box to another. The heavier the arrow, the larger the flux.
The broken lines show the flow of carbon in sedimentation on the
ocean floor, burial in sediments, and uplift by plate tectonic
processes. When uplifted, organic C is oxidized by oxygen in the
atmosphere, and CO2 is released (after Andreae, 1987).
Respiration
Atmospheric
CO2
Photosynthesis
Atmospheric oxygen
Land biota
Oxygen dissolved
in the ocean
Ph
oto
syn
the
sis
tion
ira
sp
Re
Marine biota
Continental rocks
Marine sediments
(organic carbon)
19
through the last 2 million years, global temperatures went up and down, as did sea level. The
composition of the atmosphere and other environmental conditions changed.
The earth, before extensive human interference in its biogeochemical cycles, was recovering
from the climax of the last great glaciation 18,000
years ago. The recovery has not been smooth.
There have been times in the past 18,000 years
when the planet cooled quickly. Also, there have
been periods when the earth was warmer than
today. However, during the past several centuries, the global environment has changed substantially and rapidly. Atmospheric trace gas concentrations, matter in runoff, temperature, and
other indicators have increased in magnitude. A
major reason for all the changes is the impact of
human activities on the environment.
Figure 8. Model calculation of atmospheric oxygen during the past 600 million years. The dashed line across the figure shows todays
atmospheric concentration of O2. The left vertical axis shows the atmospheric O2 level; the right vertical axis shows O2 as a percentage of
the total atmospheric gases. The horizontal axis shows time in millions of years before the present and geological time period (after Berner
and Canfield, 1989).
Time
Millions of years before present (BP)
20
500
C
O
S
D
C
P
Tr
J
K
T
400
300
200
100
Cambrian
Ordovician
Silurian
Devonian
Carboniferous
Permian
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
Tertiary
35
30
25
Present day
20
10
15
10
5
Paleozoic
Tr
Mesozoic
20
Cenozoic
600
30
Global Change
Instruction Program
Figure 9. Part of the modern global biogeochemical cycle of methane, emphasizing exchanges of methane between the earths surface and
atmosphere and the fate of the gas in the atmosphere. The atmospheric reservoir is shown as a circle, including the amount of carbon in
teragrams (1012 grams), equivalent to million metric tons (Mt). Flux ranges are also given in Mt C/yr; arrows indicate the directions of the
fluxes. The proportion of C in the atmosphere is given in parts per million by volume (ppmv), the residence time in years, and the accumulation rate per year in both Mt and parts per billion by volume (ppbv). The chemical reaction at the top of the figure shows the fate of methane
that escapes to the stratosphere (after Mackenzie, 1995; Houghton et al., 1996).
To stratosphere
46
Climate sensitivity
0.3C/CH4 doubling
17% greenhouse
n
epletio
H*d
O
0
y
inl
45
Ma 300
CO
CH4 hyd
rate
0 76
Land
ean
Oc 16
4
nds
ral wetla
Natu
76 150
Freshwater
1 19
Production from livestock
56 150
Soil uptake
11 34
CH4
3750 Mt C
1.72 ppmv
Residence time = 10 y
Accumulation:
28 Mt C/y
8 ppbv
ing
Fos
sil
fue
34 l bu
7 rn
Biom
6
as s
bu
16
r
3 nin
1
g
Lan
dfil
16 ls
53
Rice
pa
19 ddies
127
METHANE
(fluxes = Mt C/y)
Ocean
21
Figure 10. Part of the modern global biogeochemical cycle of carbon monoxide, emphasizing exchange of the gas between the earths
surface and its atmosphere and the fate of the gas in the atmosphere. See Figure 9 for an explanation of the units and abbreviations
used. Notice, as with methane, the role of OH* as an agent of oxidation of the reduced carbon gases (after Mackenzie, 1995; Houghton
et al., 1996).
CARBON MONOXIDE
(fluxes = Mt C/y)
CO
228 Mt C
0.11 ppmv
Residence time = 0.2 y
Accumulation:
2 Mt C/y
1 ppbv
ing
Soil
48
Biom
ass
bu
312 rnin
g
tion
ple
e
* d 12
OH 12
CO2
epletion
OH* d
360
NMHC
ean
Oc 2
7
Fos
sil
fue
l
33 bur
6
n
OH*
dep
l
32 etio
4
Soil uptake
192
CH4
To stratosphere
48
CO + OH* CO2 + H
Land
Ocean
22
Global Change
Instruction Program
Carbon Cycles
23
24
Figure 11. Part of the modern global biogeochemical cycle of carbon dioxide, emphasizing its exchanges between the earths surface and its
atmosphere. See Figure 9 for an explanation of the units and abbreviations used. If there were a doubling of the CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere, one would expect a rise in temperature of 23C at the earths surface and in the lower atmosphere. CO2 accounts for about
60% of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Note that fossil fuel burning and land-use practices released to the atmosphere about 7,700 Mt of
carbon in 1995. The atmosphere was a major sink for this anthropogenic carbon, but the ocean and the terrestrial biosphere took up about
50% of it. Compare this figure with Figure 4 (after Mackenzie, 1995; Houghton et al., 1996).
CARBON DIOXIDE
(fluxes = Mt C/y)
To terrestrial realm
2412
CO
To ocean
2000
Excess
4412
Climate sensitivity
2.5C/CO2 doubling
60% greenhouse
OH* d
eple
121 tion
2
Ne
tp
n
t io
uc
rod
yp
00
ay
50
ec
-d
ion
2
ion
25
itat
45
cip
pre
168
rim
a
4 r
ira
t
anic
Volc
60
Land
CO
Ca
Lan
Late diagenesis-me
tamor
p h is
60
m
Re
sp
il CH2O
Oxidation of foss
36
d
16 use
Fos
0
0
sil f
u el
610 burn
0
ing
Resp
irat
io
614 n-dec
40
ay
Net pr
imar
yp
630 roduc
00
tio
n
Weatherin
g
216
CO2
752000 Mt C
360 ppmv
Residence time = 6.5 y
Accumulation:
3100 Mt C/y
1.5 ppmv
Ocean
25
26
respiration. The rates of both processes in vegetation and microbial life increase with increasing
temperature. However, respiration rates are more
sensitive to temperature change. In a warming
world, increased respiration could temporarily
increase the flux of CO2 to the atmosphere by as
much as 13 billion tons of carbon per year. This
increased flux is a potentially strong positive
feedback on CO2 accumulation in the atmosphere
and hence on global warming.
A change in the ocean temperature would
affect the amount of dissolved inorganic carbon
in seawater. The equation relevant to this effect
is
(9)
27
With warming, the composition and distribution of algae, jellyfish, and other marine
species could change.
The rates of delivery to the ocean of iron,
molybdenum, and other trace metals essential to marine life may change.
28
Global Change
Instruction Program
Figure 12. Part of the modern global biogeochemical cycle of nitrogen, emphasizing interactions among the land, atmosphere, and ocean.
Fluxes between the ocean, land, and groundwater are shown as arrows, with quantities given in Mt N/yr. Fluxes within reservoirs are shown
as circling arrows. Ind. fix is industrially fixed N (for the manufacture of fertilizers), Bio. fix is biologically fixed N, DN is dissolved N, PON is
particulate organic nitrogen, and pollutant is the excess nitrogen that has resulted from human activities (modified from Mackenzie, 1995).
at
ion
NITROGEN
(fluxes = Mt N/y)
2 fi
x
Atmospheric
CO2
N2O
N2O
Denitrification
1.4 2.6
Evasion
Land
42 Rice cultivation
20 Combustion
78 Ind. fix.
126 Bio. fix.
Enhanced organic
production-burial
216 Mt C/y
Aerosol
14
560
Ocean
Human waste
20
Agriculture
9
River
35 DN
27 PON
>21 pollutant
8000
Groundwater
Organic N
28
Accumulation
29
N2
The overwhelming majority of nitrogen in
the atmosphere is in the form of N2. The other
forms exist only in small quantities. Biological
fixation and denitrification are the major processes leading to exchange of nitrogen between the
earths surface and the atmosphere (Figure 12).
Biological fixation is the process whereby N2 is
withdrawn from the atmosphere and converted
to N compounds that plants can use (e.g., NH3
and subsequently NO3-). Denitrification is the
process by which nitrogen as N2 or as N2O is
returned to the atmosphere. Both processes are
mediated by a variety of bacteria living in soils
and water.
The exchange fluxes between the earths surface and the atmosphere are small compared to
the internal recycling of nitrogen within the land
and ocean realms (Figures 12 and 13). Combustion
practices, the production of commercial fertilizers,
Figure 13. River input of N to the ocean compared to the fluxes involved with the internal recycling of N in the ocean due to biological productivity and decay. Besides the ocean fluxes shown, about 90% of the nitrogen involved in biological production is simply recycled in the
shallow surface waters of the coastal and open oceans. Some nitrogen escapes from the surface ocean in organic matter that settles to the
deep ocean, where the organic matter is decayed and the nitrogen released. It then returns to the surface via upwelling in the coastal zone
and vertical mixing in the open ocean. Some nitrogen, about 30 Mt per year, is buried in marine sediments in organic matter (see Figure
12). Some N is transported to the open ocean from the coastal environment (after Mackenzie, 1995; Houghton et al., 1996).
ORGANIC NITROGEN
(fluxes = Mt N/y)
Rivers
Dissolved N 35
Particulate N 27
Coastal
zone
Export
200
Surface
open ocean
Organic
Vertical
Upw
matter
e
206lling mixing sedimentation
670
900
Deep ocean
30
N2O
N2O is a natural product of biological denitrification in soils and in the ocean (Figure 14).
The N2O produced by denitrification is only
about 15% of all N returned to the atmosphere;
the rest is in the form of N2.
N2O is an important greenhouse gas, accounting for about 9% of the enhanced greenhouse
effect since the 18th century. It has a present
atmospheric concentration of 312 ppmv and a residence time of about 130 years. This concentration
is about 8% greater than in preindustrial time and
Figure 14. Part of the modern global biogeochemical cycle of nitrous oxide. Symbols and units are as in Figure 9. This gas is responsible for
5% of the enhanced greenhouse effect. A doubling of its atmospheric concentration could lead to about a 0.4C increase in global temperature. Notice the reaction of this long-lifetime gas in the stratosphere, leading to the destruction of stratospheric ozone. The fluxes in this
cycle are not well known (modified from Mackenzie, 1995).
NITROUS OXIDE
(fluxes = Mt N/y)
~ 85%
+ h
<15%
+ O3
NOx
To stratosphere
59
N2
Climate sensitivity
0.4C/N2O doubling
5% greenhouse
Fertiliz
er
0.01
2.2
Biom
ass
0.02 burnin
g
0.
3
Com
bu
0.1 stion
0
.3
ean
Oc 3
1.5
So
il
~7 s
N 2O
1510 Mt N
312 ppbv
Residence time = 130 y
Accumulation:
3.6 Mt C/y
0.8 ppbv
Land
Ocean
31
NH3
The biogeochemical cycle of ammonia (NH3)
is shown in Figure 15. Ammonia is released to the
atmosphere by organic decomposition and
volatilization. There, it reacts with water droplets to
form ammonium ion (NH4+) and hydroxyl ion
(OH-). NH4+ appears to be removed from the
atmosphere mainly by being deposited back on
the earth in the aerosols of ammonium sulfate
[(NH4)2SO4] and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).
Incidentally, (NH4)2SO4 links the nitrogen and sulfur biogeochemical cycles, since its deposition on
the earth is also one of the ways oxidized sulfur is
removed from the atmosphere; the other is by
deposition of sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Two interactions in the NH3 cycle are important in considerations of global warming. The
first is its interaction with OH* to produce NOx.
In a warmer world, the decomposition that
releases NH3 would probably be enhanced,
which would slightly increase the stress on the
OH* concentration of the atmosphere and
enhance production of NOx (Figure 16). The
effects of increased NOx concentrations are discussed in the following section. The second important interaction is NH3s reaction with NO3 and
SO4 to produce aerosols containing ammonium
(Figure 15). Aerosols are known to cool the planet,
although the amount of the effect is unclear. An
increase in atmospheric NH3 could lead to a small
negative feedback on potential warming.
The ammonia cycle also gives us information
on nitrogen fertilization of the terrestrial biosphere. About four-fifths of the N released to the
atmosphere each year in NH3 comes from human
(10)
(11)
Ozone destruction:
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
O3 + ultraviolet light O2 + O
NO2 + O NO + O2
_____________________________________
2O3 + ultraviolet light 3O2 (net reaction) (12)
32
Figure 15. Part of the modern global biogeochemical cycle of ammonia, including that of the ammonium ion (NH4+). See Figure 9 for an
explanation of the units and symbols used. Most of the ammonia emissions from the land surface are due to human activities. Ammonia is
removed from the atmosphere mainly in rain and as small, solid aerosol particles after reaction with water and with nitrate and sulfate.
Through reaction with OH*, a small amount of NH3 is converted to nitrogen oxides, e.g., NO and NO2 (modified from Mackenzie, 1995).
AMMONIA
(fluxes = Mt N/y)
epletion
OH* d
6
NO 3
Wet-dry
ion
Comb
ustio
n
7
+ H2O
89
deposit
89
Land
NH4
2 Mt N
Variable conc.
Residence time =
0.01 y
tion
mposi
deco
a ni c
ion
Org olatilizat
v
33
Organic
deco
mp
osi
volat
ti o
iz a t i
n
o
n
55
NH3
2 Mt N
Variable conc.
Residence time =
0.01 y
NOx
Ocean
Land
33
SO 4
Ocean
nin
NITROGEN OXIDES
(fluxes = Mt N/y)
5
ht
Tropospheric
O3
on
OH
*d
ep
le t
6
i
ere
Lig
NH3
F ro m
stra
tos
1 ph
Figure 16. Part of the modern biogeochemical cycle of the nitrogen oxides. About one-half of the emissions of these gases to the atmosphere comes from the combustion of fossil fuels. In the atmosphere, the gases are converted to several other chemical species, mainly
HNO3 , and removed from the atmosphere both in rain and in dust. Notice the tie to tropospheric O3 (see text), a greenhouse gas and a
component of smog (modified from Mackenzie, 1995).
Climate sensitivity
Greenhouse gas
Biomass b
urnin
g
3
ustio
n
21
Comb
Photochemical
56
HNO3
PAN
Organic nitrates
Photolysis
Ther
mal decomposition
Wet-dry
ion
deposit
56
Soil
s
20
NOx
Land
Land
34
Ocean
Figure 17. Part of the modern global biogeochemical cycle of the nonmethane hydrocarbons. Land vegetation and phytoplankton naturally
produce these compounds. Their human sources include industrial practices, transportation, and fossil fuel combustion. These compounds
react in the atmosphere with OH* and are important in controlling that compounds concentration in the troposphere. They are also responsible for disrupting the natural production and destruction of the ozone cycle in the troposphere. In conjunction with NOx , they can lead to
increased concentrations of O3 in the troposphere (modified from Mackenzie, 1995; Guenther et al., 1995).
OH
NONMETHANE
HYDROCARBONS
(fluxes = Mt C/y)
tion
p le
e
d 00
13
+ NOx
Climate sensitivity
Greenhouse gas
NMHCs
Terr
est
r ia
l
terp
ene vege
,
t
11 isop a
45 r
tio
Tropospheric
O3
e
en
Bioma
ss bu
rnin
combu
g
stion
, sol
150 vents
an
Oce
pene
, pro
ene 5
eth
Land
Ocean
35
Global Change
Instruction Program
Figure 18. Part of the modern global biogeochemical cycle of phosphorus, emphasizing the exchange of P among the land, atmosphere, and
ocean. Units and symbols are as in Figure 9. Notice, as with nitrogen (Figure 12), that the internal recycling fluxes in the ocean and land reservoirs by organic production and decay are much larger than the exchanges. Also as with nitrogen, the land is gaining P because of its mining,
its use in the manufacture of fertilizers and detergents, and sewage inputs. Wet-dry fallout is the precipitation of phosphorus on the ocean as
particles and in rain. DP is dissolved phosphorus, and pollutant is excess phosphorus from human activities (modified from Mackenzie, 1995).
PHOSPHORUS
(fluxes = Mt P/y)
Atmospheric
CO2
Sea salt
0.03
Dust
3.1
Land
8.5 Acc.
186
Atmosphere
0.03 Mt P
Residence time =
2.4 days
Dust
3.72
Human
activities
0.47
Dust
1.09
Wet-dry
fallout
0.28
Sea salt
0.31
Enhanced organic
production-burial
140 Mt C/y
Ocean
1085
Rivers
2.9 DP (1.5 pollutant)
Organic P
1.6
Fisheries
0.31
Mining
12.1
DRAFT
Accumulation
36
Feedbacks
Two major biological feedbacks in the phosphorus cycle may be of importance in global climate change. One involves the enhanced eutrophication of aquatic systems as a result of human
activities, as just mentioned. The global dissolved
phosphorus flux, carried by rivers to the coasts,
has doubled since preindustrial times because of
these activities (Figure 18). The resulting eutrophication of the coastal regions has led to a potential
accumulation of organic carbon in these systems of
about 140 million tons of carbon per year (Figure
18, top right). This enhanced flux is a negative
feedback on the accumulation of anthropogenic
CO2 in the atmosphere today and, as with nitrogen, could become more important in the future.
37
Figure 19. Part of the global biogeochemical cycle of reduced sulfur. See Figure 9 for an explanation of the units and symbols used. Reduced
sulfur gases are naturally produced both on land and in the ocean by biological processes. They are eventually removed from the atmosphere by reaction with OH* and conversion to SO2 and thence to sulfate aerosol (see Figure 20). Sulfate aerosol is produced by the oxidation of OCS in the stratosphere to form the sulfate veil during times of low volcanic activity. Sulfate aerosol is responsible for the scattering
and reflection of solar energy and thus cools the planet (modified from Mackenzie, 1995).
Climate sensitivity
DMSSO4
CCNcooling
To stratosphere
0.06 OCS
Sulfate veil
Reduced S
0.5 Mt S
0.1 ppbv
Residence time =
2.8 days
REDUCED SULFUR
(fluxes = Mt S/y)
SO4
OH* depletion
67
Biolog
ical
25 DM decay
S, H
2S
etion
excr
ayS
Dec MS, OC
D
42
Land
Ocean
38
SO2
Stratospheric sulfate
OCS is produced mainly by the photolysis of
organic sulfur in the surface waters of the ocean
and by photochemical oxidation of the biogenic
gas carbon disulfide (CS2) in the atmosphere. It is
the most abundant reduced sulfur species in the
remote marine atmosphere. Because it is chemically inert, it has a long residence time in the tro-
Figure 20. Part of the global biogeochemical cycle of oxidized sulfur. See Figure 9 for an explanation of the units and symbols used. Notice
that the flux of oxidized sulfur from land as SO2 is dominated by the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass burning. This sulfur reacts with
OH* to produce sulfate aerosols of ammonium and hydrogen. About 40% of the sulfur falling back on the earths surface is derived from
these sources. Volcanism can add sulfate aerosols to the stratosphere and produce a temporary cooling of the planet, as after the eruption
of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991. Sulfate aerosols derived from combustion of fossil fuels and biomass burning exert a strong cooling effect, but only
in the regions where they are produced (modified from Mackenzie, 1995).
Sulfate veil
OXIDIZED SULFUR
(fluxes = Mt S/y)
Reduced S
OH
*d
n
tio
67
ep
le
Volcanism
To stratosphere
SO4
SO4 aerosol
2 Mt S
0.35 ppbv
Residence time =
4.6 days
Earth surface
39
160
Volcanis
m
10
g
burn
in
Biomas
s
Land
49
C om
OH* depletion
115
Climate sensitivity
Cooling
sol
aero
Sea 45
bus
t
80 ion
SO2
0.5 Mt S
0.1 ppbv
Residence time =
1.2 days
To troposphere
Ocean
Oxidized sulfur
40
Global Change
Instruction Program
Figure 21. The global biogeochemical cycle of water (the hydrologic cycle), showing the major processes of water movement.
Numbers in parentheses show the water budget in thousands of cubic kilometers per year (after Maurits la Rivire, 1990.)
So
lar
rad
iat
Precipitation of
Snow, ice, rain
(111)
(71)
ion
Cloud
Evaporation
r
cie
Su
Gl
rfa
ce
ru
Transpiration
no
Evaporation
(425)
ff
Surface water
Lake
River
Precipitation
(385)
Soils
Return flow (40)
Percolation
Land
Ocean
Groundwater flow
41
42
43
Global Change
Instruction Program
Conclusion
An analogy is commonly made between the
earths surface system and a giant chemical engineering factory. In the natural system, material
circulation is driven by energy from the sun and,
to a much lesser extent, from radioactive decay of
elements in the earths interior and motions of its
tides. This is a mechanical and inorganic view of
the earth. In another and more realistic sense,
the earth has a natural metabolism; materials
have circulated about its surface for millions of
years in a complex, interconnected web of biogeochemical cycles. An array of physical, chemical, and biological processes weather and erode
rocks and transfer materials in and out of the
atmosphere, from the atmosphere to the biota
and back again, to the oceans via rivers, and to
the continents by uplift. Each element has a natural biogeochemical cycle. It is these cycles and
their relationship to the physical climate system
that have led to the development of a relatively
stable and resilient surface system during
44
Global Change
Instruction Program
45
5. Water vapor in the atmosphere averages about 0.2% of the atmosphere in weight.
A. What is the total mass of water vapor in the atmosphere?
B. How many moles of H2O vapor are there in the atmosphere?
The Oceans, Atmosphere, Sediments, and Rocks
1. The average depth of the ocean is 3.8 kilometers and the average upwelling rate of deep water into the
surface open ocean and into coastal environments is 4 m/yr. The area of the ocean is 3.6 x 1018 cm2.
A. About how long would it take to upwell the entire volume of the ocean?
B. The average nitrogen content of deep water is about 40 x 10-6 moles per liter (L). What is the
annual rate of addition of nitrogen to the surface water due to upwelling?
C. At a molar ratio of C:N of 106:16, what is the productivity in the global surface ocean in grams (g)
C/m2/yr sustained by the upwelling of nitrogen?
2. One source of the deep water of the worlds oceans is in the Norwegian Sea. Here water is sufficiently dense to sink to the bottom. This water mainly forms from the cooling by evaporation of water
carried northward by the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream carries heat to the high latitudes of the
North Atlantic Ocean which helps to moderate the climate of Europe. There is considerable interest
in the rate of formation of North Atlantic deep water (NADW) because of the role it plays in climate.
Possible changes in the rate of its formation have been cited as the cause of rapid climate change in
the past. Any global warming could modify the rate of deep water formation.
A. How would you expect the residence time of the deep water to change from the Atlantic Ocean to
the Pacific Ocean?
B. How does the deep water return to the surface?
C. If the continental glaciers were to begin melting because of a global warming, what would you
expect might happen to the rate of deep water formation and the climate of Europe?
3. The winds of the earth tend to blow along latitudinal lines around the planet. The major wind belts are
the Polar Easterlies, Westerlies, Trade Winds, and Equatorial Easterlies in both the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. The winds drive the surface currents of the ocean. Cool air that has descended
at midlatitudes moves toward the equator as the Northeast and Southeast Trade Winds in the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres, respectively. These winds exert a force on the sea surface, and currents are
generated that flow toward the equator. Both the winds of the atmosphere and the surface currents of
the ocean converge near the equator. The warm equatorial air rises and moves north and south toward
the poles. The converging ocean currents generate westward-flowing equatorial currents.
A. Based on the above, would you expect a pollutant gas like carbon monoxide with major anthropogenic sources in the Northern Hemisphere and a short atmospheric residence time to be evenly
distributed in the troposphere?
B. Is there an equatorial barrier to the dispersal of floating tar balls produced when petroleum
tankers spill oil in the shipping lanes of the North Atlantic?
C. Does such a barrier exist for the deep waters of the ocean?
46
4. The very finest particles of airborne dust carried by winds off the Sahara Desert travel in the troposphere for long distances westward across the Atlantic Ocean. These particles are deposited on the
ocean surface and settle out at a rate of 500 cm/yr. How long would it take such particles to reach
the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean at 4 km?
5. The global atmosphere in 1996 contained about 360 ppmv of CO2. This concentration is equivalent to
a partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2) of 10-3.45 atmosphere (atm).
A. What is the concentration of dissolved CO2 in the surface ocean in equilibrium with atmospheric
CO2 at a temperature of 25C?
B. In the year 1700, when atmospheric CO2 was at a concentration level of 280 ppmv (PCO2 = 10-3.55
atm), what was the concentration of CO2 in the surface ocean?
C. What was the percentage change in atmospheric CO2 concentration between 1700 and 1996?
6. The primary energy sources for the earth are:
solar radiation, 0.5 cal/cm2/min (about 343 W/m2)
heat flow from the interior of the earth, 0.9 x 10-4 cal/cm2/min
tidal energy, 0.9 x 10-5 cal/cm2/min.
About 49% of the solar radiation is absorbed by earths surface and reradiated to space as longwave,
infrared radiation.
A. What percentage of the total comes from the combination of heat from the interior of the earth
and tidal energy?
B. In units of W/m2, how much solar radiation reaches the earths surface and is absorbed there?
What does this energy do?
C. Of the 388 W/m2 of longwave radiation emitted to space by the earths surface, 326 W/m2 are
absorbed by water vapor, CO2, and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and reradiated
back to the earth. What happens to this energy, and what effect does it have on the earth?
7. The area of land today is 150 x 1012 m2, and the mean elevation of the continents is 0.84 km. The continents are being eroded at a rate of 200 x 1014 g/yr. The average density of rock is 2.7 g/cm3.
A. At the current rate of erosion, how long would it take to wear the continents down to sea level?
B. Your answer to question 7A was a period of time much less than the age of the earth of 4.6 billion
years. In that case, why are there any continents?
8. The total mass of sedimentary rock younger than 600 x 106 years is 1.8 x 1018 metric tons. Its mean
residence time is 400 x 106 years.
A. In an unchanging system, what is the flux of sediment in and out of the sedimentary rock reservoir?
B. How does sediment get into the sedimentary rock reservoir and how does it get out?
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9. What chemical species of nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon might you expect to find in a water-logged
(anoxic) soil? In a well-aerated soil?
10. What does the weathering of silicate minerals subtract from or add to the atmosphere?
Ecology
1. Tropical rain forests have a total area of 17 x 1012 m2, and estuaries have an area of 1.4 x 1012 m2.
Their mean net primary production is 2,000 g dry plant matter/m2/yr and 1,800 g dry plant
matter/m2/yr, respectively. Their mean plant biomasses in kg C/m2 are 20 and 0.45, respectively.
Forty-five percent of dry plant matter is carbon.
A. What is the total net primary production of tropical rain forests and estuaries in metric tons of dry
plant matter and carbon per year?
B. What is the total plant mass of these ecosystems in metric tons of dry plant matter and carbon?
C. The tropical rain forests of the world lost 9% of their area due to cutting in the 1980s. How much
dry plant matter does this cutting represent? How much carbon?
D. If all of the carbon in the cut trees of question 1C were emitted to the atmosphere by burning and
slow oxidation, how many grams of CO2 would this represent? What fraction of the atmospheric
CO2 reservoir is this (see Figure 11)?
E. Estuaries receive 1.5 x 1012 g of pollutant dissolved phosphorus annually (see Figure 18). This
amount of P could support how much additional plant productivity as dry matter and as C/m2
per year?
F. If all the additional plant matter in 1A were buried in the sediments of the estuaries, would this
flux qualify as a biological feedback to the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere? Explain. What
percentage of the atmospheric flux of 6 x 1015 g C from fossil fuel burning in 1995 does the additional total plant production in estuaries represent?
2. The net primary production of the earths surface is 0.37 kg dry matter/m2/yr.
A. With a total area of 510 x 1012 m2, what is the total production of dry matter?
B. How much carbon does the production in 2A represent?
C. Total production on land exceeds that in the ocean by perhaps as much as two times. What is the
annual total production on land and in the ocean?
3. What is the difference between autotrophy and heterotrophy?
4. What are three biogeochemical processes performed by the prokaryotes?
5. What is cultural eutrophication? Why may this phenomenon qualify as a negative feedback to the
accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere?
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Biogeochemical Cycles
1. Construct a diagram showing the reservoirs and fluxes in the global biogeochemical cycle of water.
Use the information in Figure 21 and Table 3, and the reservoirs of atmosphere, land, and ocean.
A. What is the residence time of water in the ocean with respect to the flux of water via the rivers to
the ocean?
B. If the concentration of dissolved calcium is 400 ppm in the ocean and 15 ppm in average river
water, what is the residence time of calcium in the ocean?
2. A nearly rectangular-shaped lake is 5 km long, 2 km wide, and 100 m deep and contains 0.001 mg/L
of dissolved mercury. A river discharges 2 x 1012 L/yr of water with a concentration of mercury of
0.0005 mg/L into the lake.
A. What is the water volume in the lake (in liters)?
B. What is the total mass of mercury in the lake?
C. What is the residence time of mercury in the lake?
D. An industrial plant near the mouth of the river accidentally discharges mercury into the lake. How
long will it take for most (95%) of the mercury contamination to work its way out of the lake?
3. The terrestrial living biomass contains 600 x 109 tons of carbon. It is argued that during the decade of
the 1980s, about 135 x 1012 moles of anthropogenic CO2 were taken up annually by the terrestrial
biomass.
A. What would be the average annual percentage increase in the mass of carbon in the terrestrial
biosphere?
B. Do you believe such an increase would be detectable by doing field studies to determine the
increase in biomass?
4. The mixed layer of the ocean is the vertical layer that is well stirred by winds blowing across the surface of the sea. Chemical and physical characteristics of the water column are rather uniform over
the depth of the mixed layer. The average thickness of the mixed layer throughout the worlds
oceans is about 100 meters but varies from 50 to 300 meters. The average total dissolved inorganic
carbon (DIC, HCO3- + CO32- + CO2) content of the mixed layer is 2.2 micromoles (mmol) per kg.
A. What is the total mass (reservoir) of DIC in the mixed layer of the ocean in moles of carbon? (The
area of the ocean is 360 x 1012 m2.)
B. The ocean takes up about 2 billion tons of carbon annually from the human activities of fossil fuel
combustion, cement manufacturing, and deforestation. What is the annual increase in dissolved
carbon in the mixed layer of the ocean in mmol/kg due to this absorption of anthropogenic CO2?
C. Use the annual increase you derived from 4B and assume the DIC content of the mixed layer was
2.2 mmol/kg in 1975. What would be the percentage increase in the DIC content of the mixed
layer from 1975 to 1996?
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5. Total evaporation is 496 x 103 km3 H2O/yr over the earths surface.
A. What is the residence time of water in the atmosphere?
B. If a pollutant is susceptible to being rained out (washed out) of the atmosphere, would you expect
it to mix evenly throughout the troposphere?
6. What are the three major processes controlling atmospheric CO2 concentration levels on a long time
scale? Write a balanced set of chemical equations demonstrating these processes.
7. What is the connection between organic matter and atmospheric O2?
8. What is the major difference between the biogeochemical cycle of phosphorus and those of carbon,
nitrogen, and sulfur?
9. What is the major difference in the reactivity of DMS and OCS in the atmosphere?
10. The mean atmospheric lifetime (residence time) of NH3 is 14 days; that of CO is 60 days. How do the
rates of destruction of these gases in the atmosphere by OH* compare qualitatively?
11. Referring to Figures 911, what is the major reaction in the atmosphere that couples the biogeochemical
cycles of CH4, CO, and CO2? What percentage of the enhanced greenhouse forcing on climate is due to
CO2? To CH4? What are the sources of emissions of CH4 to the atmosphere from human activities? Of
CO2 and CO? If the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere were doubled, what would be the potential increase in temperature? How much more effective is CH4 than CO2 as a greenhouse gas?
12. Referring to Figure 12, what is the ratio of anthropogenic N fluxes on land involving fixation of
atmospheric N to natural biological fixation? What is the minimum percentage of the N fixed by
human activities that is discharged to the ocean by rivers? What is the important environmental
problem related to this additional N flux to the ocean?
13. Referring to Figure 13, what is the ratio of these two fluxes: the upwelling flux of N to the coastal zone and
the dissolved N flux to the ocean via rivers? Which flux would you expect to change during the next
century?
14. Referring to Figure 14, based on the summation of the high and low estimates of fluxes of N2O from
earths surface to the atmosphere, what is the range in residence time estimates for N2O in the
atmosphere? What percentage of the enhanced greenhouse forcing of climate is due to N2O?
15. Referring to Figure 16, of the total flux of NOx to the atmosphere, what percentage is from human
activities? What is the principal type of reaction that destroys NOx in the atmosphere? Write the
reaction for the destruction of NO2 and its subsequent removal as HNO3.
16. Referring to Figure 18, the total mass of P in land plants is 1,800 million tons and that in marine
plankton is 73 million tons. What is the ratio of the internal recycling flux in the ocean to that on land?
What is the residence time of P in the land biota relative to the recycling flux? In the marine plankton?
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Answers
Chemistry
1. This question is designed to enable the student to review basic knowledge of the meaning of a chemical equation. Many biogeochemical processes are simply described by chemical reactions. In this
reaction, there are four pure substances that can be decomposed by a chemical change, that is, four
chemical compounds: CO2(gas), H2O(liquid), CH2O(solid), and O2(gas). The atoms in these compounds
may separate from one another and rearrange themselves during a chemical reaction. In this case, in
the presence of light and available nutrients, plant material has formed from CO2 and H2O, and the
carbon atom in CO2 has been rearranged into the carbon atom of CH2O. This reaction further shows
that all chemical equations must balance. The total number of atoms of an element on the left-hand
side of an equation must equal the total number of atoms of that element on the right-hand side of
the equation.
A. The atomic weights of the elements in these compounds are C = 12, H = 1, O = 16. Thus, the summation of these weights, or the gram molecular weight, for CH2O is 12 + (2 x 1) + 16 = 30 g; for
O2, 2 x 16 = 32 g; for CO2, 12 + (2 x 16) = 44 g; and for H2O, (2 x 1) + 16 = 18 g.
B. The weight of one mole of these compounds is CH2O = 30 g; O2 = 32 g; CO2 = 44 g; and H2O = 18 g.
C. The relationships between the compounds as shown in the equation must always be preserved;
thus one unitthat is, one mole of the reactant compound CO2must react with an equivalent
number of moles of the reactant compound H2O to give you a ratio of product compounds of
CH2O:O2 = 1:1. Thus, the formation of 10 moles of plant material requires 10 moles, or 10 moles x
44 g/mole = 440 g of CO2.
D. At a molar ratio (that is, a ratio of moles) of C:N = 106:16, the moles of nitrogen are 16/106 x 10
moles = 1.51 moles.
E. The atomic weight of N is 14. The reaction required 1.51 moles of N or 1.51 moles of NO3-. (There
is 1 mole of N in 1 mole of NO3-.) The molecular weight of NO3- is 14 + (3 x 16) = 62 g. Thus, the
grams of nitrate consumed were 1.51 moles NO3- x 62 g NO3-/mole = 93.6 g NO3-.
2. This question again deals with chemical reactions. The equation to be balanced represents the weathering of a common mineral found at the surface of the earth. The student not only learns to balance a
reaction on the basis of atoms but also on the basis of charge. The reason for starting the balance on
aluminum is that solids containing aluminum are very insoluble at the temperature and pressure of
weathering. Thus, it is assumed that all the aluminum from the weathering of orthoclase feldspar is
simply transferred to the solid weathering product kaolinite. Of course, this is not true, but it is a
reasonable approximation.
2KAlSi3O8 + 2CO2 + 11H2O = Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2 K+ + 2HCO3- + 4H4SiO40
3. Dissolved potassium is the sixth most important dissolved constituent in seawater. Its concentration is
important to biological processes, although it is a minor essential element for phytoplankton productivity.
A. The concentration of K+ in the ocean in moles/kg = 390 x 10-3 g/kg seawater 39 g/mole = 10 x
10-3 moles/kg seawater or 10 millimoles.
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B. The average density of seawater is 1.027 g/cm3. Thus, 1 kg of seawater is equivalent to 1,000 g of
seawater 1.027 g/cm3 = 973.7 cm3 of seawater. The concentration in parts per million by volume
of seawater is 390 x 10-3 g/kg seawater x 1.027 x 10-3 kg/cm3 x 1,000 cm3/L seawater = 400.5 x
10-3 g/L = 400.5 mg/L = 400.5 ppmv of seawater.
4. The atmosphere is an important reservoir that exchanges materials with the earths surface. Its composition has changed on a geological time scale and on the human scale of generations because of the activities of human society. This problem illustrates the fact that although atmospheric CO2 accounts for 60% of
the enhanced greenhouse effect, it represents a relatively small part of the total atmospheric mass.
A. The mass of the atmosphere can be obtained from the weight of air above 1 cm2 of the earths surface and the total area of the earth: 1,031 g/cm2 x 5.1 x 1018 cm2 = 52 x 1020 g. The total number of
moles of gases in the atmosphere is 52 x 1020 g 29 g/mole = 1.8 x 1020 moles.
B. The number of moles of CO2 is 0.00036 x 1.8 x 1020 moles = 64.8 x 1015 moles. The mass of CO2 in
grams is 64.8 x 1015 moles x 44 g/mole = 2,850 x 1015 g = 2,850 x 109 metric tons = 2,850 gigatons
x (12 44) = 777 gigatons of C 12 g/mole = 64.8 x 1015 moles C.
5. Water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas, yet as the following calculation shows, it is a
small portion of the mass of the atmosphere.
A. The total mass of water vapor in the atmosphere is 0.002 x 52 x 1020 g = 10.4 x 1018 g.
B. There are 10.4 x 1018 g 18 g/mole = 57.8 x 1016 moles of water vapor.
The Oceans, Atmosphere, Sediments, and Rocks
1. Upwelling is an important process in the ocean. It involves the upward movement of water and dissolved constituents from depth in the ocean to the surface. Upwelling occurs in the coastal regions of
offshore Peru, California, Namibia, Mauritania, and Somalia, and in open ocean equatorial regions
and the high latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere.
A. To upwell the volume of the ocean with an average depth of 3,800 m at the mean upwelling rate
of 4 m/yr would take 3,800 m 4 m/yr = 950 years.
B. 400 cm of water rises 1 cm2/yr. With an ocean area of 3.6 x 1018 cm2, this is equivalent to a volume of water of 1,440 x 1018 cm3/yr or 1,440 x 1015 L/yr x 40 x 10-6 moles N/L = 57.6 x 1012
moles N/yr x 14 g/mole = 806 x 1012 g N/yr.
C. 806 x 1012 g N/yr 14 g/mole = 57.6 x 1012 moles of N/yr. At a C:N ratio of 106:16 = 382 x 1012
moles C/yr x 12 g/mole = 4.6 x 1015 g C/yr 360 x 1012 m2 = 13 g C/m2/yr. This productivity is
only about 10% of global marine net primary productivity (Figure 11). This calculation illustrates
the fact that much of the nitrogen used in biological productivity in the euphotic zone of the
ocean comes from recycling of the N within this zone.
2. The formation of the deep water of the ocean is part of the conveyor belt circulation pattern of the
world oceans. This pattern is not well known from observations; our understanding of it is based
mainly on theoretical models. The North Atlantic deep water (NADW) flows southward at depth
from its source in the high latitudes of the North Atlantic Ocean and meets a northward-flowing current (the Antarctic Bottom Water, ABW) whose water originated by sinking in the Weddell Sea near
Antarctica. The currents merge and part of the water flows into the deep Indian Ocean and Pacific
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Ocean. Water upwells to the surface in all basins of the ocean. In addition, warm water returns from
the Pacific and Indian Oceans into the Atlantic Ocean at about the depth of the thermocline. We
believe these return flows to the Atlantic Ocean occur through the Drake Passage between Antarctica
and South America and through the Bering Sea into the Arctic Ocean and thence to the Atlantic
Ocean. The return flows in the high latitudes of the North Atlantic sink as the NADW.
A. Because of this pattern of circulation, the deep water of the worlds oceans generally gets older
from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. The time the water stays out of
contact with the atmosphere, that is, its residence time, increases toward the Pacific Ocean. The
residence time of the bottom waters of the Atlantic Ocean is 200500 years; that of the Pacific
Ocean is 1,0002,000 years.
B. By upwelling as described above.
C. This is a difficult question and one that is asked by a number of scientists today. The answer is of
concern to the worlds people because of the link to climate. It is likely that any substantial melting of sea ice and the continental glacier of Greenland would add fresh water to the surface of the
ocean in the high latitudes of the North Atlantic for some period of time. This would affect the
rate of deep water formation because of the change in the salt content of surface ocean water. In
turn, the pattern of the conveyor belt circulation of the ocean could be altered. One suggestion is
that there would be a less intense flow of warm water northward by the Gulf Stream, and the climate of Europe would cool.
3. A. Because of the short residence time of CO in the atmosphere (about 70 days) and the fact that
the upwelling of air near the equator effectively separates air exchange in the troposphere
between the two hemispheres, the gas would not be evenly distributed. Higher concentrations
would be found in the Northern Hemisphere troposphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. In
fact, observations show a strong gradient in the concentration of CO between the two hemispheres, with higher concentrations in the North.
B. The barrier is the convergence of the North Equatorial Current and the South Equatorial Current
near the equator and their westward flows. This converging pattern inhibits exchange of surface
waters between the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. Floating tar balls in the
North Atlantic would be caught in the North Equatorial Current and transported westward to the
northward-moving Gulf Stream.
C. No, the NADW moves southward at depth in the North Atlantic Ocean into the South Atlantic
Ocean. The ABW moves north at depth. Neither current is involved with surface ocean currents.
4. The fine dust particles would take 4 km x 105 cm/km = 4 x 105 cm 500 cm/yr = 800 years. In actual fact, they settle much faster because they are encapsulated in the fecal pellets of animal plankton
(zooplankton) in the ocean. During feeding the zooplankton inadvertently pass them through their
guts and excrete them contained in bigger mucilaginous fecal particles that sink at rates of 350 m/day.
5. To answer this question requires an understanding of some basic chemistry. The equilibrium
between a gas and a solution is normally given by Henrys Law, which states that the concentration
of the gas in the solution equals a constant (known as the Henrys Law constant) times the partial
pressure of the gas. For CO2, the expression is
[CO2] = KHPCO2
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The brackets around CO2 denote its concentration in moles/L. The partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2) is
in atmospheres. The value of KH varies with the composition of the solution and the temperature.
For seawater at 25C, KH equals 10-1.54.
A. Carbon dioxide dissolves in seawater to an extent determined by the CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere and the reactions that occur in the seawater. At 25C and with an atmospheric CO2
concentration of PCO2 = 10-3.45 atm, the relationship is
[CO2] = 10-1.54 x 10-3.45 = 10-4.99 mole/L
B. In 1700 for a PCO2 = 10-3.55 atm, we have
[CO2] = 10-1.54 x 10-3.55 = 10-5.09 mole/L
C. The percentage change is [(10-4.99 mole/L 10-5.09 mole/L) 10-5.09 mole/L] x 100 = 26%. Thus,
the dissolved CO2 concentration in the surface ocean has changed by this percentage over the
past 300 years because of fossil fuel combustion and biomass burning.
6. A. The percentage is [(0.9 x 10-4 cal/cm2/min + 0.9 x 10-5 cal/cm2/min) 0.5 cal/cm2/min + 0.9 x
10-4 cal/cm2/min + 0.9 x 10-5 cal/cm2/min] x 100 = 0.02%.
B. The amount of energy reaching the earths surface and absorbed is 343 W/m2 x 0.49 = 168 W/m2.
This energy is used to heat the atmosphere and surface of the earth; to evaporate water; to generate rising air masses (thermals); to drive wind, waves, and currents; and for photosynthesis.
C. The energy is reabsorbed, keeping the earth warm.
7. A. Provided there were no processes restoring the continents, they would be reduced to sea level by
erosion in 150 x 1012 m2 x 840 m = 126 x 1015 m3 x 106 cm3/m3 = 126 x 1021 cm3 x 2.7 g/cm3 =
340 x 1021 g 200 x 1014 g/yr = 17 x 106 years.
B. This is a question that has plagued geologists for two centuries. There must be processes that add
mass to the continents to keep them above sea level. Certainly lavas originating in the interior of
the earth add material to the continents. In subduction zones, not all the rock of the oceanic crust
is transported down toward the interior of the earth. Some of it is added to the continents and
increases their area and thickness. Finally, continents often collide during their movement about
the earths surface. In the collisions, the continents act as a great vise, squeezing sediments originally derived from their erosion and other sources into high mountain ranges. This action adds
volume back to the continents. The collision of India with Asia followed by the formation of the
Himalayan Mountains is an example of such an event. Thus, there is a great rock cycle at work in
which the continents are eroded and their materials deposited in the ocean. The sediments of the
oceans are buried to great depths or transported to subduction zones. In either case, the sedimentary material is eventually returned to the continents to be uplifted to their surfaces and eroded,
completing the cycle.
8. A. This question simply uses the concept of residence time, where = mass flux; therefore, flux =
mass = 1.8 x 1018 metric tons 600 x 106 yr = 3 x 109 metric tons/yr = 30 x 1014 g/yr.
Interestingly, this flux is much less than that of erosion and thus deposition in the oceans today. This
implies that today is somewhat unusual in terms of geologic history. We know that to be the case from
other geological information.
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B. Sediment (clay, mud, silt, sand, gravel, and skeletal and organic materials) enters the sedimentary
rock reservoir by erosion of rocks, transportation of the eroded debris, and subsequent deposition
on the seafloor, followed by burial in some cases to depths of 12 km. The sediment gets out by
uplift due to plate tectonic movements and re-erosion of the sedimentary mass.
9. The chemical species in anoxic soils are chiefly reduced forms of the compounds CH4, CO, NH3, and H2S
(see Figures 9, 10, 15, and 19). CO2 occurs as well, although it is a relatively oxidized form of carbon. In a
well-aerated soil, we might expect O2, CO2, N2, and SO2.
10. Your answer to Question 2 in the Chemistry section shows that the weathering of silicate minerals
subtracts CO2 from the atmosphere. This subtraction must be balanced by an addition of CO2 from
other processes or the atmosphere would run out of CO2 in about 6,000 years. Those processes
involve hydrothermal reactions at midocean ridges and the subduction and/or burial of carbonate
minerals to realms of higher pressure and temperature, where carbonates are converted to silicates,
and CO2 is released back to the atmosphere by volcanism and other processes.
Ecology
1. This question is designed to give the student a feeling for some of the characteristics of two important ecosystems that are being severely impacted by human activities. These activities are the deforestation of tropical rain forests and their conversion to pasture and urban areas and the eutrophication of coastal marine environments.
A. The total net primary production of tropical rain forests and estuaries is:
Rain forests: 17 x 1012 m2 x 2,000 g dry matter/m2/yr = 34 x 1015 g dry matter x 0.45 = 15.3 x 1015 g C.
Dividing by 106 g/metric ton, we get 34 x 109 metric tons dry matter and 15.3 x 109 metric tons C.
Estuaries: 1.4 x 1012 m2 x 1,800 g dry matter/m2/yr = 2.52 x 1015 g dry matter x 0.45 = 1.13 x 1015 g C.
Dividing by 106 g/metric ton, we get 2.52 x 109 metric tons dry matter and 1.13 x 109 metric tons C.
Notice that although the NPP of tropical rain forests and estuaries is similar, the smaller area of estuaries leads to more than an order of magnitude difference between the total net primary production
of the two ecosystems.
B. The total plant mass (biomass) of these ecosystems is:
Rain forests: 17 x 1012 m2 x 20 kg C/m2 = 340 x 1012 kg C 103 kg/metric ton = 340 x 109 metric
tons C 0.45 = 755 x 109 metric tons dry matter.
Estuaries: 1.4 x 1012 m2 x 0.45 kg C/m2 = 630 x 109 kg C 103 kg/metric ton = 6.3 x 108 metric
tons C 0.45 = 1.4 x 109 metric tons dry matter. Notice the orders-of-magnitude difference
between the biomass of tropical rain forests and estuaries.
C. In ten years, 9% of the area of rain forests was lost; this represents 755 x 109 metric tons dry
matter x 0.09 = 68 x 109 metric tons dry matter x 0.45 = 30.6 x 109 metric tons C.
D. The grams of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere in this ten-year period would be 30.6 x 109 metric
tons C x 106 g/metric ton = 30.6 x 1015 g C x (44 12) = 112 x 1015 g CO2. This flux represents
(Figure 11) the size of the atmospheric CO2 reservoir of 744 x 1015 g C x (44 12) = 2,730 x 1015 g
CO2. 112 x 1015 g CO2 2,730 x 1015 g CO2 = 0.041, or 4% of the atmospheric reservoir.
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The flux would represent about 3 x 1015 g C/yr for the decade of the 1980s. The magnitude of the
flux is too high, meaning that all the woody plant material was not burned to CO2. Some remains
on the ground as waste from the cutting, and some has gone into lumber. The flux of CO2 to the
atmosphere from all land-use activities in tropical rain forests for the 1980s was on the order of
11.6 x 1015 g C/yr.
E. At a C:P ratio of 106:1, the additional plant productivity supported by the pollutant P would be
1.5 x 1012 g P/yr 31 g/mole = 48.4 x 109 moles P/yr x (106 1) = 5.13 x 1012 moles C/yr.
Divided by the estuary area of 1.4 x 1012 m2 = 3.7 moles C/m2/yr = 44 g C/m2/yr 0.45 = 98 g
dry matter/m2/yr, or about a 5% increase in the productivity of the worlds estuaries.
F. In fact, because the pollutant P will be used more than once in plant productivity in estuaries, the
total organic carbon that could be buried in the sediments of estuaries amounts to 140 x 1012 g
C/yr (Figure 18). This flux does qualify as a negative biological feedback because the additional P
has been added to the earths surface by the human activities of fertilizer application to croplands
and sewage discharge. Some of this P makes its way to lakes and coastal marine environments
and increases the productivity of such aquatic systems. The flux represents (140 x 1012 g C/yr 6
x 1015 g C/yr) x 100 = 2% of the fossil fuel flux in 1995. Not much!
2. A. The total production of dry matter is 510 x 1012 m2 x 0.37 kg dry matter/m2/yr = 188.7 x 1012 kg
dry matter/yr.
B. 188.7 x 1012 kg dry matter/yr x 0.45 = 84.9 x 1012 kg C/yr.
C. Let total production in the ocean = X; then production on land = 2X. Thus X + 2X = 188.7 x 1012
kg dry matter/yr, i.e., 3X = 188.7 x 1012 kg dry matter/yr; X = ocean production = 62.9 x 1012 kg
dry matter/yr and 2X = land production = 125.8 x 1012 kg dry matter/yr.
3. Autotrophy is the biochemical pathway by which an organism uses CO2 as a source of carbon and
simple inorganic nutrient compounds of N and P for synthesis of organic matter. In heterotrophy,
more complex organic materials are used as the source of carbon for metabolic processes.
4. Prokaryotesthe Kingdom Monera, including the bacteria and cyanobacteriatake part in a variety
of biogeochemical processes (see Table 1). We often forget the fact that the bacteria are responsible
for the decay of organic matter both on land and in the ocean. In other words, it is their metabolic
activity that returns CO2 and other gases and nutrients back to the environment. The cyanobacteria
are photoautotrophic and produce oxygen as a metabolic byproduct. These organisms were responsible for the initial growth of oxygen in the earths atmosphere. The processes include CO2 fixation,
nitrogen fixation, and oxidation of sulfur as examples.
5. Eutrophication is the set of processes leading to the overnourishment of a lake, river, or marine environment; consequent rapid plant growth and death; and oxygen deficiency of the system. This is a
natural set of processes in certain environments. When it occurs because the excess nutrients come
from fertilizers, sewage, detergents, etc., it is called cultural eutrophication. This term distinguishes
the natural situation from that produced by the activities of people.
56
Biogeochemical Cycles
1. See Figure 22.
A. The residence time = = mass of
water in the ocean divided by the
flux of water to the ocean by rivers:
1,370 x 106 km3 40 x 103 km3/yr =
34,250 years.
B. of Ca in the ocean is (1,370 x 106
km3 x 1012 L/km3 x 400 mg/L) (40
x 103 km3/yr x 1012 L/km3 x 15
mg/L) = 913,000 years.
LAND
Plants
ATMOSPHERE
Animals
Soil
OCEAN
Water
Figure 22.
Biota
Sediment
2. Here we apply the concept of residence time in the context of how long it takes for a lake to recover
from a single input of a chemical into it. This is an environmental problem often encountered in
developing, as well as developed, countries.
A. The volume of the lake is 5 km x 2 km x 0.1 km = 1 km3 x 1012 L/km3 = 1 x 1012 L.
B. The mass of mercury (Hg) is 1 x 1012 L x 1 x 10-6 g Hg/L = 1 x 106 g Hg.
C. The flux of mercury by the river to the lake is 2 x 1012 L/yr x 5 x 10-7 g Hg/L = 1 x 106 g Hg/yr;
thus the residence time of Hg (Hg) in the lake is 1 x 106 g Hg 1 x 106 g Hg/yr = 1 year.
D. The time to reach a new equilibriumthat is, for the Hg input to work its way through the lake
is 3 x Hg = 3 x 1 yr = 3 yr. In this period of time, 95% of the Hg input would be gone.
3. This question provides the student with a feeling for the problem of looking for a needle in a
haystack that scientists have when observing the change in the size of the terrestrial living biomass
due to uptake and storage of anthropogenic CO2.
A. 600 x 109 tons C x 106 g/ton = 600 x 1015 g C. 135 x 1012 moles C/yr x 12 g/mole = 16.2 x 1014 g
C/yr. The annual % change would be (16.2 x 1014 g C/yr 600 x 1015 g C) x 100 = 0.27% per year.
B. Most unlikely. For the decade of the 1980s, this would be only a 2.7% change in the mass of living
biomass globally. This amount of change would be difficult to measure by field studies, even if
they were aimed at seeing a change in the amount of organic carbon stored in terrestrial vegetation. However, if the storage continues, such measurements could provide information in a few
years.
4. A. The total DIC in the mixed layer is 360 x 1012 m2 x 102 m = 360 x 1014 m3 x 106 cm3/m3 = 360 x
1020 cm3 x 1.027 g/cm3 = 37 x 1021 g 103 g/kg = 37 x 1018 kg seawater x 2.2 x 10-3 moles C/kg
seawater = 81.4 x 1015 moles C.
B. 2 x 109 tons C/yr = 2 x 1015 g/yr 12 g/mole = 166.7 x 1012 moles C/yr 37 x 1018 kg seawater = 4.5 x
10-6 moles C/kg seawater/yr = 4.5 micromoles C/kg seawater/yr. Actual measurements of the change
in the DIC content of seawater over time show an increase of about 1 micromole per year. The difference is due to the fact that the anthropogenic carbon taken up by the ocean mixes deeper in the ocean
than the average depth of the mixed layer used in the problem, on average about 300400 meters.
57
C. Using 1 micromole per year as the average carbon uptake since 1975, we get 1 x 10-6 mole C/kg/yr
x 21 yr = 21 x 10-6 moles C/kg 2.2 x 10-3 moles C/kg x 100 = 0.95%. It was not until the late 1980s
that scientists were able to measure these small changes in seawater DIC accurately and precisely.
5. Referring to Table 3, the total amount of water in the atmosphere as water vapor is 0.013 x 106 km3; thus
the residence time of water vapor in the atmosphere calculated with respect to total evaporation (must
equal precipitation) is 0.013 x 106 km3 H2O 496 x 103 km3 H2O/yr = 0.026 yr x 365 days/yr = 9.6 days.
B. No, the pollutant would not mix evenly throughout the troposphere because of waters very short
residence time in the atmosphere. In general, the dust and aerosol content of the troposphere
exhibits a regional pattern and is most concentrated near sources, downwind from sources, and in
regions of relatively dry climate. However, the dust plume in the troposphere derived from the
Sahara and Sahel areas of Africa can be seen in satellite images extending all the way across the
Atlantic Ocean.
6. The three major processes are (1) inputs of volcanic CO2 derived from the metamorphism of CaCO3 to
CaSiO3, (2) weathering of silicate minerals like CaSiO3 and then deposition of calcium carbonate and
silica in the ocean, and (3) the evolution of plants and their effect on weathering. The reactions are
1. CaCO3 + SiO2 CaSiO3 + CO2
2. CaSiO3 + 2CO2 + 3H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3- + H4SiO40, and then
Ca2+ + 2HCO3- + H4SiO40 CaCO3 + SiO2 + 3H2O + CO2
3. CO2 + H2O CH2O + O2
7. The connection is simply the fact that when organic matter is buried in sediments of the ocean, oxygen not used to oxidize the organic matter is left in the atmosphere. With the continuous burial of
organic matter on the seafloor, the oxygen content would increase in a few millions of years to levels
that would lead to burning of forests and grasslands. This does not happen because the buried organic matter is returned to the earths surface through uplift by plate tectonic processes. On exposure to
the atmosphere, the organic matter is oxidized, and the oxygen is removed from the atmosphere.
8. The major difference is that there is not a major gas of phosphorus that resides in the atmosphere or
is transported through it (see Figure 18). This statement is not true of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.
All of these elements have important gaseous compounds in the atmosphere that exchange with the
earths surface. (See the text sections on the cycles of C, N, and S.)
9. DMS in the troposphere reacts fairly rapidly with hydroxyl radical in the presence of light, water,
and oxygen to make sulfate aerosol. On the contrary, OCS is inert in the troposphere but is converted
in the stratosphere to sulfate aerosol (see Figure 19).
10. The difference in residence time implies that ammonia reacts more rapidly than carbon monoxide in
the atmosphere (see Figures 10 and 16). This is simply a consequence of the fact that the shorter the
residence time (lifetime) of a chemical compound in a reservoir, the more reactive the substance.
58
11. This question and the following five questions relate to relationships depicted in the figures of the
biogenic trace gases. They are designed to help the student to study the figures and interpret them.
The major reaction in the atmosphere coupling the biogeochemical cycles of CH4, CO, and CO2 is the
oxidation of the reduced carbon gas CH4 to CO and then on to CO2 by OH*. About 60% of the
enhanced greenhouse forcing is due to CO2, and about 20% is due to CH4. The major anthropogenic
sources of emissions of CH4 to the atmosphere are fossil fuel burning and leakage from gas transmission pipelines, biomass burning, landfills, rice paddies, and enteric fermentation in domesticated
animals. CO emissions come from fossil fuel and biomass burning. Land-use activities and fossil fuel
burning are the major anthropogenic sources of CO2 to the atmosphere. A doubling of atmospheric
CO2 concentration could lead to a 2.5C increase in mean global temperature. Molecule for molecule,
CH4 is about 20 times more effective as a greenhouse gas than CO2. (Compare the amount of temperature change per ppbv for the two gases.)
12. The ratio is (42 + 20 + 78) x 106 metric tons N/yr 126 x 106 metric tons N/yr = 1.1:1. The anthropogenic nitrogen fluxes on land slightly exceed the natural biological fixation flux! The minimum
percentage is (21 x 106 metric tons N/yr 140 x 106 metric tons N/yr) x 100 = 15%. The additional
nitrogen flux to the ocean is a cause of eutrophication of coastal marine environments.
13. The ratio is 206 x 106 metric tons N/yr 62 x 106 metric tons N/yr = 3.3:1. This is a difficult question
to answer. On the time scale of a century, it is very likely that the flux of N to the ocean from rivers
and groundwaters will increase because of continuous use of industrial fertilizers, atmospheric
deposition of anthropogenic nitrogen, and disposal of sewage. If there is climatic change on this time
scale, it is uncertain whether the upwelling rate of the worlds oceans will change. However, a
warming of the global surface layer of the ocean would most likely lead to a slowing of upwelling
and thus delivery of nutrients to the surface ocean.
14. The range is 143 to 339 years. 73 x 106 tons N (2.9 + 0.1 + 0.02 + 0.01 + 1.4) x 106 tons N/yr = 339
years. 1,500 x 106 tons N (5.2 + 0.3 + 0.2 + 2.2 + 2.6) = 143 years. N2O accounts for about 9% of the
enhanced greenhouse effect.
15. The percentage from human activities is [(21 + 3) x 106 tons N/yr (21 + 3 + 20) x 106 tons N/yr] x
100 = 54.5%. Human activities substantially interfere with the fluxes of NOx. Environmental problems associated with the anthropogenic fluxes are acid deposition, photochemical smog, and
increased tropospheric ozone, a greenhouse gas. The principal reaction leading to destruction of NOx
in the atmosphere is photochemical. The products of the reaction are nitric acid, peroxylacetyl
nitrate, and organic nitrates. The reaction is NO2 + OH*+ light HNO3.
16. The ratio is 1,085 x 106 tons P/yr 186 x 106 tons P/yr = 5.8:1.
The residence time of P in the marine biota relative to the recycling flux is 73 x 106 tons P 1,085 x106
tons P/yr = 0.07 years. That for P in the land biota is 1,800 x 106 tons P 186 x 106 tons P/yr = 9.6 years.
The phytoplanktyon of the ocean turn over much more rapidly than do terrestrial plants. There are
more generations of death and birth for marine plankton than for most plants growing on land.
59
Global Change
Instruction Program
Glossary
Acid depositionthe fallout of acidic substances, primarily of nitrogen and sulfur, from the atmosphere
on to the earths surface in rain, snow, or other forms. Acid rain has a pH generally less than 5 (averaged over a year).
Aerosolthe suspension of very fine, generally micrometer-sized, solid and liquid particles in the atmosphere.
Albedothe amount of incident radiation that is reflected by a surface and thus does not contribute to
the heating of the surface. The albedo of the whole earth is approximately 30%. The albedo of clean
snow is about 90% and that of water is about 10%.
Anaerobican organism that does not need oxygen to carry on its metabolism or an environment without oxygen.
Anoxicwithout oxygen.
Anthropogenicof, relating to, or influenced by the impact of humans on nature.
Atomthe smallest component of an element having the chemical properties of the element. An atom
consists of a nucleus of neutrons and protons and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus by electrical attraction.
Autotrophythe biochemical pathway by which an organism uses carbon dioxide as a source of carbon
and simple nutrient compounds for synthesis of organic matter.
Autotrophic systeman environment in which the difference between gross photosynthesis and gross
respiration is positive. In such a terrestrial or aquatic environment, the net transfer of carbon dioxide is
into the system.
Bacteriaone-celled organisms having a spherical, spiral, or rod shape belonging to the Kingdom Monera.
Benthicof, relating to, or occurring at the bottom of a body of water.
Bioessentialrequired by virtually all living organisms. The major bioessential elements are oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. Minor or trace quantities of
iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, silicon, molybdenum, chlorine, vanadium, cobalt, and sodium are
also required by organisms.
Biogenic gasa gas whose production or consumption on earth is accomplished by biological reactions.
Biogeochemical cyclerepresentation of biological, geological, and chemical processes that involve the
movement of an element or compound about the surface of the earth.
Biogeochemical systemthe interactive system of biogeochemical processes and cycles of elements and
compounds.
Biogeochemistrythe discipline that links various aspects of biology, geology, and chemistry to investigate the surface environment of the earth.
60
Biological productivitythe rate of production per unit area of organic matter by producer organisms.
For example, the rate may be given as grams of carbon per square meter per year for a marine grass
community. There are several kinds of productivity. Gross primary production (GPP) refers to the total
amount of plant material produced by photosynthesis in a defined area in an interval of time. Net primary production (NPP) is the net amount of plant material produced per unit area per unit time and is
the difference between GPP and cell respiration. Net ecosystem production (NEP) is the difference
between GPP and cell respiration plus heterotrophic processes of decay.
Biological pumpthe set of processes by which organic carbon is exported from the surface ocean to
the deep sea.
Biomassthe amount of living matter in a unit area or volume of habitat. For example, the total biomass of the worlds tropical rain forests is 42 kilograms of dry matter per square meter of forest, or a
total of 420 billion tons of dry matter (equivalent to approximately 170 billion tons of carbon).
Biospherethe living and dead organic components of the earth. Sometimes this term is used in the
same way as the term ecosphere in this module, and sometimes for only the living animals and plants.
Climatethe characteristic long-term environmental conditions of temperature, precipitation, winds,
etc., in a region or for the globe at present or in the past (paleoclimate).
Cloud condensation nucleiairborne particles of very small size, generally less than one micrometer in
diameter, that serve as sites on which liquid cloud droplets condense when an air mass is supersaturated with water vapor. The particles are commonly composed of water-soluble material.
Coccolithophoridaea family of planktonic algae that build skeletons of micrometer-sized disc-shaped
plates of calcite, called coccoliths.
Concentrationthe fraction of the total of a substance made up of one component. For example, seawater contains 400 parts per million by weight of calcium. Concentration is also expressed in moles per
liter or kilogram or in percent (that is, parts per hundred), parts per thousand (/), per million (ppm),
per billion (ppb), and so forth, either by weight or by volume.
Coupledthe condition in which information from one part of the system is provided to, and influences
the behavior of, other parts. The biogeochemical cycles of the elements necessary for life are coupled
through processes that are essential for life, e.g., photosynthesis and respiration.
Crustthe outer layer of the earth, enriched in silicon, sodium, and potassium and having a thickness
of 35 kilometers beneath the continents and 10 kilometers beneath the oceans.
Cryospherethe icy part of the earth; its continental and mountain glaciers, ice sheets, and ice shelves;
a reservoir in the earths surface system.
Decaythe oxidative process of conversion of organic tissue to simpler organic and inorganic compounds. The oxidizing agent may be diatomic oxygen (O2), nitrate (NO3-), or other chemical compounds.
Denitrificationthe conversion, principally by bacteria, of compounds of nitrogen in soils and aquatic
systems to nitrogen gas (N2) and nitrous oxide gas (N2O) and the eventual release of these gases to
the atmosphere.
Diagenesisthe collection of physical, chemical, and biological processes that operate on a sediment
after deposition.
Diatomplanktonic and benthic freshwater and marine algae that commonly use silicon to build a
skeleton of opal.
61
Dry depositionthe deposition of materials from the atmosphere on to the earths surface in the form
of solid particles. Such particles also may be washed out of the atmosphere by rain.
Ecospherethe system that includes the biosphere and its interactions with the air, water, and soils and
sediments of the earth.
Ecosystemcomplex of a community or group of communities and the environment that functions as
an ecological unit in nature.
Electromagnetic spectrumthe entire range of radiation. The wavelengths (distances between adjacent
peaks) of the electromagnetic waves within the spectrum range from kilometers for radio waves to billionths of a meter (nanometers) for X rays.
Entropya scientific measure of the degree of disorder in a system. The greater the disorder the greater is
the entropy of the system. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that entropy is always increasing.
Equilibriumstable, balanced state in which all influences on a system are countered by others.
Erosionthe set of processes by which the surface of the earth is worn away by the action of water,
wind, glacial ice, etc.
Euphotic zonethe upper, lighted zone of the ocean or a lake in which most of the productivity of
plants occurs. In the ocean, the euphotic zone extends from the surface to a depth where the light intensity is reduced to about 0.11.0% of that available at the surface. The depth of the euphotic zone
depends on season and latitude.
Eutrophicationthe set of processes leading to overnourishment of an aquatic system in nutrients,
rapid plant growth and death, and oxygen consumption and deficiency in the system. These processes
occur naturally in some aquatic systems but may be speeded up by additions of nutrients from human
activities (e.g., fertilizer application) to the systems. Human-induced eutrophication is often called cultural eutrophication.
Evaporationthe physical process by which water is converted from liquid to vapor and is transported
into the atmosphere.
Evapotranspirationthe combined processes of evaporation and transpiration.
Evasionthe escape or release of a gas from the surface of the ocean or land to the atmosphere.
Evolutionthe pattern of development and change in a variable from one state to another. Biological
evolution describes the pattern of emergence, development, and extinction of organic species through
geologic time.
Feedbacka process or mechanism in which some fraction of the output is returned or fed back to
the input. Feedback loops may either stabilize (negative feedback) or destabilize (positive feedback) a
system undergoing a perturbation. These feedback loops exist in both the biogeochemical cycles and the
climate system.
Fermentationthe bacterial process of conversion of sugars to carbon dioxide.
Fixationsee Nitrogen fixation.
Fluxthe movement of a variable or a substance into or out of a reservoir.
Foraminiferaanimal plankton (zooplankton) in the ocean belonging to the Phylum Protozoa that commonly have a shell of calcium carbonate.
62
Forcingthe ability of a variable, like the concentration of a greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, to
induce a change in a system. A forcing function controls the behavior of a system and often makes it
regular and predictable.
General circulation model (GCM)a simulation, usually performed on a large computer, of the largescale, or general, wind and ocean systems on earth to calculate climate and its changes.
Geologic time scalea calendar of earth history. The time scale is divided into variable time units of
eon, era, period, and epoch (see Figure 5).
Glacial stagean extended cold interval of time within the Pleistocene Epoch in which continental glaciers covered much of the Northern Hemisphere continents, atmospheric CO2 concentrations were low,
and sea level was low.
Greenhouse effectthe warming of the earths atmosphere and surface by the atmospheric greenhouse
gases. These gases absorb and reradiate longwave radiation from the earth, keeping it in the atmosphere
and thus warming the global temperature. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the planet would be
about 33C cooler than its global mean annual temperature of 15C, that is, 18C. Because of inputs
from human activities, these gases are increasing in concentration in the atmosphere. This may lead to
an enhanced greenhouse effect and warming of the planet.
Greenhouse gasan atmospheric gas that absorbs and radiates energy in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, tropospheric ozone, and the synthetic chlorofluorocarbon gases. These gases warm the atmosphere and the
earths surface below.
Groundwaterthe water beneath the ground, largely formed by the seepage of surface water downward.
Heterotrophic systeman environment in which the difference between gross photosynthesis and gross
respiration is negative. In such a terrestrial or aquatic environment, the net transfer of carbon dioxide is
out of the system.
Heterotrophya biochemical pathway in which organic substrates are used by organisms to make
organic matter.
Hothousean extended period of geologic time during which the earth was warm.
Hydrospherethe watery envelope surrounding the earth; a reservoir in the earths surface system.
Hydrothermal reactiona chemical reaction involving hot water and minerals in a rock.
Hydroxyl radical (OH*)the excited chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere
with an imbalance of electric charge. The hydroxyl radical is responsible for the oxidation of many
chemically reduced gases emitted from the surface of the earth.
Ice agea glacial stage, especially within the Pleistocene Epoch, beginning about 1.8 million years ago.
Ice housean extended period of geologic time in which the earth was cool.
Infrared radiationthe region of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths longer than visible
light (about 1 micrometer) but shorter than microwaves (about 1 millimeter). Commonly known as heat.
Radiation emitted from the earth back to space is predominantly infrared radiation.
Interglacial stagean extended warm interval of time within the Pleistocene Epoch in which the continental glaciers retreated and atmospheric CO2 concentrations and sea level were low.
Ionan electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
A positive ion, the cation, is created by an electron loss, and a negative ion, the anion, is created by an
electron gain.
63
Irreversible processa process in which the entropy change is greater than zero. After the process is
complete, the system is more disordered than and different from its initial state.
Kerogenfossil organic matter dispersed throughout a rock.
Leachingthe selective removal of substances from a substrate, usually with water. For example, rainwater percolating through a soil can dissolve nitrogen and transport it to the groundwater. This is leaching.
Lifetimea measure of the reactivity of an atmospheric chemical compound. The more reactive the
compound, the shorter its atmospheric lifetime. Analogous to residence time.
Limestonea sedimentary rock consisting predominantly of calcium carbonate minerals.
Limiting nutrientthe chemical compound, generally inorganic, that limits productivity in a terrestrial
or aquatic environment. Examples are nitrate, phosphate, and iron.
Lithospherethe dynamic subdivision of earth on the order of 100 kilometers in thickness forming the
outer, rigid part of the planet. Also, the solid portion of the earth, composed of minerals, rocks, and
soils; a reservoir in the earths surface system.
Mantlethe portion of earth between its crust and its innermost zone (the core). The mantle is enriched
in magnesium and iron and has a thickness of about 2,900 kilometers.
Metamorphismthe set of processes that lead to a change in the structure or composition of a rock due
to pressure and temperature. A metamorphic rock is formed from a preexisting rock by an increase in
pressure and temperature.
Methanogenesisthe conversion of organic material to methane, principally by bacteria.
Methanotrophythe conversion of methane to carbon dioxide, principally by bacteria.
Midocean ridgeany of several seismically active, submarine mountain ranges that are found in the
Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. These ridges are regions where the seafloor originates and are the
source of the lithospheric plates.
Mixotrophythe use of both organic and inorganic materials to make organic matter.
Moleone gram atomic weight of an element or one gram molecular weight of a compound. One gram
atomic weight of an element is its atomic weight expressed in grams (i.e., the atomic weight of oxygen
is 16; its gram atomic weight is 16 grams). One gram molecular weight of a compound is its molecular
weight expressed in grams (i.e., the molecular weight of carbon dioxide is 44; its gram molecular weight
is 44 grams).
Moleculethe smallest physical unit of an atom or compound, consisting of one or more similar atoms
in an element and two or more different atoms in a compound.
Negative feedbacka process or mechanism that relieves or subtracts from an initial perturbation to a system.
Net primary productionsee Biological productivity.
Nitrificationthe conversion of ammonium to nitrite and nitrate by nitrifying bacteria.
Nitrogen fixationthe conversion of diatomic nitrogen gas (N2) to ammonium by bacteria. Also, the industrial conversion of free nitrogen into combined forms used as starting materials for fertilizers and explosives.
Nutrienta substance that supplies nutrition to a living organism, like phosphorus and nitrogen.
Organicpertaining to a class of chemical compounds that include carbon as a component; characteristic of or derived from living organisms.
64
Oxidationthe removal of electrons from an atom or molecule. Oxidizing capacity is the intrinsic ability of a system to oxidize reduced substances.
pHthe negative logarithm of the effective hydrogen ion concentration, used in expressing both acidity
and alkalinity on a scale whose values run from 0 to 14, with 7 representing neutrality. Numbers less
than 7 denote increasing acidity, and numbers greater than 7 increasing alkaline (basic) conditions.
Photoautotrophythe conversion of inorganic carbon into organic matter in the presence of light.
Photochemicalpertaining to chemical reactions involving chemical compounds in the presence of
light. Urban smog is the result of a complex series of photochemical reactions involving ozone, nitrogen
and sulfur oxides, and hydrocarbons.
Photolysis (photodissociation)pertaining to chemical reactions triggered by light that convert a complex compound to more simple products. The photolysis of ammonia is an example: 2NH3 N2 + 3H2.
Photosynthesisthe synthesis of complex organic materials (e.g., carbohydrates) from carbon dioxide, water,
and nutrients, using sunlight as a source of energy with the aid of chlorophyll and associated pigments.
Phytoplanktonminute plant life that passively floats in a body of water. The phytoplankton are at the
base of the food chain in the ocean.
Planktonminute plant and animal life of the ocean ranging in size from 5 micrometers to 3 centimeters. The plant plankton are the phytoplankton; the animal plankton are the zooplankton.
Plate tectonicsthe theory of global tectonics in which the lithosphere is divided into a number of
crustal plates that move on the underlying plastic asthenosphere. These plates may collide with adjacent
plates, slide under or over them, or move past them in a nearly horizontal direction. The sources of the
plates are the great midocean ridges of the worlds oceans, where hot molten material upwells from
within the earth. The plates are destroyed at subduction zones, like that along the western margin of the
Pacific Ocean, where they sink down into the underlying asthenosphere.
Positive feedbacka process or mechanism that reinforces or adds to an initial perturbation of a system.
Precipitationthe removal of water from the atmosphere and its deposition on the earths surface in the
form of rain, ice, or snow.
Prokaryoteany cellular organism that has no membrane about its nucleus and no organelles in the
cytoplasm except ribosomes. Prokaryotic genetic material is in the form of single, continuous strands
forming coils or loops, characteristic of all organisms of the Kingdom Monera, such as bacteria or
cyanobacteria.
Protozoaneukaryotic organism of the Kingdom Protoctista, Phylum Protozoa, with a membranebound nucleus and organelles within a mass of protoplasm. Planktonic foraminifera and radiolarians
which secrete shells of calcium carbonate and opal, respectively, are members of the group.
Radicalan electronically excited compound with an imbalance of electric charge, which enables it to
react rapidly with another molecule.
Redfield ratiothe relatively constant ratio of 106:16:1 of the bioessential elements carbon, nitrogen,
and phosphorus in marine plankton. The concept of the Redfield ratio has been applied to the terrestrial
realm as well as to organic matter in soils and sediments.
Reductionthe chemical process by which an atom or a molecule gains electrons.
65
Reservoir or stocka part of a system that can store or accumulate and be a source of one of the substances that compose the system. For example, the atmosphere is a reservoir of the surface system of the
earth (the ecosphere). It can store water vapor released to it from the land by evapotranspiration and
from the ocean by evaporation, and return the water to the earths surface as precipitation.
Residence timethe total mass of a substance in a reservoir divided by its rate of inflow or outflow.
The residence time is a measure of the reactivity of the substance in the reservoir. For example, the residence time of sodium in the ocean is very long (55 million years). Therefore, sodium does not enter into
chemical or biochemical reactions that remove it very rapidly from the ocean. In contrast, the residence
time of dissolved silica in the ocean is about 20,000 years. This compound is readily taken up by certain
types of plankton to build their skeletons.
Respirationthe physical and chemical processes by which an organism supplies its cells and tissues with
the oxygen needed for metabolism and releases carbon dioxide formed in the energy-producing reactions.
Reversible processa process in which the change in entropy is zero. In general, after the process is
complete, the state of the system is as it was initially.
Saturationthe degree to which a solution or a gas is at equilibrium with one of its components. It is
measured in several different ways. For example, a humidity of 125% would be a supersaturation of 25%
with respect to water vapor in the air. Saturation of seawater with respect to the mineral calcite (CaCO3)
of 50% would mean that the seawater was 50% undersaturated with respect to calcite. If a lake water
contained exactly enough dissolved CO2 to be in equilibrium with the atmosphere, it would have a saturation of 100% with respect to CO2.
Sedimentary rocka rock formed from the erosion of preexisting rocks and the deposition of the eroded materials as sediment. Sedimentary rocks are also formed by inorganic or biological precipitation of
minerals from natural waters.
Shortwave radiationgenerally, the region of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths shorter than
0.5 micrometers. Solar radiation has an important component of shortwave radiation of varying intensity.
Solar radiationthe electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. It includes energy wavelengths from
the very short ultraviolet (<0.2 micrometers) to about 3 micrometers.
Stratospherethe region of the upper atmosphere extending upward from the troposphere to about 30
kilometers above the earths surface. This region is characterized by an increase in temperature as altitude increases.
Subduction zonethe juncture of two lithospheric plates where the collision of the plates results in one
plates being drawn down or overridden by another plate. This region is the sink of the crustal plates of
the earth.
Systema selected set of interactive components. An example of a simple system is an air conditioning
unit. A biogeochemical system consists of reservoirs, processes and mechanisms, and associated fluxes
involving material transport. The global climate system is very complex and involves all the physical,
chemical, and biological interactions that control the long-term environmental conditions of the world.
Thermoclinethe depth range in the ocean where the temperature decreases rapidly with increasing
depth. The thermocline is about one kilometer thick and extends from the base of the surface layer of the
ocean at a depth of 50300 meters to a depth of about 8001,000 meters.
Trace gasa gas present in the atmosphere in a very low concentration (less than 1% of the composition of
the atmosphere). For example, methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon monoxide are considered trace gases.
66
66
Transitional phenomenona feature of a system that changes from one state to another. Such a change
may be relatively slow or more generally abrupt. In the boiling of water, the change from the state of
little water motion to that of turbulence is a transitional phenomenon.
Transpirationthe process by which water in plants is excreted through a plant membrane as water vapor.
Tropospherethe lowest level of the atmosphere, up to 813 kilometers high, within which there is a
steady drop in temperature with increasing altitude. It is the region where most cloud formations occur
and weather conditions manifest themselves.
Ultraviolet radiationthe region of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths longer than 0.5
nanometers but shorter than 0.5 micrometers. Solar radiation has an important component of ultraviolet
radiation of varying intensity.
Uptakegenerally, the incorporation of a substance into a solid or liquid. For example, the invasion of
CO2 into the ocean represents the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere.
Upwellingthe upward movement of water from depths of typically 50150 meters at speeds of
approximately 13 meters per day. The upwelling of water generally results from the lateral movement
of surface water. Upwelling zones in the ocean are found along the western margins of the continents, in
equatorial regions, and at high latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere.
Vascular planteither a plant with seeds that are not enclosed in a fruit or seed case, such as pine, fir,
spruce, and other cone-bearing trees or shrubs (gymnosperm), or a flowering plant that produces
encased seeds, such as oak, maple, and eucalyptus trees (angiosperm).
Volatilizationthe conversion of a substance into the gas or vapor state and its emission into the environment.
Washoutthe scavenging of particles from the atmosphere by rainfall and their subsequent deposition
on the surface of the earth.
Weatheringthe set of chemical, physical, and biological processes that lead to the disintegration of
minerals, kerogen, and rocks.
Wet depositionthe deposition on the earths surface of solid particles and dissolved chemical compounds in rain.
Zooplanktonminute animal life in a body of water that generally drift passively or swim very weakly.
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Supplementary Reading
Berner, E.K., and R.A. Berner, 1996, Global Environment: Water, Air, and Geochemical Cycles. Prentice Hall,
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Chiras, D.D., 1988, Environmental Science. Benjamin Cumming Publishing Co., Redwood City, California.
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Freeman and Co., San Francisco, California.
Garrels, R.M., F.T. Mackenzie, and C.H. Hunt, 1975, Chemical Cycles and the Global Environment: Assessing
Human Influences. William Kaufmann, Inc., Los Altos, California.
Graedel, T.F., and P.J. Crutzen, 1993, Atmospheric Change: An Earth System Perspective. W.H. Freeman and
Co., San Francisco, California.
Gross, M.G., 1987, Oceanography: A View of the Earth, 4th ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Holland, H.D., and U. Patterson, 1995, Living Dangerously: The Earth, Its Resources, and the Environment.
Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Mackenzie, F.T., Biogeochemistry. In Encyclopedia of Environmental Biology, vol. 1, Academic Press, Inc.,
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Mackenzie, F.T., and J.A. Mackenzie, 1998 (2nd ed.), Our Changing Planet: An Introduction to Earth System
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Schlesinger, W.H., 1991 (2nd ed.), Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change. Academic Press, San
Diego, California.
Skinner, B.J., and S.C. Porter, 1987, Physical Geology. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Smil, V., 1997, Cycles of Life: Civilization and the Biosphere. Scientific American Library, New York.
Turekian, K.K., 1996, Global Environmental Change: Past, Present and Future. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
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Wayne, R.P.,1991, Chemistry of Atmospheres. Oxford University Press, New York.
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