PART VI TheHowof Early Childhood Education—Guidance ‘Guidance is an ongoing process through which adults help children develop setlscpline and leam the socially acceptable rules of society. physical punishment Punishment emphasizes what the child should not do, without giv- Use of physial force wih the intent of ing any indication of what the desired behavior is; it is a onetime rather «causing bodly pin or dscomfort toa than an ongoing occurrence; it focuses on obedience rather than on hid forthe purpose ofcorcting or development of self-control; it undermines self-esteem; and it makes a punishing the i's behav decision for the child rather than allowing the child to think through a solution. Children will also learn to dislike and avoid those who punish them. See the “Take a Closer Look” box, in which recent research about the use of physical punishment is discussed. PHILOSOPHIES OF GUIDANCE ‘A number of philosophies and approaches deal with children’s behav iors. These are, quite often, addressed to parents but have relevance 10 teachers as well. The common aim of these approaches is to contribute” positively to the development of productive and responsible youngstets by giving families and teachers a consistent method and workable strat egies. Like the theories we have previously discussed that are relevant to other topics covered in this text, similar approaches also have somte= thing to say about how adults can best guide children’s behaviors. We will discuss three such programs—those of Rudolf Dreikurs, Thomas Gordon, and the behaviorists—each stemming from a very different underlying theory and philosophy and with a different thrust, but also ‘According to Drees al ildren's sharing some commonalities. misbehavios stem from one of four un derlying goals: atention, power reverse, Dreikurs’s Child Guidance Centers and inadequacy; the use of logical conse fences sone of Diekurs’s most widely Psychiatrist Rudolf Dreikurs, through his Child Guidance Center used techniues moted a program based on the work of Alfred Adler (an associate 0spougou auepin6 anreuiepe oND2}e a0U UO LOR “euuoy apinoud pu asnge Yrs uo upseasas aun noge “puased unoyut djay ue> nos "euorssajoud pooupyep Aveo ayeapajmouy © sy awoutund shud auatsied pus aaivps o1 Dalgns axe ou UBIPILP JO esnde au TOE esuoo asrel osje AAU ‘anbwurpar audnsip © se waul “ystund jesfd Jo SS0uRN940U! 2h 22:0)U1 UOUe! 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UL UR to wuauuusiund jeaishyd yo saya aun anoge Pale tusaq neu. saipms yo spaupung fumus> ised olf INAWHSINNd TWOISAHd 41O WS ST1a.L HDYV4Sa4 4VH ov464 PART VI The Howot Early Childhood Education—Guidance Sigmund Freud in his early career). Adler's theory that people are goal- seeking organisms led Dreikurs to identify four underlying goals of all misbehavior—attention, power, revenge, and inadequacy (Dreikurs & Soltz, 1964). Thus, in keeping with the psychoanalytic underpin- nings of his approach, Dreikurs felt that one cannot effectively change a child's misbehavior without analyzing and understanding which goal motivates the child. All goals, according to Dreikurs, result from feel- ings of discouragement. ‘Appropriate reaction to the child's behavior will depend on the child's goal (Dreikurs & Cassel, 1972). For instance, it is best to deal with the child who seeks attention, the usual first step in misbehavior, by ignoring the bid for attention. This is not to say that attention should rnot be given to the child; on the contrary, attention for positive behavior should be given freely and frequently. But inappropriate bids for atten- tion need to be ignored. ‘The child who feels that bids for attention are still not providing what is needed will often escalate the behavior pattern and turn to power seeking. To respond to the child whose goal is power, itis best to disengage from any power struggle; a power contest is no contest if you, as the opponent, refuse to participate. Children need to feel important, but the way to establish their importance is not through disobedience, tantrums, and arguments. You can help the child find legitimate and productive ways of asserting that power, but not through power plays. "The next step, if the child continues to feel discouraged in attempt- ing to assert those needs, Is revenge. The aim at this stage is to get even for feelings of hurt and rejection by hurting others. It is important to recognize that the child’s attempts to hurt you reflect the child’s own pain; do not let the child see your feelings of hurt, since this will only reinforce the child's actions. Above all, do not retaliate, Instead, work on making the child feel accepted, enlisting another child if appropriate, and be as encouraging as possible. ‘The fourth goal, inadequacy, is perhaps the easiest to identity a8 stemming from discouragement. People around the child have often stiggested to that child that he or she is inept, or the child misinter prets environmental cues and comes to such a conclusion (Dreikuts, 1972)-To help the child shed such helplessness, you cannot accept these expressions of inadequacy. You continually need to convey encourage ment, faith in the child's ability, praise, and support. Dreikurs suggests that instead of rewardand punishment, parentsand teachers should use encouragement and logical consequences. Encout agement focuses on increasing children’s confidence by accepting as they are rather than as they might be (Dreikurs & Cassel, 1972), builds on children’s strengths, thus boosting self-esteem. Encourageme is also differentiated from praise; praise focuses on your perception a approval of the child (‘I'm so proud of you for helping clean the class! ‘whereas encouragement centers on the child's accomplishment and al ity (*How nice our classroom looks now!"). Praise rewards the childs action and makes it dependent on your approval; encouragement puts action in the context of the child's contribution to the total group.-swoygoud spun on suORnos uy uoupinn clay 0 Pash 5. suoyneyag [2905 BulpIn uw qua puodsos nod ‘ase sitp ut sinos st 200U TT sypoiq uy Jo tajqoud au “ease Azexq 94) HL SURI 3H JO O8N OL Surpear st saupem1 Spvpour Azens axp Bumuro{ oq pauxo axOU! 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Thus, you might say, “When | find the blocks re chor tietfacnesentow allover the floor, Ym afraid someone will tip and get hurt, and that Genii tensrterthan the chl!S eal upsets me," rather than, "You are being very iresponsible.” ‘charactes, “When the ownership of the problem is a joint one, belonging to both adult and child, Thomas suggests a third strategy. A process of no-lose you-message problem solving, in which those involved discuss and negotiate until “Tomas Gordon's term fora response 0 3 : 7 aa find a mutually satisfactory resolution, is used. character (usual in negative tes) ; rather than on how the adult fel Behavior Management “The behavior management approach is derived from behavioral theory. “The underlying philosophy is thatthe child's behavior is under the con- Behavior management is based on the trol of the environment (which includes space, objects, and people), rotion that children’s behavior can be which can be changed by the adult through some kind of environmental “Ranged by caraing te enaonsest’ —— juanipulation. It is based on the notion thatthe consequences of behav: teanuuns sich os posiverenfcenest jor are vital, that children engage in behaviors that are reinforced and fer desrable behaviors andignaina 9” gegge behaviors that are not reinforced. A number of techniques have undesirable behaviors ae use been developed as part of behavior management; some are used fre- quently in early childhood settings, and we will concentrate our discus dion on these. (Recall our discussion of the principles of behaviorism in Chapter 5.) ‘Behavior management focuses on observable traits that can be noted and measured, such as crying, hitting, or whining, as opposed to unobservable qualities, such as Jealousy, insecurity, or separation anxl- ty. The observable can be defined and is objective satiner than relying on subjective interpretation. ‘When a misbehavior is to be changed, it is carefully measured (or instance, the number of occurrences are counted or the duration is timed) and quantified, as in a graph. If, for instance, Edward has been biting ther children frequently, it is more accurate to know that after two weeks ofa behavior management program he has decreased his rate of hitting from an average of five times a day to two times a day than to conclude that the program is not working because Edward is still hitting, Positive reinforcement is perhaps the most widely used application of behavior management. You use it every time you smile at the children sho are playing cooperatively in the dramatic play area, gently touch the head of the child who is engrossed in putting together @ puzzle, of say thank you to the children for helping to clean up after snack; sue subile social reinforcers come naturally to most teachers. Your reat: tion is conveying approval of these behaviors. The principle applied ia behavior management is that children will continue to display behaviors for which they get acknowledgment ot attention. In behavior manage, ment, reinforcers are often used systematically to encourage specified Ge Ee earn Whee behaviors. If Julio gts positive atenion every time he hangs uP his Fone: re kamera coat, he is more likely to repeat the behavior q Aa enyn ea Mee ‘tis important that reinforcement immediately follow the behaviol Perea °° beeifecive although the frequency of reinforcement will vary. Whtel eee ee baaiae Sou first attempt to help a child acquire a new behavior (for instante Julio hanging up his coat when he comes inside), the reinforcemet behavior management Behavioral approach to guidance holding that the cil’ behavior is under the con- trol ofthe environment, which includes space, objects, and peoplesuonepunoy pyjos a10Uu © yas AB10UH9 TN, nos ‘38uEKp oy gues sun no seaze AJAUDPE pu ARENT ‘mos aspaymounjse nok Syeuanpinip Suns tps SUBLOM Ut uerodu Alaa st Surpurssi9pu"-JPS Hyom nog ox apna st eo nO SUTUTEXO 02 POU THEA OK ovpy-saqru ayy area asaun pres NOS VEN naBs1q auoatos osmeaq Sal ‘rowoy ox paraadxe ayans nog —weLEOUNY SA ‘Sumey 2m04 31 “USIP Fak Buxpind Jo 3se1 amp 0 s92uIOdKo HA nox Sug Aja¥El 150UL qin nox 'ssouey pure SSOUUL POST 1 guy @ Ul pasted 298 80K IL pata snok Taype Iss punorBYed WHO Hino asneneg “Pazeal 210% OK ony uy axoruo> ap Ur S14 Od “USIP Sunos Jo oxe> aun or ape KOU um mepadxo pue sanyes ao 308 ano quip 0} 62 ISI ‘uaspyiup Sumo yptas BUDO on ypeoxdde te 228 nos dou Aen saurjopin autos "aveD0aPe STPUOIS Mrayoud ety saypeosdde so Z2quNn LJO 2! iAuo aze pan o1 STELIOS yy, cast nos PIMOUS 22UEPINS OF ‘ppeondde vey LUIBaq MOK OP aH wax so} 6230 4p seHpeOUEE SO yen Jo somes} asp aS Or SAE Sroye savepmnb ot ypeoxide 10909 qnbiuypa aauepino © Bunretes Ui! 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As you examine your own values, keep in mind your aim in work- ing with the children whose families have entrusted them into your care, As was stated at the beginning of this chapter, guidance is a long~ term process, contributing to the evolution of children into adults. f the aim is to develop caring, competent, self-directed adults, this process begins early in life. What matters is that the guidance principles applied are congruent with the desired outcome. Itis also important to be aware of the philosophy of the early child hood program in which you work. Some follow a specific guidance phi- losophy for which training is often provided and which all employees are expected to use. If you are comfortable with the philosophy, there is no problem; if you don’t agree with the approach, then you have the choice of discussing your reservations with the director or finding another position. Many programs, however, do not have a firmly stated philosophy and rely on the good judgment of the staff. ‘As we reviewed Dreikurs's, Gordon's, and the behaviorists! approaches to guidance, we discussed the main features of these three divergent philosophies. Good early childhood educators use many of these techniques. When you select the salient features from different programs that you think will work, you are using af eclectic approach. Being eclectic, for instance, allows you to utillze logical consequences, positive reinforcement, and active listening, consciously aware that these are features of different philosophical ‘methods; in so doing, you may be developing an approach that works best for you. Developing a personal style of guidance takes time, and it may: well change over the years of your professional involvement and develoP™ ment. What is important is that you are comfortable with the guidafce approach you use because it is effective and supports children’s ‘opment in a positive, nurturing manner.