142354419 Οδυσσέας Γκιλής ΔΑΝΕΙΟ ΧΡΕΟΣ ΟΦΕΙΛΗ στην Αρχαιότητα PDF

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. TOME V . .......... 129
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From Wikipedia, Aristotle. Aristotle's Politics (c.a. 350 BC) was mainly concerned to analyse
different forms of a state (monarchy, aristocracy, constitutional government, tyranny, oligarchy,
democracy) as a critique of Plato's advocacy of a ruling class of "philosopher-kings". In particular for
economists, Plato had drawn a blueprint of society on the basis of common ownership of resources.
Aristotle viewed this model as an oligarchical anathema. In Politics, Book II, Part V, he .
ued that, Property should be in a certain sense common, but, as a general rule, private; for, when
everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and they will make more
progress, because every one will be attending to his own business... And further, there is the greatest
pleasure in doing a kindness or service to friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered
when a man has private property. These advantages are lost by excessive unification of the state.
Though Aristotle certainly advocated there be many things held in common, he . ued that
not everything could be, simply because of the "wickedness of human nature"."It is clearly better that
property should be private", wrote Aristotle, "but the use of it common; and the special business of the
legislator is to create in men this benevolent disposition." In Politics Book I, Aristotle discusses the
general nature of households and market exchanges. For him there is a certain "art of acquisition" or
"wealth-getting". Money itself has the sole purpose of being a medium of exchange, which means on
its own "it is worthless... not useful as a means to any of the necessities of life". Nevertheless, points
out Aristotle, because the "instrument" of money is the same many people are obsessed with the simple
accumulation of money. "Wealth-getting" for one's household is "necessary and honourable", while
exchange on the retail trade for simple accumulation is "justly censured, for it is dishonourable".Of the
people he stated they as a whole thought acquisition of wealth (chrematistike) as being either the
same as, or a principle of oikonomia (household management oikonomos. with oikos as house
and nomos in fact translated as custom or lawAristotle himself was highly disapproving of usury
and cast scorn on making money through means of a monopoly.
83
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(1918, 1928, 1931). To 1992. Die Staatshaushaltung der
Athener, von August Bockh. Zweite Ausgabe. Zweiter Band. Emnndzwanzig Beilagen. Mit sieben
Tafeln, enthaltend die Gnindtexto von Inschriften. Berlin. Bei 6. Reimer. 1851.
43
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From Wikipedia. The History of Banking begins with the first prototype banks of merchants in the
ancient world, which made grain loans to farmers and traders who carried goods between cities. This
began around 2000 BC in Assyria and Babylonia. Later, in ancient Greece and during the Roman
Empire, lenders based in temples made loans and added two important innovations: they accepted
deposits and changed money. Archaeology from this period in ancient China and India also shows
evidence of money lending activity.
129
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This essay was originally created for the Swiss Money Mus. in mid 1999. Updated and
adjusted materials taking continuing research on this subject into account are found in The Lost
Science of Money book, published four years after this piece (see link below). by Stephen
Zarlenga. 2000, 5)The Scholastics Differentiated Between Usury And Interest The Scholastics (1100 1500 AD), the Church scholars familiar with the available writings in existence, echoed Aristotle.
Acquinas . ued that money is a measure, and usury diversifys the measure placing extra
demands on the money mechanism which harmed its function as a measure. Henry of Ghent wrote:
Money is medium in exchange, and not terminus. Alexander Lombard noted: Money should not be
able to be bought and sold for it is not extremum in selling or buying, but medium.The Scholastics
made the first attempt at a science of economics and their main concern was usury; but this was not the
same as just ch. ing interest. It was generally not forbidden to earn interest if the lender
was actually taking some risk, without a guaranteed gain. Interest could also be ch. ed
when the lender suffered some loss or passed up some opportunity by extending the loan. Venice used
advanced financial forms for centuries without violating the Scholastic usury bans. Two types of loans
were always exempt from bans on interest: the Societas, where the lender assumed some portion of
the risk of the enterprise. Also exempt was the Census an obligation to pay an annual return based
on some fruitful property. At first it was paid in real produce, later in money. The Census was
normally capitalized at 8 times the annual return, but the risk of the fruitful base was on the lender
not the borrower, for if the crop were destroyed by weather, the borrower had no obligation that year.
Later cities issued census obligations based an tax revenues, which came to be called rents. Usury
was much more than charging interest it was taking unfair advantage; it was an anti-social misuse of
the money mechanism.
274

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Loans Information Center. A Brief History of Loans. No one can say for certain where the history of
loans began? it's likely that people have been practicing lending and borrowing for as long as there has
been a concept of ownership. The history of loans can be documented at least several thousand years
back; forms of lending were evident in ancient Greek and Roman times, and monetary loans were even
mentioned in the Christian bible. The modern history of loans started much later than these ancient
times, of course? it is, however, important to realize that lending started much earlier than many people
would imagine and has its origin in much older times.
130
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Zarlenga. 2000, 3)The Oriental Usury Error Required Solons Reform In the Greek city states where
the prices of agricultural commodities were not monetized by central authority but valued by more
individually determined markets, ch. ing usury on loans of coinage to farmers quickly led
to severe social problems. By about 600 BC the class of free small farmers was vanishing, with land
becoming concentrated into the hands of the Oligarchy: Before the introduction of coined money the
peasant farmer borrowed commodities and repaid the loan in kind, and was probably able to meet
the obligation without great difficulty; but after the introduction of coined money the situation became
decidedly more difficulthe must take a loan of money to purchase his necessary supplies at a time
when money was cheap and commodities dear. When a year of plenty came and he undertook to repay
the loan, commodities were cheap and money was dear, wrote Professor Calhoun. Unable to get out of
debt, eventually bad weather or a poor harvest would bring foreclosure on their land and even bind
them into slavery. This enslavement grew to crisis proportions, when Solon came to Athens rescue with
his Seisachtheia or shaking off of burdens. Personal slavery was no longer allowed as security for
debts. He canceled such existing debt contracts; and gave back land which had been seized. Farmers
who had been sold into slavery abroad by those to whom they owed money were bought back and
returned to Athens. Solon also . ared a minimum monetary value for each agricultural
product setting floor prices for them (see Heichelheim). He switched from the Aeginatic to the
lighter weight Attic monetary standard reducing coinage weights and increased the amount of
coinage in circulation.
142
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. This essay was originally created for the Swiss Money Mus. in mid
1999. Updated and adjusted materials taking continuing research on this subject into account are
found in The Lost Science of Money book, published four years after this piece (see link below).
by Stephen Zarlenga. 2000, Solon had been a merchant in his youth and understood commerce. Yet
he blamed Athens problems mainly on the rich Oligarchy. He became known as one of the seven great
wise men, presenting the Oracle of Delphi with the wisdom gift which became inscribed on the
temple entrance there: Know thyself and Nothing too much. (Fritz Heichelheims 1938 work AN
ANCIENT ECONOMIC HISTORY, is recommended for further reading on sections 1 to 3. Also see
URBANIZATION AND LAND OWNERSHIP IN The ANCIENT NEAR EAST; edited by Michael
Hudson and Baruch A. Levine; published by Harvards Peabody Mus. of Archeology and
Ethnology).
144
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Zarlenga. 2000, 4)Aristotle (384-322 BC) Formulated The Classical View Against Usury
Aristotle understood that money is sterile; it doesnt beget more money the way cows beget more
cows. He knew that Money exists not by nature but by law: The most hated sort (of wealth getting)
and with the greatest reason, is usury, which makes a gain out of money itself and not from the natural
object of it. For money was intended to be used in exchange but not to increase at interest. And this
term interest (tokos), which means the birth of money from money is applied to the breeding of money
because the offspring resembles the parent. Wherefore of all modes of getting wealth, this is the most
unnatural. (1258b, POLITICS). And he really disliked usurers: those who ply sordid trades, pimps
and all such people, and those who lend small sums at high rates. For all these take more than they
ought, and from the wrong sources. What is common to them is evidently a sordid love of gain
(1122a, ETHICS).
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, 58
, 150, 214
, 393
, 14, 15, 20, 57, 68, 83, 166,

202, 208, 222, 231, 232, 276, 291, 300
, 392
, 317
, 14, 62, 63, 68, 69, 79, 85,

90, 174, 236, 239
, 393
, 56, 94, 288
, 393
, 20, 57, 67, 124, 166, 217
, 44, 392
, 19, 23, 25, 72, 107, 136, 148,

157, 191, 193, 201, 220, 246, 247
, 44, 393, 394
, 41, 83, 367
, 18, 20, 22, 27, 65, 71, 92, 128,

137, 165, 166, 177, 188, 214, 221, 248,
268, 273, 294, 295, 297, 300, 326
, 352, 361
, 29, 120, 126, 145, 190, 233, 236
, 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,

27, 30, 32, 39, 56, 60, 65, 67, 68, 71, 72,
75, 76, 77, 78, 85, 89, 90, 106, 107, 124,
137, 139, 142, 146, 147, 152, 155, 159,
161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 172, 174, 185,
188, 191, 196, 198, 202, 204, 209, 210,
214, 215, 224, 239, 243, 245, 247, 256,
257, 261, 271, 278, 281, 288, 304, 305,
326, 329
, 17, 19, 20, 24, 28, 30, 33, 34, 39,

40, 78, 79, 87, 92, 100, 101, 102, 109,
112, 113, 114, 123, 140, 143, 144, 148,
152, 153, 155, 164, 167, 168, 173, 178,
194, 195, 197, 208, 213, 222, 223, 226,
235, 237, 238, 242, 243, 247, 250, 253,
254, 258, 259, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268,
269, 270, 272, 274, 277, 281, 282, 283,
286, 287, 288, 291, 293, 294, 298, 299,
300, 302, 326, 333
, 393
, 42, 334, 368, 369

, 392
, 17, 23, 33, 34, 36, 40, 89, 93, 98,
108, 109, 111, 115, 172, 190, 193, 195,
205, 223, 242, 275, 276, 286, 290, 291,
292, 301, 332
, 12, 14, 16, 18, 22, 25, 35, 53,
58, 59, 64, 71, 84, 87, 89, 91, 94, 97, 98,
116, 117, 128, 136, 144, 158, 164, 167,
176, 188, 190, 196, 202, 203, 204, 205,
206, 207, 221, 224, 225, 237, 251, 287,
299, 300, 303, 304
, 15, 22, 29, 31, 56, 65, 67, 68,

72, 75, 80, 85, 89, 90, 91, 109, 115, 174,
181, 201, 224, 241, 254, 258, 268, 273
, 13, 18, 55, 84, 93, 124,
207, 220, 226, 303
, 19, 28, 61, 78, 81, 86, 143,
149, 152, 172, 181, 191, 225, 231, 233,
248, 256, 282, 287
, 21, 32, 59, 103, 147, 152, 167,
168, 172, 186, 187, 211, 224, 260, 271,
272, 285, 287
397
, 14, 59
, 44, 45, 393, 394, 395
, 12, 22, 26, 53, 81, 155, 159,

168, 187, 188, 209, 210, 211, 218, 220,
229, 245, 246, 247, 249, 253, 258, 262,
268, 281, 299
, 211, 361
, 14, 17, 22, 29, 56, 63, 64,

116, 117, 122, 123, 124, 184, 186, 188,
209, 234, 266, 297
, 12, 54, 103, 104, 105, 106,

123, 147, 219, 241, 297
, 63, 83
, 12, 15, 54, 87
, 14, 23, 29, 32, 39, 64, 70, 78,

100, 101, 113, 185, 188, 213, 217, 224,
233, 236, 244, 271, 273, 294, 327
, 64, 138, 139
, 78
, 58, 62, 104, 106, 200, 280
, 15, 37, 58, 65, 66, 69, 70, 75, 77, 78,
79, 80, 81, 90, 124, 204, 315
, 20, 33, 74, 77, 117, 159, 170,

202, 228, 241, 250, 260, 282, 304, 305
, 392
, 393
, 393
, 22, 23, 26, 27, 32, 126, 127,

177, 178, 188, 208, 212, 217, 263, 264,
275, 277
, 64, 128, 137, 224, 300, 302
, 177
, 16, 17, 22, 24, 37, 39, 55, 70, 89,

99, 100, 113, 144, 188, 197, 204, 213,
242, 317, 325
, 19, 29, 31, 111, 119, 120, 121,

136, 138, 139, 141, 143, 151, 159, 181,
187, 200, 212, 215, 228, 230, 231, 236,
244, 254, 275, 276, 283, 290, 298, 350
, 15, 20, 26, 88, 100, 101, 113,
114, 117, 118, 119, 122, 125, 141, 142,
144, 145, 146, 150, 153, 162, 163, 194,
213, 234, 275, 284, 287, 301
, 26, 27, 38, 70, 77, 82, 87, 164,

210, 221, 226, 324, 333
, 270
, 27, 59, 75, 86, 142, 146, 157,
202, 203, 219, 221, 237, 242, 326, 333
, 393
, 392
, 24, 30, 39, 92, 111, 112,

197, 243, 326
, 44, 45, 393, 394
, 13, 55
, 78
, 44, 45, 393, 394, 395
, 58, 66, 70, 77, 78, 83, 184
, 16, 21, 23, 97, 98, 162, 173,

176, 191, 225
, 55, 66, 70, 78, 90, 124, 148,

152, 183, 186, 191, 289, 290
, 77, 78, 80, 177, 182, 186
, 187
398
, 39, 55, 89, 91, 140, 142, 160,

326, 329
204, 210, 213, 218, 243, 249, 262, 286,

289, 290, 296, 327
, 41, 42, 205, 368, 369
, 22, 75, 76, 95, 142, 188
, 40, 44, 336, 340, 341, 392,

393
, 22, 30, 34, 75, 94, 168, 188,

193, 241, 291
, 25, 41, 42, 83, 84, 101, 113,

114, 136, 204, 366, 367, 368, 369
, 13, 55
, 25, 41, 42, 82, 83, 101, 113, 114,

131, 173, 204, 271, 367, 368, 369
, 15, 75, 77, 331

, 393
, 19, 83, 136, 137, 335, 336, 337,

338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 345, 346, 347,
348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 354, 355, 360,
361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366
, 44, 393
, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 56, 59, 60, 61,

65, 66, 70, 85, 89, 98, 102, 106, 114,
115, 141, 144, 146, 149, 152, 155, 156,
174, 177, 180, 203, 206, 253, 259, 266,
293, 330
, 393
, 23, 70, 85, 92, 146, 147, 190,

262, 293, 296
, 22, 188
, 25, 39, 62, 71, 72, 90, 114,

115, 125, 140, 142, 143, 152, 153, 204,
209, 267, 280, 326, 331, 332
, 15, 16, 39, 72, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91,
92, 137, 151, 157, 210, 222, 242, 251,
258, 287, 326, 332
, 24, 57, 70, 78, 197, 211, 228, 233,
277
, 14, 16, 27, 28, 30, 34, 39, 58, 64,
65, 78, 89, 94, 96, 106, 140, 169, 183,
200, 211, 215, 223, 224, 233, 245, 246,
262, 263, 271, 276, 291, 293, 323, 326
, 14, 16, 23, 24, 26, 30, 39, 57, 67,
78, 79, 88, 89, 94, 97, 119, 139, 158,
159, 172, 176, 177, 182, 188, 196, 197,
, 394, 395
, 394, 395
, 393
, 22, 25, 77, 78, 102, 103, 114,
188, 194, 200, 274, 275, 289
, 393
, 77, 78
, 76, 77, 78
, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 31, 37, 82, 89,
110, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 128, 136,
137, 139, 140, 142, 154, 158, 171, 175,
183, 188, 191, 194, 223, 259, 270, 272,
280, 303, 315
, 12, 36, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52,
207, 293, 294, 308, 310, 311
, 37, 38, 316, 317, 318, 321, 323
, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322
, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49,
50, 51, 52, 307, 308, 309
399
, 20, 24, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,

37, 38, 39, 40, 47, 51, 70, 92, 120, 123,
147, 152, 155, 156, 157, 164, 165, 167,
169, 171, 178, 197, 202, 203, 207, 209,
214, 216, 221, 223, 224, 225, 229, 235,
237, 242, 244, 254, 265, 269, 272, 276,
277, 280, 282, 285, 286, 293, 295, 296,
297, 298, 299, 301, 311, 312, 313, 314,
315, 316, 317, 318, 322, 323, 324, 325,
326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333
180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 188, 189,

191, 192, 193, 198, 199, 200, 202, 205,
206, 207, 208, 210, 213, 215, 217, 218,
219, 223, 224, 225, 241, 242, 243, 245,
250, 255, 256, 257, 258, 267, 268, 279,
281, 286, 298, 303, 304, 323, 324, 325,
331, 394, 395
, 60
, 24, 198, 209, 238, 314, 320, 332
, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22,

23, 24, 25, 27, 34, 35, 39, 44, 45, 53, 54,
55, 56, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 74, 77, 87, 88,
89, 90, 91, 97, 107, 115, 116, 125, 139,
141, 142, 152, 153, 154, 159, 160, 161,
164, 170, 173, 174, 175, 176, 182, 183,
184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 192, 195, 198,
199, 202, 209, 219, 220, 231, 240, 243,
253, 258, 259, 267, 268, 277, 280, 281,
286, 290, 292, 299, 301, 318, 322, 326,
328, 393, 394
, 15, 22, 24, 30, 54, 78, 85, 90,

140, 143, 146, 181, 196, 199, 241, 268
, 8, 11, 72, 97, 308, 309, 346,

355, 361
, 13, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24,

25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 36, 38, 39, 45, 55, 57,
58, 60, 62, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74,
75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 86, 88,
89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 107, 108,
118, 137, 138, 141, 145, 152, 153, 156,
157, 161, 163, 166, 172, 173, 174, 175,
, 13, 32, 55, 61, 65, 76, 77, 78, 79,

80, 90, 118, 160, 209, 211, 215, 218,
219, 220, 228, 229, 230, 231, 234, 240,
248, 256, 257, 266, 275, 278, 279, 280,
361
, 41, 42, 44, 368, 369, 391

, 17, 19, 24, 26, 34, 40, 41, 42, 49,
63, 83, 84, 107, 108, 109, 118, 119, 121,
136, 137, 144, 149, 151, 157, 159, 164,
172, 181, 183, 193, 197, 209, 244, 269,
292, 303, 307, 332, 334, 352, 355, 366,
367, 368, 369, 393
, 20, 124, 167

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1

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. . [ed. M.D. Macleod, Cambridge, Mass. 1961]. 1.

, 14, 15, 20, 57, 68, 83, 166,

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, 56, 94, 288

, 20, 57, 67, 124, 166, 217

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, 42, 334, 368, 369

, 15, 22, 29, 31, 56, 65, 67, 68,

, 44, 45, 393, 394, 395

, 12, 22, 26, 53, 81, 155, 159,

, 14, 17, 22, 29, 56, 63, 64,

, 12, 54, 103, 104, 105, 106,

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, 16, 17, 22, 24, 37, 39, 55, 70, 89,

, 19, 29, 31, 111, 119, 120, 121,

, 26, 27, 38, 70, 77, 82, 87, 164,

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, 44, 45, 393, 394

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, 58, 66, 70, 77, 78, 83, 184

, 16, 21, 23, 97, 98, 162, 173,

, 55, 66, 70, 78, 90, 124, 148,

, 39, 55, 89, 91, 140, 142, 160,

204, 210, 213, 218, 243, 249, 262, 286,

, 41, 42, 205, 368, 369

, 22, 75, 76, 95, 142, 188

, 40, 44, 336, 340, 341, 392,

, 22, 30, 34, 75, 94, 168, 188,

, 25, 41, 42, 83, 84, 101, 113,

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, 15, 75, 77, 331

, 19, 83, 136, 137, 335, 336, 337,

, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 56, 59, 60, 61,

, 23, 70, 85, 92, 146, 147, 190,

, 25, 39, 62, 71, 72, 90, 114,

, 20, 24, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,

180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 188, 189,

, 24, 198, 209, 238, 314, 320, 332

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, 8, 11, 72, 97, 308, 309, 346,

, 13, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24,

, 13, 32, 55, 61, 65, 76, 77, 78, 79,

, 41, 42, 44, 368, 369, 391

, 20, 124, 167

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