Routing II: Protocols (RIP, Eigrp, Ospf, Pnni, Is-Is)

Routing II: Protocols (RIP,
EIGRP, OSPF, PNNI, IS-IS)
Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
shivkuma@ecse.rpi.edu
Based in part upon slides of Prof. Raj Jain (OSU), S. Keshav (Cornell), J. Kurose (U Mass)
1
Overview
 RIP, RIPv2, EIGRP
 OSPF, PNNI, IS-IS: LS efficiency & robustness
 Link state distribution, DB synchronization, NBMAs etc
 Refs: Chap 16,14

 Books: “Interconnections” by Perlman, “OSPF” by John Moy, “Routing in
Internet” by Huitema.
 Reference: RFC 2328: OSPF Version 2: In HTML
 Reading: Notes for Protocol Design, E2e Principle, IP and Routing: In PDF
 Reading: Routing 101: Notes on Routing: In PDF | In MS Word
 Reference: Tsuchiya,
"The Landmark Hierarchy: A New Hierarchy for Routing in Very Large Networks"
2
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
 Uses hop count as metric (max: 16 is infinity)
 Tables (vectors) “advertised” to neighbors every 30 s.
 Each advertisement: upto 25 entries
 No advertisement for 180 sec: neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors (Triggered
updates)
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
 link failure info quickly propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite
distance = 16 hops)
3
RIPv1 Problems (Continued)
❑ Split horizon/poison reverse does not guarantee
to solve count-to-infinity problem
❑ 16 = infinity => RIP for small networks only!
❑ Slow convergence
❑ Broadcasts consume non-router resources
❑ RIPv1 does not support subnet masks (VLSMs)
❑ No authentication
4
RIPv2
❑ Why ? Installed base of RIP routers
❑ Provides:
❑ VLSM support
❑ Authentication
❑ Multicasting
❑ “Wire-sharing” by multiple routing domains,
❑ Tags to support EGP/BGP routes.
❑ Uses reserved fields in RIPv1 header.
❑ First route entry replaced by authentication info.
5
E-IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
 CISCO proprietary; successor of RIP (late 80s)
 Several metrics (delay, bandwidth, reliability, load etc)
 Uses TCP to exchange routing updates
 Loop-free routing via Distributed Updating Alg. (DUAL)
based on diffused computation
 Freeze entry to particular destination
 Diffuse a request for updates
 Other nodes may freeze/propagate the diffusing
computation (tree formation)
 Unfreeze when updates received.
 Tradeoff: temporary un-reachability for some
destinations
6
Link State vs. Distance Vector
 Link State (LS) advantages:
 More stable (aka fewer routing loops)
 Faster convergence than distance vector
 Easier to discover network topology, troubleshoot
network.
 Can do better source-routing with link-state
 Type & Quality-of-service routing (multiple route
tables) possible
 Caveat: With path-vector-type (paths instead of

distances) DV routing, these differences blur…
7
Link State Protocols
❑ Key: Create a network “map” at each node.
❑ 1. Node collects the state of its connected links and forms

a “Link State Packet” (LSP)
❑ 2. Flood LSP => reaches every other node in the network
and everyone now has a network map.
❑ 3. Given map, run Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm
(SPF) => get paths to all destinations
❑ 4. Routing table = next-hops of these paths.
❑ 5. Hierarchical routing: organization of areas, and filtered
control plane information flooded.
8
Link State Issues
❑ Reliable Flooding: sequence #s, age
❑ LSA types, Neighbor discovery and maintainence
(hello)
❑ Efficiency in Broadcast LANs, NBMA, Pt-Mpt
subnets: designated router (DR) concept
❑ Areas and Hierarchy
❑ Area types: Normal, Stub, NSSA: filtering
❑ External Routes (from other ASs), interaction
with inter-domain routing.
❑ Advanced topics: incremental SPF algorithms
9
Reliable Flooding…
10
Topology Dissemination
❑ A.k.a LSP distribution
❑ 1. Flood LSPs on links except incoming link
❑ Require at most 2E transfers for n/w with E
edges
❑ 2. Sequence numbers to detect duplicates
❑ Why? Routers/links may go down/up
❑ Issue: wrap-around, larger sequence number
is not the most recent!
11
Sequence Number Space Organization
❑ Circular space: S1 > S2 > S3 > S1
❑ Accidental bit errors in switch memory caused this
problem in ARPANET
❑ Lollipop sequence: Start with S0, increment till you
reach circle and then view it as a circular space
❑ No ambiguity in lollipop handle
❑ Linear space: OSPFv2.
❑ If Smax reached, expicitly delete Smax LSA before
wrapping around
12
Topology Dissemination (Continued)
❑ Checksum field:
❑ Drop packet if in error, get retransmission from
neighbor
❑ Age field (similar to TTL)
❑ Number of seconds since LSA originated
❑ Periodically incremented after acceptance
❑ Originating router refreshes LSA after 30 min
❑ Delete if Age = MaxAge
❑ Low age field + large seq # => that LSA is
flapping or frequently changing …
13
Recovering from a partition
 On partition, LSP databases can get out of synch
 Databases described by database descriptor records

 Routers on each side of a newly restored link talk to each
other to update databases (determine missing and out-of-
date LSPs) => selective synchronization Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
14
LSA-types, Neighbor & flooding
Adjacencies in Different Subnets
15
OSPF Router-LSA: Scenario
16
Neighbor Discovery & Relationship
 Every OSPF router sends out 'hello' packets
 Hello packets used to determine if neighbor is up
 Hello packets sent periodically (short intervals)
 HelloInterval = 10s (in example)
 Assumes neighbor dead if no response within

 RouterDeadInterval = 40s (in example)
 This is also called an “adjacency”

 Note that adjacency is a logical routing relationship and
is more than physical connection.

 It consumes bandwidth and computation resources
 Becomes an issue if large number of adj need to be
maintained Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

17
Neighbor …
 Once an adjacency is established, trade information
 Neighbor relationship is bi-directional as a result of
OSPF hello packets

 Local topology information is packaged in a "link state
announcement“ (LSA)
 Multiple types of LSAs: (detail later)
 Initial DB synchronization
 New announcements are sent ONCE, and only
updated if there's a change

 Or every 45mins...
18
Hello:
Packet Format
19
Router-LSA:
20
Database Synchronization
❑ LS Database (LSDB): collection of the Link State
Advertisements (LSAs) accepted at a node.
❑ This is the “map” for Dijkstra algorithm
❑ When the connection between two neighbors comes up,
the routers must wait for their LS DBs to be synchronized.
❑ Else routing loops and black holes due to inconsistency
❑ OSPF technique:
❑ Source sends only LSA headers, then
❑ Neighbor requests LSAs that are more recent.
❑ Those LSAs are sent over
❑ After sync, the neighbors are said to be “fully adjacent”
21
Recap: IP Subnet Model
❑ Each subnet assigned one
or more address prefixes.
❑ Each address prefix is
called an IP subnet
❑ IP routes to subnets, not to
individual hosts
❑ Two hosts on different IP
subnets have to go through
one or more routers.
❑ Even if they are on the
same “physical” network
22
IP Subnet Model (Contd)
❑ Two hosts or routers on
a common subnet can
send packets “directly”
to one another
❑ Two routers cannot
exchange routing
information directly
unless they have one or
more IP subnets in
common
❑ All these issues will be
strained as we study
OSPF adjacency
operation over different
subnets Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
23
Broadcast Media Issues
❑ Multiple (N) OSPF routers attached to a common subnet
❑ Problems:
❑ One “physical link” vs N*(N-1) “adjacencies”
❑ How many “links” to be counted for Dijkstra algo?
24
Broadcast net: # links for DIjkstra
❑ Each router is assumed to be “linked” to every other
router for the purposes of Dijkstra.
❑ Hello protocol optimization:
❑ Each node multicasts Hello to 224.0.0.5 (multicast
address “AllSPFRouters”)
❑ The Hello multicast message also indicates acks for
other routers’ Hellos by listing their RouterIDs
❑ “Link” relationship for purposes of Dijkstra maintained
by each node sending a single Hello packet, instead of
N packets.
❑ What about “flooding adjacencies”, I.e.,
❑ Whom to send (flood) LSAs when a router generates
or learns a new LSA?
❑ Does it need to synchronize DBs with all nodes ?
25
Flooding Adjacencies : option 1
❑ Using Router-LSAs …
❑ O(N) Router-LSAs, with O(N2) adjacency info
❑ Multicast of Router-LSAs does not solve O(N2) DB
synchronization issue
26
Flooding Adjacencies: option 2
❑ New LSA-type: Network-LSA …
❑ O(N) Router-LSAs + 1 network-LSA+ O(N) adjacencies
❑ Converted O(N2) adjacency problem into O(N) problem
27
Recap: O(N2) model ⇒ O(N) model
Question: Who creates the network-LSA?

28
Designated Router (DR)
❑ One router elected as a designated router (DR)
❑ Each router maintains flooding adjacency with the DR,
I.e., sends acks of LSAs to DR
❑ DR informs each router of other routers on LAN
❑ DR generates the network-LSA on subnet’s behalf
after synchronizing with all routers
29
DR, BDR … continued
❑ Backup DR (BDR) also syncs with all routers, and
takes over if DR dies (typically 5 s wait)
❑ Total: 2N – 1 adjacencies
❑ Multicast-based optimization:
❑ New LSAs, Hellos sent to AllSPFRouters avoids
DR re-advertising new information
❑ LSA acks sent to AllDRRouters avoids separate
copies to be sent to DR and BDR
❑ DR election:
❑ First router on net = DR, second = BDR
❑ RouterPriority: [0, 127] indicated in Hello packet=>
highest priority router becomes DR
❑ If network is partitioned and healed, the two DRs
are reduced to one by looking at RouterPriority
30
Network-LSA Example: Summary
DR
31
What if subnet does not support
broadcast?
❑ Non-Broadcast Multiple Access (NBMA) media
❑ NBMA segments may support more than 2 routers, and
allow any two routers to communicate directly, but do not
support data-link broadcast/mcast capability
❑ Eg:X.25, SMDS, Frame-Relay, ATM etc
❑ Connection-oriented (VC-based) communication
❑ Each VC is costly => setting up full mesh for Hellos is
prohibitively expensive
❑ Two flooding adjacency models in OSPF:
❑ Non-Broadcast Multiple Access (NBMA) model
❑ Point-to-Multipoint (pt-mpt) Model
❑ Different tradeoffs…
32
NBMA Subnet Model
❑ Neighbor discovery: manually configured
❑ Dijkstra SPF views NBMA as a full mesh!
❑ Most routers assigned a RouterPriority = 0
❑ Other routers: eligible to become DRs =>
❑ ID of all routers in the NBMA configured
❑ Maintains VCs and Hellos with all routers eligible to
become DRs (RouterPriority > 0)
❑ Enables election of new DR if current one fails
❑ DR and BDR only maintain VCs and Hellos with all
routers on NBMA
❑ DB synchronization works same as broadcast subnet
❑ Flooding in NBMA always goes through DR
❑ Multicast not available to optimize LSA flooding.
❑ DR generates network-LSA just like broadcast subnet
33
NBMA vs Pt-Mpt Subnet Model
❑ Key assumption in NBMA model:
❑ Each router on the subnet can communicate with
every other (same as IP model)
❑ But this requires a “full mesh” of expensive PVCs at
the lower layer!
❑ Many organizations have a hub-and-spoke PVC setup,
a.k.a. “partial mesh”
❑ Conversion into NBMA model requires multiple IP
subnets, and complex configuration (see fig on next
slide)
❑ OSPF’s pt-mpt subnet model breaks the rule that two
routers on the same network must be able to talk directly
❑ Can turn partial PVC mesh into a single IP subnet
34
Partial Mesh F-Relay: NBMA model
35
Partial Mesh F-Relay: pt-mpt model
36
Pt-Mpt Subnet Model
❑ Each router: single OSPF interface, but multiple neighbor
relationships
❑ Note that neighbor relationships not formed to nodes to
which direct PVC does not exist.
❑ Key differences:
❑ No DRs or BDRs! Just hellos over the PVCs. Make
sure that the communication is bi-directional.
❑ I.e. Partial mesh is viewed in Dijkstra as a partial
mesh. Full mesh view not forced like in NBMA model.
❑ Sometimes auto-configuration is possible.
❑ Loss in efficiency because the DB synchronization has to
be done between every peer.
❑ O(n^2) if full mesh. So, in true full PVC mesh situations,
it is better to operate subnet as an NBMAShivkumar Kalyanaraman
37
Hierarchical Routing
38
Why Hierarchy?
❑ Information hiding (filtered) => computation,
bandwidth, storage saved => efficiency => scalability
❑ Address abstraction vs Topology Abstraction
❑ Multiple paths possible between two areas
39
Hierarchical OSPF
40
Area
❑ Configured area ID
❑ A set of address prefixes
❑ Do not have to be contiguous
❑ So a prefix can be in only one area
❑ A set of router IDs
❑ Router functions may be interior, inter-area, or
external
41
Hierarchical OSPF
 Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 Link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 Two-level restriction avoids count-to-infinity issues in
backbone routing.
 Area border routers (ABR): “summarize” distances to
nets in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 Backbone routers: uses a DV-style routing between
backbone routers
 Boundary routers (AS-BRs): connect to other ASs

(generate “external” records)
42
Sample Area Configuration
10.2.0.0/24
43
Summary-LSA Example
44
Externals and Aggregation 1
❑ A full ISP routing table has approximately 100K
routes!
❑ But will you do anything differently if you know
all of them and have a single ISP?
❑ Multiple ISP situations call for complex OSPF
and BGP design
❑ Never redistribute IGPs into BGP! (later…)
❑ Redistribute BGP into IGPs with extreme care
45
Externals & Aggregation 2
❑ In an enterprise
❑ Limit externals from subordinate domains
(e.g., RIP) to be within area (area-scope)
❑ Flood only in area 0 and in area with ASBR
❑ Allow externals from Internet, peer domains to

go outside Area 0…
❑ Only when there will be significant path
differences
❑ Do things with defaults where possible
46
Type 1 and Type 2 externals
❑ Type 2:
❑ Default type for routes distributed into OSPF
❑ EGP costs very different from IGP costs
❑ Exit based on external (EGP) cost only
❑ Type 1
❑ Needs to be set explicitly: not default
❑ IGP costs can be compared and summed
❑ Selects exit based on internal + external costs
47
Stubbiness: A Means of
Controlling Externals
48
Normal Areas
❑ Flood AS-external-LSAs (type 5) across area-

boundaries (AS flooding scope)
❑ ASBR-summary-LSAs (type 4) advertises location of
ASBR (area flooding scope) Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
49
Stub Areas
❑ AS-external-LSAs (type 5) not flooded into stub areas

❑ Summary-LSA flooded only optionally
❑ Default route to ABR for all non-area prefixes
❑ Paths may be inefficient, cannot place an ASBR in
stub areas
50
Not-So-Stubby-Areas (NSSA)
❑ A subset of external LSAs may be flooded

❑ Use Type-7 LSAs for such external routes
❑ Used to import RIP domain routes and flood it
externally, but keep default route for BGP routes
51
IS-IS Overview
❑ The Intermediate Systems to Intermediate System
Routing Protocol (IS-IS) was originally designed to
route the ISO Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP) .
(ISO10589 or RFC 1142)
❑ Adapted for routing IP in addition to CLNP (RFC1195) as
Integrated or Dual IS-IS (1990)
❑ IS-IS is a Link State Protocol similar to the Open Shortest
Path First (OSPF). OSPF supports only IP
❑ IS-IS competed neck-to-neck with OSPF.
❑ OSPF deployed in large enterprise networks
❑ IS-IS deployed in several large ISPs
52
IS-IS Terminology
Intermediate system (IS) - Router

Designated Intermediate System (DIS) - Designated Router
Pseudonode - Broadcast link emulated as virtual node by DIS
End System (ES) - Network Host or workstation
Network Service Access Point (NSAP) - Network Layer Address
Subnetwork Point of attachment (SNPA) - Datalink interface
Packet data Unit (PDU) - Analogous to IP Packet
Link State PDU (LSP) - Routing information packet
Level 1 and Level 2 – Area 0 and lower areas
53
Functional Comparison
❑ Protocols are recognizably similar in function and
mechanism (common heritage)
❑ Link state algorithms
❑ Two level hierarchies
❑ Designated Router on LANs
❑ Widely deployed (ISPs vs enterprises)
❑ Multiple interoperable implementations
❑ OSPF more “optimized” by design (and therefore
significantly more complex)
❑ IS-IS not designed from the start as an IP routing
protocol (and is therefore a bit clunky in places)
54
Sample comparison points
❑ Encapsulation
❑ OSPF runs on top of IP=> Relies on IP fragmentation
for large LSAs
❑ IS-IS runs directly over L2 (next to IP) =>
fragmentation done by IS-IS
❑ Media support
❑ Both protocols support LANs and point-to-point links in
similar ways
❑ IS-IS supports NBMA in a manner similar to OSPF pt-
mpt model: as a set of point-to-point links
❑ OSPF NBMA mode is configuration-heavy and risky
(all routers must be able to reach DR; bad news if VC
fails)
55
Packet Encoding
❑ OSPF is “efficiently” encoded
❑ Positional fields, 32-bit alignment
❑ Only LSAs are extensible (not Hellos, etc.)
❑ Unrecognized types not flooded. Opaque-LSAs
recently introduced.
❑ IS-IS is mostly Type-Length-Value (TLV) encoded

❑ No particular alignment
❑ Extensible from the start (unknown types ignored but
still flooded)
❑ All packet types are extensible
❑ Nested TLVs provide structure for more granular
extension
56
IS-IS LS Database: Generic Packet
Format
No. of Octets
Intra-domain Routing Protocol Discriminator 1
Length Indicator 1
Version/Protocol ID Extension 1
ID Length 1
R R R PDU Type 1
Version 1
Reserved 1
Maximum Area Addresses 1
Packet-Specific Header Fields
TLV Fields
57
More detailed comparison provided
as a reference (not covered in
class)…
58
Private Network to Node Interface (PNNI)
❑ Link State Routing Protocol for ATM Networks
❑ “A hierarchy mechanism ensures that this

protocol scales well for large world-wide ATM
networks. A key feature of the PNNI hierarchy
mechanism is its ability to automatically configure
itself in networks in which the address structure
reflects the topology…”
59
PNNI Features
❑ Scales to very large networks.
❑ Supports hierarchical routing.
❑ Supports QoS.
❑ Supports multiple routing metrics and attributes.
❑ Uses source routed connection setup.
❑ Operates in the presence of partitioned areas.
❑ Provides dynamic routing, responsive to changes in
resource availability.
❑ Separates the routing protocol used within a peer group
from that used among peer groups.
❑ Interoperates with external routing domains, not
necessarily using PNNI.
❑ Supports both physical links and tunneling over VPCs.
60
PNNI Terminology (partial)
❑ Peer group: A group of nodes at the same hierarchy
❑ Border node: one link crosses the boundary
❑ Logical group node: Representation of a group as a single point
❑ Child node: Any node at the next lower hierarchy level
❑ Parent node: LGN at the next higher hierarchy level
❑ Logical links: links between logical nodes
❑ Peer group leader (PGL): Represents a group at the next higher
level.
❑ Node with the highest "leadership priority" and highest
ATM address is elected as a leader.
❑ PGL acts as a logical group node.
❑ Uses same ATM address with a different selector value.
❑ Peer group ID: Address prefixes up to 13 bytes
61
PNNI Terminology
62
Hierarchical Routing: PNNI
63
Source Routing
❑ Source specifies route as a list of all intermediate
systems in the route. Abstracts out area hops.
❑ Designated Transit List (DTL) Source route
across each level of hierarchy
❑ Entry switch of each peer group specifies
complete route through that group
❑ Set of DTLs and manipulations implemented
as a stack
❑ DTL example: next slide
64
DTL Example
65
Crank back and Alternate Path Routing
❑ If a call fails along a particular route:
❑ It is cranked back to the originator of the top DTL
❑ The originator finds another route or
❑ Cranks back to the generator of the higher level
source route
66
Summary
❑ DV Protocols: RIP, EIGRP

❑ LS Protocols: OSPF, IS-IS, PNNI
67

Routing II: Protocols (RIP, Eigrp, Ospf, Pnni, Is-Is)

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Routing II: Protocols (RIP,

EIGRP, OSPF, PNNI, IS-IS)

 Refs: Chap 16,14

 Caveat: With path-vector-type (paths instead of

❑ 1. Node collects the state of its connected links and forms

 Databases described by database descriptor records

 Assumes neighbor dead if no response within

 This is also called an “adjacency”

is more than physical connection.

 Becomes an issue if large number of adj need to be

maintained Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

OSPF hello packets

 New announcements are sent ONCE, and only

updated if there's a change

Question: Who creates the network-LSA?

 Boundary routers (AS-BRs): connect to other ASs

❑ Allow externals from Internet, peer domains to

❑ Flood AS-external-LSAs (type 5) across area-

❑ AS-external-LSAs (type 5) not flooded into stub areas

❑ A subset of external LSAs may be flooded

Intermediate system (IS) - Router

❑ IS-IS is mostly Type-Length-Value (TLV) encoded

Intra-domain Routing Protocol Discriminator 1

Maximum Area Addresses 1

Packet-Specific Header Fields

❑ “A hierarchy mechanism ensures that this

❑ DV Protocols: RIP, EIGRP

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