AUS WHB-3 CHe4 ex MM O784265 0506777 286 Ml eee PREPARED BY A COMMITEE CONSISTING OF: J.P. Hun, Chaiema Inco Alloys International, Incorporated H.R, Conaway Rocketdyne Division J. Meyer ‘Nooter Corporation JW. Tackett Haynes International, Incorporated COBALT =z €.W. Case ALLOYS cer Deiroit Edison Introduction 218 Blectron Beam Welding an Metal Characteristics 219 Laser Beam Welding 272 Alloy Groups 224 Fabrication for High-Tempersture Service 272 Surface Preparation 229° Brazing 276 Arc Welding 230. Soldering 279 Dissirilar Metals 260 Thermal Cutting 280 Oxyacetylene Welding 264 SafePractices 281 Resistance Welding 265 Applications a2 Supplementary Reading List 287 oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Satu 05 0:45:13 1997AUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx Ml 0784265 0506778 132 Mm 218 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS Lee NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS INTRODUCTION NICKEL AND COBALT alloys offer unique physical and mechanical properties, and unique resistance to corrosion attack, Were it not for the need for these unusual properties, these alloys probably would not be made because of theic high cost. These alloys are useful in a variety of industrial applications because of their resistance to attack in various corrosive media at tem: peratures from 400°F (200°C) to over 2000 °F (1090 °C), in combination with good low- and high- temperature mechanical strength. In their demanding industrial environments, nickel and cobalt welds must duplicate the attributes of che base metal to a very high degree. Welding, heat treating, and fabrication proc dures should be established with this in mind. High-quality weldments are readily produced in nickel and cobalt alloys by commonly used welding processes. Not all processes ate applicable to every alloy; metallurgical characteristics of the unavailability of matching or suitable welding filler metals and fluxes may limit the choice of welding processes. Welding procedures for nickel and cobalt alloys ate similar to those used for stainless steel, except the mol- ten weld metal is more sluggish, requiring more accu- rare weld metal placement in the joint. Thermal expansion characteristics approximating those of car- bon steel are more favorable than those of stainless steel, Thus, warping and distortion during welding is The mechanical properties of nickel and cobalt alloy base metals will vary depending on the amount of hot or cold work remaining in the finished form (sheet, plate, or tube). Some modification in the procedures may be needed if the base metal is not in the fully annealed condition. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 In general, the properties of welded joints in fully annealed nickel and cobalt alloys are comparable t0 those of the base metals. Postwweld treatment is generally not needed to maintain or restore corrosion resistance in most nickel and cobatt alloys. In most media, the corro- sion resistance of the weld metal is similar to that of the base metal. Welds made on Ni-Mo alloy N10001 and Ni-Si cast alloys commonly are solution annealed after welding to restore corrosion resistance to the HAZ.! Overalloyed filler metals are often used (sometimes in lieu of postweld heat treatment) to fabricate compo- nents for very aggressive corrosive environments. The oversmatching composition offsets the effects of weld metal segregation when using 2 matching composition, Examples are the use of filler metal NiCeMo-3 products to weld the “super” stainless alloys, containing 4 to 6 percent molybdenum, and the use of filler metal NiCrMo-10 to fabricate components of the base metal Ni-Cr-Mo alloy C-276 (UNS N10276)2 Postweld heat treatment may be required for precipi tation hardening in specific alloys. Postweld stress relief may be necessary to avoid stzess-corrosion cracking in 1. Nickel and nickel alloy base-metal identifications inthis chaprer Benerally willbe based upon deserigtions and UNS nutnbers (e-. Ni-Mo alloy NIOOOI) from Metals and Alloy i the Untied Now bering Systm, 6th Ed, Warrendale, Pas Socery of Automotive Eng reer, 1995 in some cases, a conimon identifier from a comuescal Aesignation ‘also may ‘be included [egy NiMo- alloy 3 (UNS N1GOO1}- When cis daa is avilable ins table (ey Table 4.2, Pa 220), a short form may be wsed in the teat ex alloy B) 2. Nickel and nickel slloy filler metal designations generally will be ised upon American Welding Society specications. ANSVAWS ASW specifies welding electoode (eg, ENiCeMo-10) for shielded ‘metal are welding, and ANSUAWS AS-L4 specifies bare welding elec ‘trodes and rods (eg, ERNiCeMo-10). In utages that may apply with either product form, the E or ER prefix may be omited fe filler foetal NiCeMo- 10)AUS WHB-3 CHe4 xx MM O784265 0506779 059 mm applications involving hydrofluoric acid vapor or cer: tain caustic solutions. For example, Ni-Cu. alloy 400 (UNS N04400} immersed in hydrofluoric acid is not sensitive to stress-corrosion cracking, but it is when exposed to the aerated acid or the acid vapors. The choice of welding process will be based on the following: METAL CHARACTERISTICS NICKEL HAS A fave-centered-cubic (FCC) structure up to its melting point. Nickel can be alloyed with a number of elements without forming. detrimental phases. Nickel in some aspects bears a marked similar- ity to iron, its close neighbor in the periodic table, ‘Nickel is only slightly denser than iron, and it has simi- lar magnetic and mechanical properties. The crystalline structure of pure nickel, however, is quite different from that of iron, Therefore, the metallurgy of nickel and nickel alloys differs from that of iron alloys. Cobalt, unlike nickel, exhibits two crystallographic forms and undergocs a transition from a face-centered- cubic (FCC) structure above 750°R (417 °C) to a hexagonal-losed-packed {HCP) structure below. On cooling, the transformation is extremely sluggish, and at room temperature the metal is typically the metastable FCC form, At room temperature, the transformation, which involves the coalescence’ of stacking faults, is easily NICKEL (1) Alloy to be welded (2) Thickness of the base metal (3)__Design conditions of che strcture (temperature, Pressure, type of stresses, ete.) (4) Welding position (5) Need for jigs and fixtures (6). Service conditions and environments AND COBALT ALLOYS 219 triggered by mechanical stress. The addition of certain elements such as nickel, iron, and carbon (within the solubility range) suppresses the transformation temper- ature, stabilizing the FCC form, On the other hand, additions of chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and sil icon, have the opposite effect. In the solution-annealed condition, wrought cobalt alloys exhibit the FCC seruc- ture. With the exception of alloy 188 (UNS R30188), which is FCC stable, the various cobalt alloys are meta. stable at room temperature and tend to transform to the HCP structure under the action of mechanical steess cor during heat treatment (at temperatures below the transformation temperature). Typical physical and mechanical properties for pure nickel and pure cobalt are given in Table 4.1 A more complete listing of chemical composition, and physical and mechanical properties, by alloy, i given in Tables 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5, el Table 4.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Cobalt and Nickel Property Unis Cobalt Nickel Density toi gave) oz2t@at) ~O821(a0) Meting point Fee) ma i98) 25 (83) Coot of thermal exparsion [68°F (20°C inglin°F| viet] 17x 0%(139x109) 714x105 (1334109 Thermal conductivity (725°C) Buu/thestF) Wek) 40(69) 53100 Etecticalesstvty ici mile soem) 7B i971 Modul of lastiyintenson sia) max 10(2t1 10h) 798 x10 204. 10) Tensile sen, anne Isi(MPa) msF 57162) Yield strength, 02% offset ‘si(MPa) i(is8-20P nists) engaton in 2in (1 mm) percent 08 9 ee 1. Compressive suengih bout 117907 MP . Compressive yield song is about ksi G85 MPa. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM 0784265 0506780 870 Mm 220 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS ES oe Nominal Chemical Composition of Typical Nickel Alloys = oe Alloy? Number NP CG Mo Fe Co Cu Al Ti NY Mn Si WB Other = wow me og — SMM gg 2 owss = SPIETS=88= = Z GEE == §- boa 88 = = a ee oe a ere - be me Ge PPirieeiggi om e meee ide gcliggi re ee ee 2 ee a 2 ee e PPE Reo lcaaee 2 = = S me eke Bey SE 6 Noss90 66 602 =] 9 — — — — ast ost — — _ an 2 ee @ RGR RS Po ake tee> =F P RPG Pays euSlees st = } HR GR Dbkgiliickeot = Cae Nioz6 7 OO, 155 16525 ort 1, O08 4 os ca Nogjz2 6% ON! 2 133, 258 - = 5 oy 3 oa" B2 Ni0865 69 (OT eB er—--—----* oF -— — — ca Nosss5 65 oor’, 6s FH — — — it opp — - 63 Nogsss 44 ong RB 7 5 25 — oss st ea Noord Soo Ds 2 ast Ss Nogs3s 67 Oo 65K — 025 — — 05 O48 1 const OMe a ‘oéz30 57 010 2 FH — 03 — — 05, Od ‘Odata ae Noi¢ 75 (010 18 3 #5 — 5 oz — amr? nny, o.rzr? *, tam ts eT te a BS wh we = e Be base we x = id & - ee S f fe ie #7 igi 8s = tg Ge ie tt lhiad = a ee ere mM a me eS eae e EB RE BIS I IERAEES =o = PS Be EGP CI geSEE Sa = an oe er oe fe OR PP Be BB BE soi a '& Severe ofthese designatons use parts cor are regisored ede ©. Inches tata (Nb These and sina aloys my be knonn by ote designators andtraderames.—¢. Maxivumvaue b. Includes smell amount ofeobatf cobaltcontents nt speed. 8 Casing alors oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AWS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM O7842b5 0506782 707 me NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 221 ed Table 4.3 Nominal Chemical Composition of Standard ASTM Nickel Casting Alloys on Composition wt. % _ Alloy Nunber Ni CGM eh OA w ‘ASTM A 267-76" HW Noon 69 05 OB —~ 0 6 HK Nooos 66 05 el ASTM A 434-79 cv.a9 Nos 72 - = = 5 wm Cw = NYS 10 ip 45 100 Nooo 9 wr me M361 Nats 68 Or 37 Nae nao 6 ata * Maximum TS Table 4.48, ‘Typical Physical and Mechanical Properties of Nickel Alloys: (U.S. Customary Units) Cocffcientof Thermal ‘Thermal Conductivity Electrical Modulus Strength Sirongth ‘Meking Expansion at 70°F, Resistivity at of iRoom =—_ at Room UNS — Densiy, Range, at 0-700°F, Bu MUFS2cir_Elastciy, Temperature, Temperature, Alloy Numer thfew in, °F jinfinwF) (teheF) mil" ps kh ‘si m0 Noza00 0327 ——2615-2835.— 74 a a 238 8 a m Noo) 0391 2615-7635 74 6 % 300 5 2 an Nowdoo 0319 2370-2460 77 cy am 260 o 0 R405 Nowo5 0319 2370-2460 77 8 a7 260 , &, ks NNoss00 0306 200-2860 76 0 30 20 vo * 2 Nosso2 0305. 2400-2460 «78, 0 300 20 0 5 0 Nogs0o — 030¢ 2a70-2575 14 3 @ 300 0 @ oo Nogeor 9297 2374-24978 7 a 238 or 9 iy Noge25 0305 2350-24807 5, 78 00 10 0 m3 NovI3 0286 © 2300-2350 «59 2 = 239 rae 107 705 Nogros 201 2a34-24g9 78 7 = 304 15 ve 78 Nore 92% © 2300-2857 72 6 Bl 28 17 160° xa NOVO 9.298 «= 2540-2500 «70 7 Bi 310 no ge vs Novs00 9.290 «2375-2540 «88 8, 3 3190 is ge Rat Novag 0298 2400-2500 «86 * cal 312, 1 ve Waspaloy 07001026 2555-2578 88 8 cc 308 15 ise el Noeeoo 0.287 2475-2525 78 1 5 285 x “0 825 Noge25 0.294 © 2500255078 6 8 280 2 “0 roc Nogozo 02s 298-2597 83 = % 280 9 0 ‘sor Nossor 0.297, — 72 = a2 280 15 rey 8 Nig0or 0334 a7s-2895 5B 7 a 259 m1 a cx Noor 0323 (2310-28503 6 77 238 a 8 6 Nosoo? 0300 2300-2450 75 a = 78 10 5 N Nioocs 0320 «2375.2550 4 7 as 313 15: 6 w Nioos 0325 2400 83 = = — 1B 3 x Nosoo2 0.297 2300-24077 5 m2 88 14 2 ‘8 Hestrested condtion . As-cast & Atan0° 6 mom oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS WHB-3 CHx4 ex MM 07842b5 0506782 643 ml 222 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS Because nickel has wide solubility for a number of other metals, many different commercial alloys arc available, Nickel and copper have complete solid solu: bility. Iron and cobalt are soluble in nickel to a very high degree. The limit of solubility of chromium in nickel is 35 to 40 percent and is about 20 percent for molybdenum. Additions of these major alloying ele- ments, that is, copes, chromium, molybdenum, iron, and cobalt have no adverse effect on weldability, and in most cases they have 2 beneficial effect on weldability. In genecal, commercially pure nickel and nickel-copper alloys have similar weldability. Most of the other nickel alloys behave like the stainless steels. Like the austenitic stainless steels, the nickel alloys have one crystalline structure up to their melting point. Since the nickel alloys do not undergo a phase change, the grain size of the base metal or weld metal cannot be refined by heat treatment alone. The grain size can be reduced only by hot or cold work, such as rolling or forging, followed by a proper annealing treatment, Cobalt cast and wrought alloys in fabricable forms are relatively few in number. Those cobalt alloys com- monly welded generally contain two or more of the ele- ments nickel, chromium, tungsten, and molybdenum. The weldability of these alloys is generally good. In relatively small amounts, alloying elements such as manganese, silicon, niobium, carbon, aluminum, and titanium are not detrimental to welding of nickel oF cobalt alloys. When elements such as aluminum or tiea- nium are added (several percent) to facilitate precipita- tion hardening, good shielding of the weld zone is impetative in limiting oxide formation, Table 4.48 ‘Typical Physical and Mechanical Properties of Nickel Alloys (Metric Units) Coefficient a Thermal Thermal Electical Modulus ‘Strength Meting Expansion Conductviy Resisiviy of atRoon —_atRoom, ns Sami, Range, 2S, zc, ZI"C Baty, Temperate, Tempo, Alloy ‘Nunmber ki Cumin? Wik} Gem 21°C, GPa MPa MPs m wo2200 885 1435-1445 133 0 5 ar 268 im mn Nooo 8685 1435-1445 133, BR 78 2 39 1B ao Nosoo 8830 1208-1348 139 a 510 179 2 ra R405 NOMO5 8630 1288-1248 139, a 510 178 ee 28 Ko Nossoo 8470 1315-1348 137 6 a5 173 oes" er 52 Nosso2 B42 1315-1348 137 6 615 3 & 85 0 Nos6oo 415 1354-1812. 133, " 10 20 ei 8 601 Noséor 8055 1301-1367 137 2 1205 208 8 ae 825 Nuos625 442 1287-1348 128 el 1230 207 a co 7130 NOM3 7918 1280-1287 108 ® = 206 aie 73 105 NO370B 8055 1334-1370 140 2 84 210 art 1000? 78 Novis — 8183 1280-1336 130, w rag 205 13108 its X50 ‘Nov7s 8748 1383-1828 126 W 1215 2a rat 18 v0 No7so0 = 8027, 301-1393 122 1, 1002 24 2g = Rat Novos e911 Ww 1353 215 ‘oe wr Waspaloy O70 «8193. 1402-1413. «12.2 2 1285 an ze cg 0 Nose 7944 1357-138 142 " 83 196 el 28 5 Noge25 8138 1371-1398 140 0 127 183 ei 28 mens Nosozo gos 1370-1825. 149 = 13 193 ea 2% or Nosso1 8221 = 130 = moo 132 1a 5 8 Nigoor 9245 1301-1968 101 W rg 179 Fy 38 C26 Nig e941 3265-13891 W 135 205 a wo 6 Nosoo? gag 1260-1849 135 8 = 192 70 = N Niooos 8858 1301-1398 115 1 188 218 18 310 w Nig004 8996 1315, u3 = — — a Es x Nosoo2 221-160-1354 139 8 83, 197 8 8 a. Heat resto condton © Ascast b we 4 Mere oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS WHE-3 CHx4 xx MM 0784265 050783 SAT Ml NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 228 Table 4.5 Nominal Chemical Compositions of Typical Cobatt Alloys Composition wi Aloy’—__—_UNSNumber__C NiCr Co W Ta Mo AL Fe Mn Si Other Wrougte Alloys Leas Re0g0s 0) 10-2) Bal TS - 2 15 05 — 138 Foowe 01 2 2 Bel 1 — — — — B® 12 oF omBLa MP3 F035 08 DH Sai6 Rois «08 2 2 Bl 4 — 8 kk om 4Nb B5iCo28cr ra om 8 Bl 2 FU BO 0g Cast Alloys 2 3002102525 7 Bal 55 - x0 Romg1 05105 HH Bal 8 — or OH Fsxana 0% 0 8 Bl 7 — — — a — oot = wi — 0 7B ow os 2Nb MAR M302 — % — 25 Bl w 9 = = 0005 02 “— MARM 508 = 0 w 25 GI 7 35 Sy 0s a. Several of those designations use parts ofor are registered rade names, These andra Maximum, ‘The weldability of both nickel and cobalt alloys is sensitive to residual elements such as sulfur, lead, zirco nium, boron, phosphorous, and bismuth. These ele ments are practically insoluble in nickel and cobalt alloys and can undergo eutectic reactions which may cause hot cracking during solidification of welds. All commercially imporrant nickel and cobalt alloys have specification limits covering some of those elements that are difficult to control. Boron and zirconium, in very small amounts, are added to certain alloys to improve their high-temperature performance, but weldability is diminished when such additions are made. The harmful effects of sulfur on ductility are controlled by the addition of small amounts of magnesium to wrought product forms and to filer metals. ‘When using coated electrodes in shielded metal are welding, the losses of magnesium across the arc are so fgreat that ineffectively small amounts of magnesium are recovered in the weld metal. Under these circumstances, oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 loys maybe krown by cher designations andtrade names, control of sulfur is accomplished by adding manganese and niobium, which can be recovered in substantially freater amounts than can magnesium, Fusion welds made without the addition of filler metal in nickel, nickel-copper alloys, and_ nickel: molybdenum alloys can develop weld-metal porosity if the welds are contaminated by oxygen, nitrogen, or car bon monoxide. Titanium and other gas-Fixing elements are present in the nickel and nickel-copper alloy filler metals to combine with gas contaminants and prevent weld-metal porosity. Invariably, the weld-metal compo: sition differs from the base-metal composition for weld ability reasons. Mechanized or automatic welding is recommended for autogenous welding, and then only under closely controlled welding conditions. It is gener: ally wiser to add filer metal, even if in small amounts, because weld quality is more predictable with the addi tives in the welding wire that “fix” or control gas and residual elements,AUS WHB-3 CHx4 ex MM 0784265 0506784 436 a 224 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS ALLOY GROUPS IT 1S CONVENIENT to classify nickel and cobalt alloys into four groups: (1) Solid-solution-strengthened alloys (2). Precipitation-hardened alloys (3) Dispersion-strengthened alloys (4) Castalloys Tables in the preceding section list the alloy grades and chemical compositions applicable to this chapter. A small group of icon-based alloys also are applicable; these “contain large percentages of the elements nickel, cobalt, and chromium, or two of these. The weldability characteristics of the chromium-containing alloys closely resemble those of the heat-resisting grades of nickel and cobalt alloys. The names and chemical compositions of these highly alloyed iron-based alloys are given in Table 4.6. Although iron is the dominant element in these alloys, nickel- or cobalt-based welding filler metals ace recommended by the base metal manufacturers for join- ing them. For example, Fe-Ni-Cr alloy 800 (UNS 1NO08800) is almost always welded using one of several nickel alloy filler metals, the specific selection of which, depends on the service conditions for the welded com ponent, Since the environment that will be encountered and the high-temperature joint strength efficiency are toth crvcal factors in choosing the bes llr metal, dhe base metal manufacturer usually should be consulted. Figure 4.1 shows the stres-ruprure strength of Fe-Ni- Cr alloy 800HT (UNS NO8811) compared to the filler metals ERNiCrCoMo-1 and ENiCrCoMo-1. Although the compositions of the filler metals don’t match the base metal, their overmatching strengths make them a ‘800d choice for welding the base metal in applications at high temperatures. Additionally, the filler metals have better oxidation resistance than the base metal at the clevated temperature. At exposure temperatures below 1400°F (760°C), other filler metals are recommended, such as ERNiCr-3 and ENiCeFe-2. This example is typ- ical of many filler metal recommendations where ser- vice conditions determine the most suitable choice. 48 Highly Alloyed ron Based Alloys ws ‘Nominal Composition, wt % Alloy? Number NE Gr Geo OTTSCOWWSOCONSOCSC‘é Other Solid-Soluton Types cet Now 5 6 23 05 OOH a5Cut Mn, Ossi 0 Noewo 25 2.0 — 487 — om — — 040 005 = SuHT Now Bo 20 5B os tk = a Now 20 m5 — 3 ts — 905 = m2 Nom 25 710 — MB — om — 058035 — 1990L sei 90190 GB 125 0301254 §=— 30. 1.10 Mn, 080i Na Roos a0 2.0 20032200 250 OTN RAS Neo 30 180 a1 — 00s 185 Foss 10-20-0280 300 S280 m0 Precipitetion Types AD wo 80 — 82 15 20 — om ame - 8 Bo — 150 4.0 010 14 — 30 070 oo = 4. Severaofthese designation us parts ofor are rgistred tradenames. These and simiar loys maybe known by other designations and rede names. Includes smal amount eobatifcobat coments rot specified. ©. Includes tantalu, tantalum corteti not specitied 4 While nati Nb isthe preferred designation forthe Ast element ands used asa column head inthe table, tho breton forth element's ‘iterate designation, columbium (Cli retainedin this ly designeton uel such na asthe alloy destin s changed. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS WHB-3 CHa4 xx MM 0784265 OSOb785 352 mm NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 225 109 1400 «F (760°C), 1800 °F (982°C) STRESS, ksi I ERnicrCoMo- FILLER METAL [ANSUAWS A5.14) @ ENiciCoMo-t FILLER METAL (ANSUAWS A5.11) @ wroush Fe nice ALLOY B0okT BASE METAL (UNS NoBs11) STRESS, MPa 100 1000 1 70 000 RUPTURE LIFE, h igure 4.1—Strese Rupture Values of Selected Alloys at High Temperatures SOLID-SOLUTION-STRENGTHENED ALLOYS ALL NICKEL ALLOYS are strengthened by solid sole: tion. Additions of aluminum, chromium, cobalt, cop- pet, icon, molybdenum, titanium, tungsten, and vanadium’ contribute to solid-solution. strengthening Aluminum, chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten con- tribute strongly to solid-solution strengthening while others have a lesser effect. Molybdenum and tungsten improve strength at elevated temperatures. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 Pure Nickel NICKEL 200 AND the low-carbon version, nickel 201, are most widely used where welding is involved. Of these, the low-carbon nickel (201) is preferred for appli- cations involving service exposure to. temperatures above 600 °F (315 °C) because of its increased resis- tance to graphitization at elevated temperatures. This graphitization is the result of excess carbon being pre- moisture. Storage in a dry area and resealing opened containers are standard practice. Flux that has absorbed moisture can be reclaimed by heating. The flux manufacturer should be consulted for the recom- mended procedure. Filler Metals SUBMERGED ARC WELDING employs the same filer metals used with the gas tungsten are welding and gas metal arc welding processes. Weld metal chemical com- Position will be somewhae different as additions are made through the flux to allow the use of higher cur rents and larger welding wires Welding wire diameters are usually smaller than those used to weld carbon swels. For example, the oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 241 ‘maximum size used to weld thick base metal is 3/32 in, (2.4 mm), where 0.045 in. (1.1 mm) has been used to weld thin base metal. Table 4.11 gives deposition rates and polarity for some filler metal and flux combina- tions, Table 4.12 gives typical welding conditions for three alloy and flux combinations. Welding Current DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE negative (DCEN) or direct current electrode positive (DCEP) may be used. DCEP is preferred for groove joints, yielding flat- ter beads and greater depth of fusion at low voltage (30 to 33V), DCEN is frequently used for weld surfac ing, yielding higher deposition rates, reduced depth of fusion, and reduced depth of penetration, thus reducing the amount of dilution from the base metal. However, DCEN requires a deeper flux cover and an increase in flux consumption, DCEN also increases the possibility ‘of slag inclusions, especially in butt joints where the molten weld metal is thicker and solidification occurs from the sidewalls as well as the root of the weld. Welding Technique and Procedure TYPICAL CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS from sub merged are weld metal in butt joints are given in Table 4.13. Part of the difference in chemical composition at various levels reflects dilution feom the base metal and contributions by the flux. Slag inclusions are always a possibility during any welding involving flax. Slag inclusions can be controlled by appropriate joint design (Figure 4.14) and proper placement of weld beads. Fig- Ure 4.10 illustrates bead placement in a 3 in. (76 mm) thick weld in a bute joint in Ni-Cr-Fe alloy 600. The weld face should be flat to slightly convex. Con- cave beads have produced centerline cracking in highly SS Table 4.11 Deposition Rates for Submerged Are Welding for ‘Specific Filler Metal and Flux Combinations Filer Mota Wins Diswons Deposition Rate and Fux in mm Polarity ‘WW kghh mics wie 16 OCEN 16-18 73-82 wth Fa Wie 18 © OCEP 1417 64-77 382 24 © OCEN 20-21 91-95 3e2 24 © DCEP 16-17 73.77 FNCU 16 18 © DCEN 16-17 79-77 ath FucS* WMG 48 CEP 18-15 84-73 32 24 DCEN 20-21 91-95 yez 24 GER tet? 73-77 * Proprietary tha ftom Inco Aloys Irtematona, Inc. Weight of fx consid is proximately qual to weight ffl meta.AUS WHB-3 CHxy xx MM 0784265 OS0b802 2b) 242 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS Table 4.12 ‘Typical Conditions for Submerged Arc Welding for Specific Alloy and Flux Combinations RN ERNCHT FRNICI3 Parameter wih Fac with Foc? with Fact? Base Metal Nickel 200 N-Cu alloy 400 Ne-Cr-Fe alloy 607° Faller Metal Diameter i,m} i618) M1601). ‘Wibor 92116 024) lectrode Extensor in men) IR122-25) 18-1 (22.25) TRA) Power Source DC, Constant otage DC, ConstaneVotage 10C, Constante Votage Polarity cer oceP oceP Current A 250 750-280 250 with 1NGin. (1.6mm wire 250-20 wth 932in (24mm) wire Votage V 290 2a Peg Travel Speod, nmin in) 40-12(280-300) 8-1 (200-260) 8-11 (200280) JoneResvait Ful Ful Fill 1. Propitry fxr Inco loys eration ne . The conditions also apply to Fe N-r alloy 0 Table 4.13 Chemical Composition of Weld-Metal Sample from Welds in Butt Joints, wt. % FilerMetalandFix —BaseMaterl Nin fe SS Si Cu T(t FRNGUT Aloysa0 Bol O06 50 35 001 Om 260 — 048 = th FS ERNE Alloy 600 Bal O07 321 175 0006 049 — 1925 O17 vith Fuca” * Proprietary tuxtrom Ineo Alloys Inteatonal ne restrained joints. The number of weld beads and bead contour is most effectively controlled by voltage and travel speed Composi Failly restrained welds in 6-in, (150-mm) alloy 600 of a3 in, (76 mm Thick Joint in Alloy 600 plate using ERNiCr-3 filler metal and flax 4 have been Welded with ERNiCr3 Fillor Metal and made in stringently tested welds used in nuclear power Submerged Are Flux 4, wt % TTS psn emis viel comme SAE lot o_o et el roughout such joints, with no chemical element Nel 736 735 73H RH TAT. TaB Ire arsing Roman accumulation te fos com, emu fai, HO HAL, HOH ponents. Table 4.14 shows the composition at various NOU" 3) aR ARAN levels approximately 1/2 in. (13 mm) intervals] of weld Seon Sadak SURE ae ae metal from the joint shown in Figure 4.10, beginning at Caren 05055 OH_CCH_C the top of the joint progeessing downward toward the Satur’ 00030003 0089 0mma Oma —_Oma weld r00t * Approximately ¥/2in (13 mm) intervals begiring et op suace. (See 4. Flux 4 is a proprietary product Incofux 4} of Inco Alloys Figured) International, inc. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AWS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM 0784265 0506803 176 Ml Note: Numera's indicate sequence of bead placement, Figure 4.10—Alloy 600 Joint 3 in. (76 mm) Thick Welded with 0.062 in. (1.6 mm) Diameter ERNICr3. Filler Metal and Submerged Arc Flux4 FILLER METALS AND FLUXES Covered Electrodes IN MOST CASES, the weld metal composition from a covered electrode resembles that of the base metal with which it is used. Invariably, its chemical composition has been adjusted to satisfy weldability requirements; usually additions are made to control porosity, enhance microcracking resistance, or improve properties. Covered electrodes normally have additions of deoxi- izing ingredients such as titanium, manganese, and niobium. ANSVAWS AS.11, Specification for Nickel and Nickel Alloy Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Are Welding, is used almost universally in filler metal selection. Sometimes military specifications will apply, such as the MIL-E-22200 series, but they duplicate the AWS specification in most respects, ‘mechanical Covering Formulations. ‘The covering formulator uses chemistry and the physical and. mechanical oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 243 properties of chemicals to enhance the conditions found in the welding are environment. Alkali metals have low ionization voltages, making ionization more predict able, and arc starting easier. A second chemical means of stabilizing a welding arc is to add compounds that increase emission, Refractory oxides make the best additives for this purpose Formulation for nickel electrodes must cake into con: sideration the sluggish nacure of the molten metal and the relatively high ionization potential of the elements in the electrode core wire in these alloys. The basic requirements of the covering constituents are to provide the following: (1) Atmospheric protection from nitrogen and oxygen (2) Ate stabilization {3),_ sag shat will remove sold metal oxides by eutectic formation or solution (4) A slag that wets and spreads vigorously and has high fluidity with good adherence to the weld face but does not resule in unacceptable undercut (5) Asslag that, when cool, is easly removed A common expression used to differentiate the weld: ing of nickel alloys from other alloy groups is “different but not difficult.” Iris a correct assessment. Covered Electrode Groups. Nickel alloy covered electrodes are divided into five alloy families, namely, Ni, NiCu, Ni-CrFe, Ni-Mo, and Ni-Cr-Mo alloys. Each family contains one or more electrode classifica- tions, based upon the composition of undilured weld metal. Table 4.15 gives the weld metal composition of the various covered electrodes available. Covered electcodes are generally designed for use with dicect current electrode positive (DCEP}, i., elec trode positive, workpiece negative. Fach electrode type and diameter has an optimum current range in which it has good arcing characteristics and outside of which the are becomes unstable, the electrode overheats, the cov ering spalls, or excessive spatter is encountered. Table 4.16 lists the approximate current settings for three alloy families for flat position welding. However, the current density for a given joint is influenced by base- metal thickness, welding position, type of backing, tightness of clamping, and joinr design. Recommended amperage ranges are usually printed con each carton of electrodes by the manufacturer. These ranges should be used as a guide. Actual welding condi- tions should be developed by making trial welds using the same electrode, base metal, thickness, and welding position co be used in production. It is important that the manufacturer's recommended current ranges not be violated.AUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx Ml 0764265 0506804 034 mm ALwoys covatr Ano 244 NICKEL ayeds ua wrapewge)—ureeL Peyoods uayununeuziy—yeqeg 2 ‘weqoo eaepou sepnoul ‘hoy pue sayy 0) weeks Bouequiny paUUN IYS/MLLSY “2 poyrods esaieyo axywiceoxe unuew ae sonjen OBS ‘ge eto uuryo93se atu, SueW A, 0} pajo0d Ru op PSOOKO I Sa0p AM. JaLNEYE ANsUD. PeUNUEKP aq IRIS URL oo ce lel on i oe oem eet edo ee 8 i ne oo ie a a So ee lrae Soa ‘qe 4 oRIsodOg FR2OW 2011-4 BUIPION PeseETONPIN 20} stuowesnbey uosodWoD jaRuOYT BURR] Gt" oral ee] oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AND COBALT ALLOYS 245 NICKEL AUS WHB-3 CHx4 x MM 0784265 O50b805 T70 mm papoads ump unueou ge une. prods uy ununeuz1)—x0909. 9 ‘wage nop sopoK -p “Sony pue sean oy unsks Susaqunn AUN VSIALSY 9 payed esynanaimpuidooe unuReW ae seren NS “4 ‘9 Jo UuN}D9 89 ep SHANI A, 2 payDoes Au al peamKe OU SA0p O84} NsUB.PULEIP 29 oYs SHDWOIE 2004.0 row aig YOM eI) BINED BLAU Pap AUS sayO jo BDUMSaid Ay O|GELSIL UT UMOYS LE SaxHER YY] UALAE )oads O14 PALAU 2g FAYE OM A. we — enna dh soem — — — ou oy cy me cm gee wm Awe we dis — van le quanti — — as ost me oom cor aemnns we — ones ole oman — — 9H no oo ay ot ge tances Ce oT E sun SMW 00 may qo PH WopOdeg —_————————— eee (ey 201114 Poseg- 16421 403 squOWexINboy UoR:sodui0D jeo!WeYD BunKUT] {PenUBLOD) SLY OL SL oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM 078425 OSOLS0b 907 Me 246 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS Table 4.16 Approximate Current Settings for Nickel-Based Covered Electrodes” Nickel-Coppor Alloys Nickel Alloys Ni-CrFeand Fe-Ni-Cr Alloys Base Metal Thickness? . Base-Motal Thicknoss? ce, Base Metal Thickness? om Hloctrode Diameter = 332 in. {24 mm) ie 157 50 Wi6 137 7 216 2157 oo 5/04 198 5 5/88 138 8 - — = 32 23% fy 2as2 3038 % = = 28227 60 = = = = = Elsctrode Diameter = 8 in. (3.2 mm) 74 2n 6 7168 27 105 184 2m 6 v8 318 6 ye 38.18 105 8 318 % 9164 335 85 = = = = = = 28523395 % = = 25/32 2396 a Eleotrode Diameter = 8/82 in 40 mm i) 318 100 ee - = = 68 356 110 ya 356 130 = = = 532 395 "5 52 396 135 = = = = = = zane 3475 150 236 2475 105 BWA 36.35 180 es = = : = = Electrode Diameter = 916 in, (4.8 mm) = — — Spee ang ee = ae 953 179 238 (2053 20 23/8 2953 140 222127 190 = = = = 2. Selection of electrode ameter shoud be based on jit sig. For example, sna dames than thse sted fr mater! YBin (218m) and aver in thickness ay benecessary ort frstpassas nthe baton of @ groove. », Forhase-meta hicknassoslessthan 1/1657 mm) the amperage sould be the minimum atwAich are conrel canbe meintsne oral tree electrode groups shown, Covered electrodes should be left in their sealed, rmoisture-proof containers in a dry storage area prior t0 use. All opened containers should be stored in a cabinet with a desiccant or held at a temperature difference 10 to 15 °F (6 0 8 °C) above the highest expected ambi: ent temperature. Electrodes. that have absorbed moisture can be reclaimed by baking in an oven according to the manu- facturer’s recommendations. Bare Rods and Electrodes NICKEL ALLOY BARE rods and clectrodes_ are divided into five families, as are coated electrodes.” 5. See ANSUAWS AS.14, Specification for Nickel and Nickel Alloy Bore Welding Electrodes and Rods. Various other specifications wl be found ro apply, such asthe Aeronautical Material Specifications (AMS) and military and federal specications oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 There are more classifications, however, in most fam- lies of bare filler metals. They are designed to weld base metals of similar composition to themselves by the gas tungsten arc (GTAW), gas metal arc (GMAW), plasma arc (PAW) and submerged arc (SAW) processes. AS noted in Table 4.7, these processes are not applicable ro all alloys. Some filler metals are compositionally bal- anced to allow them to be, applied fo lee corrosion resistant susfaces or to join dissimilar metals, ie, allowance is made for dilution, Also, because of high are current and high weld poo! temperatures, filler met- als are alloyed to resist porosity formation and hot cracking of the weld, Primarily, the compositional change is addition of such elements as titanium, manganese, and niobium. Frequently the major elements may be higher in_ the filler metal than in the base metal to diminish the effects of dilution in surfacing less corrosion-resistant. base metals and to accommodate the joining of dissimilar metals,AUS UHB-3 CHx4 xx MM 0784265 OSOL807 843 mm Precipitation-hardenable weld metals will normally respond fo the aging treatment used for the base metal. However, the response is usually less and the weld joint strength will be somewhat lower than that of the base metal after aging, Precipitation-hardenable alloys may be welded with dissimilar metals to minimize processing difficulties. For example, alloy R-#1_ (UNS NO7041) is_commonly welded with ERNiCsMo-3 or ERNiMo-3 filler metals. ‘As a result, mechanical properties are significantly lower than those of the base metal. The usual answer for this deficiency isto locate the weldment in an azea of low stress. The proper electrode diameter for gas metal are weld- ing will depend upon the base-metal thickness and the type of metal transfer. For spray, pulsed spray, and lobular transfer, electrode diameters used are from 0.035 to 0.093 in. (0.89 t0 2.36 mm). With short cir cuiting transfer, diameters of 0.045 in. (1.14 mm) or smaller are usually required Fluxes FLUXES ARE AVAILABLE for submerged arc welding of many nickel alloys. Fluxes, in addition to protecting the molten metal from atmospheric contamination, pro- vide are stability and contribute important additions to the weld metal, Therefore, the filler metal and the flux must be jointly compatible with the base metal, An improper flux can cause excessive slag adherence, weld cracking, inclusions, poor bead contour, and undesir- able changes in weld metal composition. Fluxes used for carbon steel and stainless steel are not suitable, JOINT DESIGN VARIOUS SUGGESTED JOINT designs for nickel and cobalt alloys are shown in Figure 4.11. The first consid- eration in designing, joints for nickel and cobalt alloys is t0 provide proper accessibility. The root opening must be sufficient to permit the electrode, filer metal, of torch to extend to the bottom of the joint. In addition to the basic requirements of accessibility, the characteristics of nickel and cobalt alloy weld metal require consideration. ‘The most significant characteris- tic is the sluggish nature of molten weld metal. It does not spread casily, requiring accurate metal placement by the welder within the joint. Wider groove angles are used. Secondly, the force of the arc results in less depth of fusion in nickel and cobalt alloys than in, for example, carbon steel. The lower depeh of fusion makes nec sary the use of a narrower root face. Increases in amper- age will not significantly increase the depth of fusion. Figure 4.12 illustrates depth of fusion for materials at the same current setting. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 Groove Welds BEVELING IS NOT usually required for groove welds in base-metal thicknesses of 0.093 in, (2.36 mm) or less. Above 0,093 in. (2.36 mm) thickness, a V-, Us, of J-groove should be used, or the joint should be welded from both sides. Otherwise, incomplete joint penetra- tion will result, leading to crevices and voids that become focal points for accelerated corrosion in the joint root. It is generally the side that is inaccessible that must withstand cosrosion, Notches can also act as potential steess raisers. Complete joint penetration welds are usually required because many of the nickel and cobalt alloys are used in elevated temperature ser- vice and in severe corrosive media at all temperatures. AND CORALT ALLOYS 247 Root Passes WHEN THE INSIDE is inaccessible, the gas tungsten arc process should be used for the root pass. The pro- cess produces the smoothest bead contour. To provide a good filler metal dilution of 50 percent, inserts are con- monly employed. Some common starting and stopping techniques are shown in Figure 4.13. Submerged Arc Groove Designs SUGGESTED JOINT GROOVES for submerged arc welding are shown in Figure 4.14. The double-U- groove is the preferred design for all joints that permit its use. That design gives lower residual welding stress, and it can be completed in less time than for other ‘grooves and with less filer metal. Gas Metal Arc Welding ‘THE JOINT DESIGNS in Figure 4.14 are also used for gas metal arc welding with one important modification, For globular, spray, and pulsed-are welding, the root radius should be deereased by about 50 percent and the groove angle increased as much as double those shown in Figure 4.14, With the gas meral arc welding process, the use of high amperage on small diameter wires pro: duces high are force. Such an arc is not easily deflected. Consequently, the joint design must permit the arc to be directed at all areas to be fused, i.e, U-groove joints should have a 30-degree bevel angle. This will permit proper manipulation of the arc to obtain good fusion with the groove faces. Corner and Lap Joints CONSISTENT WITH PREVIOUS remarks about proper access and the special characteristics of nickel and cobalt alloy (i.e., reduced spreading and depth ofAUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM 0784265 0506808 787 Ml { eaccns-| | py temronany ae Awe WELD ae eRcKING Ak coro | a 1 Awe ce reuronany —-| Remedi 1 ty , Abe 7 ; = | oo ——a ae to oune | Note: A =D in. (Oram): 8 "in. (48 ram); G'= Yin (6.4 mmr (31.8 mm); M = Zin, (50.8 mm); (79 mm} —+| | ate Xan, (.8 mv}; C= gin (1.6 mmm D = rin. (26 mmm); E= Yen. (8.2 mm); VeM127 mms K = (163 ram) 10% if (8.8%0 7.3 mm) Figure 4.11— Suggested Designs for Arc Welded Butt Joints in Nickel and Cobalt Alloys fusion), comer and lap joints may be used where high service’ stresses are not encountered. However, it is especially important to avoid their use at high tempera- tures or under thermal or mechanical cycling (fatigue) conditions. Butt joints, where stresses act axially, are preferred to comer and lap joints, where stresses are eccentric. Sometimes they cannot be avoided, When corner joints are used, 2 complete joint penetration weld muse be made. In’ most cases, a fillet weld on the inside corner will be required oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 igs and Fixtures IN THE WELDING of thin sheet and strip, jigs, clamps, and fixtures can reduce the cost of welding and improve the achievement of consistent high-quality welds. Proper jigging and clamping will facilitate weld- ing by holding the joint members firmly and removing heat rapidly from the joint area, thus minimizing buck= ling, maintaining alignment. The weld can be subjected to compressive siress as it cools, reducing cracking ten. dency and increasing weld reinforcement, where it mayAUS WHB-3 CHx4 ex MM 0784265 O5S0b809 bib ml (C) Alloy 600 Courtesy of Inco Alloys ntenations. Ine. Figure 4.12—Weld Bead Cross Section Shape in Three Different Base Metals with the Same ___ Welding Conditions. be needed with autogeneous welds. Figure 4.15 shows a technique of increasing weld reinforcement with proper joint design and fixturing Since the coefficient of thermal expansion of nickel alloys does not differ greatly from that of low-carbon steel (see Table 4.17), similar amounts of clamping pressure will be needed. The clamping pressure should not be excessive, only enough to maintain alignment. Sometimes high clamping pressure is necessary, how- ever, as when the gas tungsten are welding process is tased to make seam welds in thin base metal PREHEAT TEMPERATURE PREHEAT IS NOT usually required or recommended. However, if the hase metal is cold, heating to about 60 °F (16 °C} or above avoids condensed moistuce that could cause weld porosity. A few specialized applica- tions do use preheat, such as surfacing valve seats using, the oxyacetylene welding process. Preheat is not neces sarily detrimental, but grain growth will occur if cold- ‘worked base metal is brought above its eecrystallization temperature. In most cases, the interpass and preheat temperatures, should be kept low to avoid overheating the base metal. A maximum temperature of 200 °F (90 °C) is recom mended for some corrosion-resistant alloys. Cooling oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 249 | TRAVEL UP GROOVE FACE AND STOP ARC | ATEDGE OF GROOVE FUSED INSERT UNFUSED. INSERT ‘UNFUSED INSERT (8) Technique for Restarting Welding after Stopping Arc [Techniques for Stopping and Starting Welding Arc Table 4.17 ‘Thermal Expansion Coefficients of Nickel Alloys + m2210212°F(0%0 100°C) methods used to reduce interpass preheat temperature should not inadvertently introduce contaminants Examples are traces of oil from compressed ait lines of mineral deposits from a water spray.AUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx Ml 0784265 0506810 338 Ml 250 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS sia A (A) Butt {B) Single-V-Groove {C) Single-V-Groove 1s aN ao ch! milla A Bic (D) Single-U-Groove {E) Double-U-Groove —_(F) Compound-Angle-Groove Nowe: A= 18. (3.2 mm); B = V4 In. (6.4 mm); C= 38 in. (8.5 men Re ius = 3/16 10 5/16 in. (4.8 107.8 mm), Figure 4.14—Joint Designs for Submerged Are Welding DISSIMILAR METALS THIS SECTION ADDRESSES exceptional procedural matters applicable to nickel and cobale alloys that may differ somewhat from other common corrosion-resis- tant weld metals.° The procedure conditions used in obtaining certain results ace given. Tabular data also are presented, especially in multi-layer surfacing where the chemical Composition at the surface may be critical to service performance, WELD CLADDING NICKEL ALLOY WELD metals are readily applied as cladding on carbon steels, Jow-alloy steels, and other 6. For a more general treatment of dissimilar metals welding, with an overall compatiblity perspective besween various metals groups, fefer to Chapeer 12, "Disionlar Metal,” Weldoxg Handbook, Mh Ed, Vol 4 [orto the forthcoming 8th Ed”, Vol. 4) oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 base metals. All oxide and other forcign material must be removed from the surface to be clad. The procedures and precautions discussed under “Sueface Preparation” in this chapter should be carefully followed. Cracking will sometimes occur in the first layer of nickel-based cladding applied to some steels that contain high levels of sulfur, even though the base metal hhas been adequately cleaned. When this type of crack- ing occurs, all of the cracked cladding must be removed, and one thick or two thin layers of carbon- steel surfacing metal applied to the base metal. The nickeFalloy cladding can then be reapplied. Nickel-alloy cladding can be applied to cast iron, but 2 trial cladding should be made to determine whether standard procedures can be used. The casting skin, or cast surface, must be removed by a mechanical means such as grinding, Cladding on cast irons with highAWS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM O784265 OSOb81L 274 ml M (A) Incorrect An agement CLAMPING FIXTURE w ie a \ \ ha ioe (8) Correct Arrangement Figure 4.15—Basic Arrangement for Providing Weld Reinforcement in Thin Nickel Base Metals contents of sulfur or phosphorus may crack because of embrilement by those elements Cracking can often be eliminated by the application of a barrier layer of AWS ENiFe-Cl welding clectrode or AWS ENiFeT3-Ci cored wire. Those filler metals were especially developed for welding cast iron, and the weld metal is more resistant to cracking caused by phosphorus, sulfur, and carbon dilution. When clad- ding is applied directly to cast izon without a barrier layer, amperage should be the minimum that provides proper arc characteristics in order to hold dilution at the lowest level. Submerged Arc Cladding THE SUBMERGED ARC welding process produces high-quality nickel-alloy cladding on carbon steel and low-alloy steel. The process offers several advantages, over gas metal arc cladding: oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 251 [1) High deposition rates, 35 to 50% increase with 0.062 in. (1.6 mm) diameter surfacing meral, and the ability to use larger electrodes. (2) Fewer layers are required for a given cladding thickness. For example, with 0.062 in, (1.6 mm) surfac- ing metal, two layers applied by the submerged arc pro- cess have been found to be equivalent to three layers applied by the gas metal arc welding process. (3) The welding are is much less affected by minor process variations such as welding wire condition and electrical welding fluctuations (4) | Welded surfaces of submerged arc cladding are smooth enough to be liquid-penesrant inspected with 1no special surface preparation other than wire brush- ing, (5) Increased control provided by the submerged are process yields fewer defects and requires fewer repairs. Typical conditions for submerged arc cladding, with various flux and filler metal combinations are shown in Table 4.18. Chemical compositions of specific weld claddings are given in Table 4.19, The power supply for all weld cladding applied using weaving techniques is direct current electrode negative (DCEN) with constant voltage. DCEN produces an are with less depth of fusion, which reduces dilution, Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) results in improved arc stability and is used when stringer-bead cladding is needed to minimize the possibilty of slag inclusions. The most efficient use of the submerged are process for cladding requires equipment with a means of weav- ing the electrode. Figure 4.16 shows three basic types of weaving, or oscillation. All three types provide much flatter beads with less iron difution than is possible with stringer beads. Pendulum weaving is characterized by a slight hesita- tion at both sides of the bead. It produces slightly greater depth of fusion and somewhat higher igon dilu- tion at the edge dwell points. Straight-line weaving gives approximately the same results as pendulum weaving, Straightline constant velocity provides the lowest level of iron dilution. It provides for movement in a horizontal path so that the arc speed is constant throughout each weave cycle, The optimum movement is that which is programmed to have no end dwell, so that the greater depth of fusion at either side resulting from momentary hesitation is eliminated Iron dilution is influenced by weaving, as well as by corrent, voltage, and forward travel speed. Generally, iron dilution will decrease as weave width is increased, but the molten slag cannot be allowed to solidifyAUS WHB-3 CHx4 x MM O784265 0506822 100 mm 252 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS Table 4.18 Typical Conditions for Submerged Arc Cladding on Steel File Metal Electrode Fux and Filer Metal Diametr_cyrent* Vottage, __Trvel Speed = Combination oA infin mminin inom Fuacdand RNC 0062 16 240-260 92-34 35-5 89190 45-70 0915 2298 091 2225 oss 24 300-400 37 3576-190 -3550 2ST 2 2881 FuxSand ERNIGH-? Gos 14 260-280 3295 358 88-190 $0.0 815 2298 O81 1225 0083 24 «300-400 3¢37 5576-190 3550-2 5BI 11-2 2851 0062 1.8 © 260-280 3235 7-98 180-790 fb) (8) ty) 2295 00s 24 300-380 35-37 8-10 200-250 (bh) Ib) fb) 1215 32.08, FuxGand ERNE 00g 16 250-280 30-32 355 88130 5070 0945 233 081 225 ERNCr3 oe «16 «40-260 32-3435 76-30 45.0 OIE 2238 091 2 00s 24 300-400 343735 76-130 355012 HS] 2 2951 ERNCiMo-3 0062 16 «240-260 3234-355 89-150 5000 09-15 233 081 25 . Deen 1b Non-sciatingtechrique TT Table 4.19 Chemical Composition of Submerged Arc Claddings on Steel, wt. % * Fhoxand Filler Metal lye Ni fers CS. NovTa Mo Fuuctand ERNCIS 1 635125 1700S T2895 oome mds ak 2 m0 53 1750 — 007 300 cos 04 O15 35 — 3 m5 «26 «61875 ~— oor 305 coos 0M] FuxSard ERNCUT 1 606 120 — 210 006 500 0014 099 04 — — a FuxGand ERNE! 2 88 «84 — — 07 049 Do os 17 — = ERNGIS 2 088 «72 1850 — «0m 3 om OF ak Flux? and ERNICIMo-3 1 602-36 7159 — one 078 0001 029013 3298s * Cladding on ASTM SA 212 Grade B toa agp by ociliting ectnigue wth O06 in. (LB mm dlametr filer metal berween weaves. As subsequent beads are made, only enough overlap of the previous bead to yield a smooth surface is required. ‘Techniques with no weave or oscillation (i.e. stringer beads) are sometimes used in cladding narrow areas. Figure 4.17 shows the correct position of the clectrode for cladding by a non-weaving technique with sub- merged are welding (SAW) oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 Gas Metal Arc Cladding GAS METAL ARC welding with spray transfer is suc- cessfully used to apply nickel-alloy cladding to steel. The cladding is usually produced with mechanized equipment and with weaving of the electrode. As shown in Figure 4.18, overlaps should be sufficient to produce alevel surface,AUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx Ml O784265 0506813 047 Mm STRINGER PENDULUM STRAIGHT STRAIGHT BEAD UNE UNE, CONSTANT VELOCITY Figure 4.16—Basic Submerged Arc Weave "Techni ind Bead Cross Sections Hh | ein 8 mm ELECTRODE . Previous BEAD Courtesy ofinco Aioys ternational, ne: Figure 4.17—Proper Electrode Position for Cladding ‘by Non Weaving Technique with SAW Argon alone is often used as shielding gas. The addi tion of 15 to 25% helium, however, is beneficial for cladding of nickel and nickel-chromium-iron, Wider and flatter beads and reduced depth of fusion result as the helium content is increased to about 25 percent. Gas-flow rates are influenced by welding technique and will vary from 35 to 100 f/h (15 ro 45 Limin). As welding current is increased, the weld pool will become larger and require larger gas nozzles for shielding When weaving is used, a trailing shield may be neces- sary for adequate shielding, In any case, the nozzle oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 253 Courtesy of ino Alloys inernational Ie Figure 4.18—Automatic Gas Metal Arc Cladding ‘with Sufficient Overlap for Level Surface should be large enough to deliver an adequate quantity of gas under low velocity to the welding area Representative chemical compositions of auromatic gas metal arc cladding are shown in Table 4.20. The cladding in this table was produced with the following welding conditions: (1) Torch gas, 50 fh (24 L/min) argon (2). Trailing shield gas, 50 ft'/h (24 Limin) argon (3) Electrode extension, 3/4 in, (19 mm) (4) Power source, DCEP (5) Oscillation frequency, 70 cycles/min (6) Bead overlap, 1/4 to 3/8 in. (6 to 10 mm) (7) Travel speed, 4 1/2 in./min (110 mm/min) When nickel-copper or copper-nickel cladding is to be applied to steel, a barrier layer of nickel filler metal 61 must be applied first. Nickel weld metal will tolerate greater iron dilution without fissuring, ‘When cladding is applied manually, the iron content of the first bead will be considerably higher than that of subsequent beads. The first bead should be applied at a reduced travel speed to dissipate much of the penetrating force of the ace in a large weld pool and reduce the iron content of the bead. The iron content ofAUS WHB-3 CHx4 ex MM 0784265 OSObS14 733 Ml 254 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS SS Table 420 Chemical Composition of Gas Metal Arc Cladding on Stee!* zi Chemical Compositionot Weld Metal wt. % ‘Surfacing Curent, Voltage, —__ stionof Weld Metal wt.%_ Filler Metal AV bye re GG OC OM OS OSM ea 20-20 27-281 = 012 078 000 O32 — 2 87 121 — — 009 017 0006 035 — 3 49 17 — 006 009 0003 037 — ERNCuy® 280-300 27:29 2B 1B) ~— 199 006 281 U3 O84 DOE 219 005 — 3 855 28 248 004 351 0004 096 O00 225 oo — ERCuN 020 2-28 «86201 5 — 458 Oot O53 OOOr OM — og — — 3 6 31 — 601 Oo ost 0006 08 — oO — ENC 280-200 2-30 1 «S13 285 158 O07 O17 235 DO 020 0017 023 006 174 2 680 BB 18S 0.06 001 257 D008 O12 D015 030 008 227 3 723 25 18.7 006 0029 278 0007 0.11 002 031 008 238 Automatic cading th OOE2in. (15mm) ameter metal on SA 212.Grade 8 steak Soe text for adeonal woking conto. 5, First ayer sped wih ERNE filer meta subsequent beads, as well as the surface contour of the cladding, can be controlled by climination of weaving and maintaining the arc at the edge of the preceding bead. Such a procedure will result in a 50% overlap of beads, and the weld metal will wer the steel without {excessive arc impingement. The welding gun should be inclined up to 5 degrees away from the preceding bead so that the major force of the are does not impinge on the st Shielded Metal Arc Cladding SHIELDED METAL ARC cladding on cast and wrought steels are widely used for such applications as facings on vessel outlets and trim on valves. Typical Properties are shown in Table 4.21. The electrodes shown are well suited to welding in’ which the weld ‘metal will be diluted by ferrous base metal. el 421 Tablo Properties of Shielded Metal Arc Cladding on Stee! ‘Surfacing Metal Blectrode A Nickel Ee 38224 TON 6 1 88 v8 32 10015 2 8) 982 40 me 3 86 3n6 48 OS Nieko-copper eNcuT 3e2 245 8 1 8 832 © Bi10 2 86 5e2 40 now 3 3 ane 48D ‘Nickeketromium-ron ENicifes 32 24 wm 33 1 31 18 32 a 2 93 982 40 Im 3 92 ane 48 a5 oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS WHB-3 CHx4 x MM 078425 0506815 937 Ml The procedures outlined for shielded metal arc join ing should be followed, except that special care must be taken to control dilution of the cladding. Excessive dilution can result in weld metal that is crack sensitive or has reduced corrosion resistance. The amperage should be in the lower half of the rec- ‘ommended range for the electrode. The major force of the atc should be directed at the edge of the previous bead so that the weld metal will spread onto the steel with only minimum weaving of the electrode. IF beads with feather edges are applied, more layers will be required, and the potential for excessive dilution will be seater ‘The weld interface contour of the cladding should be as smooth as possible, As shown in Figure 4.19, a scal- loped weld interface contour can result in excessive iron dilution, with subsequent cracking as the weld speci men is subjected to a 180-degree longitudinal bend Hot-Wire Plasma Arc Cladding HIGH-QUALITY CLADDING can be produced at high deposition rates with the hot-wire plasma arc pro- cess. The process offers precise control of dilution, and dilution rates as low as 2% have been obtained. For ‘optimum uniformity, however, a dilution rate in the 5 to 10% range is recommended. High deposition rates result from the use of two filler metal wires, which are resistance heated by a separate ac power source. The filler metal is in a nearly molten state before it enters the weld pool. Deposition rates for nickel-alloy weld metal are 35 to 40 Ib/h (16 to 18 kg/h}, approximately double those obtained with sub- merged ate weld cladding Figure 4.20 shows cross sections and the surface of a hot-wire plasma arc cladding made with ERNiCr3 filler metal. Side-bend tests showed no cracks. Welding conditions for hot-wire plasma arc cladding are given in Table 4.22. Chemical compositions of two- layer claddings are given in Table 4.23 WELDING OF NICKEL ALLOY CLAD STEEL STEELS CLAD WITH a nickel alloy are frequently joined by welding, Since the cladding is normally used for its corrosion resistance, the cladding alloy must be continuous over the entire surface of the structure, including the welded joints. This requirement influences joint design and welding procedure. Butt joints should be used when possible. Figure 4.21 shows recommended designs for wo thickness ranges Isee (A) and (B)]. Both designs include a small root face of unbeveled steel above the cladding to protect the cladding during welding of the steel. The_ steel side should be welded first with a low-hydrogen filler metal. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Satu 05 0:45:13 1997 NICKEL AND COBALT AtLovS 255 (A) Cladding with Scalloped Weld Interface Contour (B) Bend Test Specimen with Cracks Caused by Improper Weld Interface Contour (C) Cladding with Smooth Weld Interface ‘Contour (D) Bend Test Specimen from Cladding Shown Directly Above Courter af Inco Alloys Internation ne Figure 4.19—Manual Shielded Metal Arc CladdingAWS WHB-3 CHxy x MM 0784265 OSOb82b 856 286 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS Courtesy of neo Alloys Internationa, eee err Figure 4.20—Cross Sections and Surface of Hot Wire Plasma Arc Cladding of ERNICKS Filler Metal on Steel Table 4.22 ‘Typical Conditions for Hot Wire Plasma Are Cladding ee cS — Eee ERNICr3Filler Metal Filer metal dametor (0.062 in. (1.6 mm) (0.062 in-(7.8 mm) Plasma are power source DCEN OceN Plasma are curent 490 4204 Plasma arc vokage 38 36V Hotwire power source ac Ac Hotwire curent 200A 1A Hot-we votage mW av Orifice gas and flow rate 75% He, 25%Ar; 85 ft/h (26 Uimin) 75% He, 25%6Ar; 55 th (26 Limin} ‘Shielding gas and flow rate ‘Argon; 40 ft/h (19 Limin) ‘Argon; 40 f/m (19 Limin) ‘Traling shield gas and flow rate ‘Argon; 45 ft5/h (21 Limi) ‘Argon; 45 fe'/h (21 min} ‘Standoff distance 13/16in. (21 mm) 13/16. (21 mm) Travel speed 7-1/2 inden (190 mn/nin) 7-1/2in in (190 mm/min) Weave width 4-1/2in, (38 mm) 1-1/2 in. (38 mm) Weave frequency ‘44cyclesimin Meyclesinin Bead width 2in.(60 mm) 2-3/6 in, (56 mm) Bead thicknoss 236 in. (5mm) 3/16 in. (5 mm) Deposirate 40 fn (18 kg/m) 40 16m (18 kg) Preheattemperature 250°F (120 °C) 250 °F (120 Cony by he ketone Soc he sits tosis astAUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM 0784265 0506817 792 Ml NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 257 Table 4.23 Chomical Composition of Hot Wire Plasma Are Cladding on Stool, wt. %* Filler Metal Lye Mi fee SST ENGL 1 O55 — 270 O07 921 0006 08 219 005 2 687 18 — 282 007 332 0006 088 225 004 FANGS 1 683-83 1R4 005002267 «am ONG mt 2B 2 72 17° 22 002 oor 286 oot O17 02 — 231 * Cladding on ASTM ASE7 Grade Bsteelmade wih GOs2in(16 nm) iaete ler meta. ao\ | STEEL ‘ = 116 in. (1.6 mm) CLADDING. (A) Material 3/16 to 5/8 (4.8 to 16 mm) Thick 10-15" is a sree. Sresin. 680mm) sin 8mm cLADONG (B) Material 6.8 to 1 in, (16 to.25 mm) Thick CLADDING (C) Strip-Back Method of Joint Preparation Figure 4.21—Joint Designs for Clad Steel oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 Ic is important to avoid fusion of the cladding during the First welding pass. Dilution of the steel weld with the nickel-alloy cladding can cause cracking of the weld metal. The clad side of the joint should be prepared by grinding or chipping and welded with the filler metal recommended for the alloy used for cladding. The weld ‘metal will be diluted with steel. To maintain corrosion resistance, at least ¢wo layers, and preferably three or more, should be applied, The strip-back method is sometimes used instead of the procedure described above. The cladding is removed from the vicinity of the joint as shown in Fig ure 4.21(C). The steel is then welded using a standard joint design and technique for steel, and the nickel-alloy cladding is reapplied by weld cladding. The advantage of the strip-back method is chat it eliminates the possi- bility of cracking caused by penetration of the steel ‘weld metal into the cladding. Some joints, such as those in closed vessels or tubular products, are accessible only from the steel side. In such cases, a standard joint design for steel is used, and the cladding at the bottom of the joint is welded first with nickel alloy weld metal. After the cladding is welded, the joint can be completed with the appropriate nickel alloy weld metal, or a barrier layer of carbon-free iron can be applied and the joint completed with steel weld metal. Ifthe thickness of the steel is 5/16 in. (8 mm) or less, i i usually more economical to complete the joint with nickel alloy welding filer metal. Figures 4.22 and B show fabrication sequences when both sides are accessible, Figure 4.23 shows the fabrication sequence when only one side is accessible, Figure 4.24 shows some designs other than butt joints for low-stressed welds NICKEL ALLOY STRIP LININGS ‘THE LINING OF vessels and the cladding of external surfaces with sheets or strips is accomplished by progressively fillet welding to the steel and then toAWS WHB-3 CHxy ex MM 0784265 0506818 629 Ml 258 wicket AND coBatr Atiovs ed er “L__ Rete eaten ftere Do not wan ato sang Lifts = “nin Gied me sup Be Saupe act sty sso tn vary crete so PeneE etait seston cea elay aan seals) ares ong {sere ie peee ree area eN\ STEP 4 ‘Step 5 ‘Acap of the finer alloy is welded over the root area to provide e matching mad ‘STEPS undiluted composition on the surface. This step fs eeldom used but provides optimum corrosion resistance. Figure 4.22A—Ciad Metal Joint Design and Welding Fabrication Sequence When Both Sides: of Joint are Accessible neighboring alloy strips or sheets. Successful service performance of these linings requires static conditions ‘of temperature and pressure. When temperature or pressure fluctuates widely in service, fabrication by strip lining has been the cause of numerous service failures over the years. When linings are selected for fabrica- tion, the following rules govern: (1) The steel should be dried and free from corro- sion products (rust, mill scale, etc.), preferably by grit blasting, and the surface should be ground along the line of the proposed welds. (2). Strips should be at least 0.062 in, (2 mm) thick, cut to proper size, and formed to the required shape. ‘The work should be planned so that long, continuous weld lengths are avoided and, as far as possible, attach- iment to existing joints in the steel structure is pre- vented. The edges and adjacent surfaces of the strips are cleaned abrasively and degreased before pressing them firmly into position and tack welding to the steel oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 (3) Welding by shielded metal are welding (SMAW) process is normal, though the gas tungsten are welding (GTAW) and gas metal arc welding (GMAW) processes have been used. The choice of filler metal is governed by the nature of the environment to be encountered, Some currently used joint designs are shown in Figure 4.25. These linings are used more extensively in Europe than in the United States.” Figure 4.26 sets forth three procedures for welding p linings ro carbon-steel base metal. Shingle joints (A) are the least expensive, fastest to apply, and most tolerant to fit up. The second exposed weld obviously hhas no opportunity for iron dilution. Shingle joints have the disadvantage of the possibility ofa direct leak path, 7._ Refer t0 “Lining of vessels and equipment for chemical prox ses,” British Standard Practice, CP 3003, Part 7, 1970, and 0 Welding Inco Alioys, Hereford, UKs Inca Alloys Lid.AWS WHB-3 CHe4 xx MM 0784265 0506615 StS mm NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 259 ‘step 1 sveP1 ZR va step2 BS ‘ STEPS Alternate Step 3 [ALTERNATE STEP 3 Figure 4.228 Strip Back Clad Metal J which can allow contents to spread widely under the lining. The two-bead method (B) also offers low iron dilu- tion but requires considerable welding skill. The second bead does not penetrate the steel, which accounts for less iron pick-up. The three-bead method (C) offers the advantages of case of fitting and multi-operator capa- bility but requires more welding and has a greater ten- dency to iron dilution, especially in the first layer. Any leak path in it would involve two layers of weld, and any pin-hole in the frst layer is capped off. Ifa pin-hole is in only the second layer, no leak to steel exists. If necessary, attachment of nickel alloy sheets may be reinforced by spaced GMAW spot welds or by SMAW and GMAW plug welds. Caps of alloy sheet can be used to cover the plug welds to ensure full corrosion protec- tion, Crevices are inherent in such joints; thus, mechan: ical cycling of such joints is worthy of close scrutiny by the equipment designer. For example, blow down of paper digester reactor vessels has caused strip linings wwelded as close as 6 in, (150 mm) apart to detach from the vessel wall, Today, the general rule is co use alloy clad plate if pressure or temperature fluctuates appre ciably in service. Cony by he ketone Soc he ‘Sat dul 05 1045:13 1997 a See Design and Welding Fabrication Sequence When Both Joint are Accessible (Altemate Method) Remove cladding a minimum of 38 in. (10 mm) trom each side of joint. Penetration into cladding is avoided, and fitis less erica Weld with earbon-ste! filer motal Apply @ minimum of two layers of nickel-alloy filler metal ‘The root is patched by welding a cap of clad material across the root area. ‘This provides maximum corrosion resistance but is soldom necassary. OTHER DISSIMILAR METAL APPLICATIONS ABRASION, WEAR, AND corrosion-resistant hard surfacing alloys are ‘coutinely applied to nickel and cobalt alloys using the oxyacetylene, gas tungsten arc, and plasma are processes, especially in valve seats and ‘other applications where a combination of wear and corrosion resistance is demanded.* ‘Nickel-based welding filler m sively in the welding of cast irons.” also is used exten 8, Tor information on haedlacng, refer ro Chapter 14, "Surfacing, Welding Hambook, 7th Ei, Vol. 2 (oe ¢0 the forthcoming 8th Edy Vola}. 5. “For information on cast iron welding, zeler vo Chapter 5, "Cast Iron Welding Hatidbook, 71h Edy Vol. 4 (orto the forthcoming Sth Bd, Vold 10. For general information on the seleton of filler metals and pro- cedures fo oining dissimila eal, refer 9 Chapeer 12, "Dissrilar Metals,” Welding Handbook, 70h Fd, Vol. 4 (orto the forthcoming fh Ed, Vol.AWS WHB-3 CHx4 x MM O7842b5 0506820 287 a 260 NICKEL AND coBaLT ALLovs 1. Prepare joint to leave cladsing protruding. Gas tungsten are wold with appropriate nickel-base filer metal using ‘argon backing 2, Deposit nickel layer and complete joint with appropriate hickeHbase weld metal f backing steel is heavy, 2 buffer layer of ingotiron weld metal may alow completion of the joint using carbon-steel welding materiale, (A) Access from Steel Side 1. Partly fil joint with steel weld meta 2, Deposit minimum of two layers af appropriate nickel- base flor metal ‘Access from Clad Side Figure 4.23—Clad Metal Joint Design and Welding Fabrication Sequences When Only One Side of Joint is ‘Accessible oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM 0784265 OSOL822 113 mm NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 261 weLd SURFACING 77 —cuaooine NICKEL ALLOY ees WELD. WELD — STEEL S S C2sree. HB xe atrov wen [ID canons Figure 4.24—Joint Designs for Low-Stressed Welds in Clad Stool oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS UHB-3 CHe4 xx Ml 0784265 O50b822 OST Mm 262 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS Fone OMSET —_conmNLous LINING WELD we de irenwirten te snecrcoce NOTFORNED CONTINUOUS wel x irene we {A) Lap Joints SHELL UiNING continuous INTERMITTENT WELD Sc Hea unin (C) Head-to-Shell Joint STEEL SHELL ‘SHELL UiNing FLANGED TANK STEEL BOTTOM LININGS welbs, STEEL BOTTOM (B) Flat Head-to-Shell Joint o.4in comm) | | FLANGE | COVER continuous uNiNe wep Ne tk “XS se, A INTERMITTENT sree, WELD River (D) Rivet Covers Figure 4.25—Methods and Designs for Welding Strip to Carbon Stoel Base Metal oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS WHB-3 CHx4 ex MM 0784265 0506823 T9b Ml NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 263 STEELHEAD x | ff j Vd My auTT on LAP JOINTS: {E) Orange-Peel Head Lining BOLT CIRCLE, STEEL NozzLE | stec.—+| SHELL SHELL UNING Sheet Li WELDED CLADDING (PREFERABLY iv TWO LAYERS) = NOZZLE LINING ‘THis LAPPING NOZZLE LINER MUST 2 WELL LAID DOWN -—— BEFORE WELDING sTeeL—~ STEEL—+ WELD (F) Weld Cover INTERMITTENT OR CONTINUOUS WELD x sree. FLANGE nine | — STEEL SHELL (H) Flange Cover oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AWS WHB-3 CHx4 #* MM 0784265 0506824 922 mm 264 NICKEL AND coBatT ALLoys Edges fully welded. (C) Three-Bead Method About S16 in tommn) space between % Es ‘and third bead deposited. FNloansow stect frnst scan Edsrnunns secon sea * Nonstandard term (B) Two-Bead Method Strips into carefully to permit butting. Closure bead deposited. (D) Recommended weld b sequence for diminishing sheet Ii Figure 4.26—Procedures for Welding Strip Linings to CarborrSteel Base Metal OXYACETYLENE WELDING THE OXYACETYLENE FLAME produces a suffi- ciently high temperature for welding commercially pure nickel and some solution-strengthened nickel alloys. However, this process should only be used in those situ ations where suitable arc welding equipment is not available. Welds can be made in all positions. The process is still widely used im applying abrasion and wear-resisting alloys to nickel and cobalt alloys.!! FLAME ADJUSTMENT ‘THE TORCH TIP should be large enough to provide a low-velocity, soft flame. A high-velocity, harsh flame is 11. See Chapter 14, *Sufacing,” Welding Handbook, 7th Ed, Vol 2 (or the forthcoming 80 Ed. Vo. 4) oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 undesirable, Usually the tip should be the same size or ‘one size larger than the one recommended for the same thickness of stel The welding torch should be adjusted with excess acetylene to produce a slightly reducing flame. When chromium-bearing alloys are welded, the flame should not be excessively reducing because the weld metal might absorb carbon. During welding, the weld pool should be kep: quiet with the cone of the flame just touching its surface. Agi- tation of the molten metal should be avoided. This action can result in loss of the deoxidizing elements or exposure of the molten weld metal to the surrounding atmosphere. As a result, the weld metal may be porous. The hot end of the filler metal rod should be kept within the flame envelope to minimize oxidation.AUS WHB-3 CHx4 ek MM 0784265 OSOL825 869 Mm FLUXES FLUX IS REQUIRED for welding nickel-copper, nickel- chromium, and nickel-iron-chromium alloys. Commer- cially pute nickel can be welded without flux. The fol- lowing mixture can be used for solution-strengthened niickel-copper alloys: barium fluoride, 60% calcium f otide, 16%; barium chloride, 15% gum arabic, 5 and sodium fluoride, 4%. Nickel-chromium and nickel-iron-chromium alloys can be fluxed with a mixture of one part sodium fluo- tide and two parts calcium fluoride with 3% hematite (red iron oxide) and a suitable wetting agent added to the mixture. Such agents are Photoflo by Kodak, Dupanol* ME by DuPont, or commercial detergents. Precipitation-hardenable nickel-copper alloys can be fluxed with a water slurry of one part lithium fluoride and two parts of either of the two previously given flax compositions. ‘The flux is mixed with water to produce a thin sluer: I should be applied to borh sides of the joint and to the filler metal rod, and then allowed to dey before welding is started. Borax must not be used as a flux when welding nickel alloys. It can result in the undesirable formation of a brittle, low-melting eutectic in the weld. The flux residue must be removed from the joint for high-temperature service. Molten flux will corrode the baxe metal after an extended period. Unfused flux may be washed off with hot water. Fused flux is not soluble in water and must be removed mechanically by grit blasting or grinding. RESISTANCE WELDING NICKEL AND COBALT alloys are readily welded to themselves and to other metallurgically compatible met- als by spot, seam, projection, and flash welding. The electrical resistivities of the alloys range from about $7 Qucir mil/fe (9.5 wQeem) for commercially pure nickel to 776 Qacir milfit (129 jQeem) for a resistance- heating nickel alloy. The welding current requirements are lower with the high-resistance alloys, but the force requirements increase because of cheir high strengths at elevated temperatures. For good electrical contact, the surfaces of the joint members must be clean. All oxide, oil, grease, and other foreign matter must be removed by acceptable cleaning ‘methods. Cheraical pickling is the best method of oxide removal. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 NICKEL NICKEL ALLOYS AND COBALT ALLOYS 265 ‘THE OXYACETYLENE WELDING process is not rec ‘ommended for joining the low-carbon nickel and nickel alloys, the nickel-molybdenum alloys, and the nickel chrorsium-molybdenum alloys. These base metals can readily absorb carbon from the flame, and this will reduce their corrosion resistance and high-temperature properties. ‘Oxyacetylene welding is the only recommended join- ing process for the high-silicon casting alloys. The weld- ing procedure is similar to that used for east jron. The filler metal rod should be the same composition as the base metal. A U-groove with a 45-degree bevel angle should be used for base metal over 0.5 in. (13 mm) thick, With the exception of the nickel-copper alloy, the precipitation-hardenable alloys should not normally be welded by the oxyacetylene process. The hardening elements are easily oxidized and fluxed away during welding, COBALT ALLOYS ‘THE WROUGHT COBALT alloys are usually love in carbon, As with low-carbon nickel alloys, these alloys. ean absorb carbon during welding. This will alter the properties of the alloys. However, cobalt hardfacing alloys are high in carbon, and they aze often deposited with the oxyacetylene process. SPOT WELDING NICKEL AND COBALT alloys are spot welded in much the same manner as other metals, In many respects, these alloys are easy to spot weld. The configu rations involved and the relatively short welding time tend to preclude any contamination from the atmo: sphere. As a result, auxiliary shielding is not normally needed during resistance spo: welding. The thermal and electrical conductivities and the mechanical properties of the alloys vary depending upon their composition and condition. Conditions for spot welding, therefore, are adjusted to account for the base metal properties. Usually, several combinations of welding conditions can produce similar and acceptable resultsAWS WHB-3 CHeH ex Ml 266 EQUIPMENT NICKEL AND COBALT alloys can be welded success- fully on almost all types of conventional spot welding equipment. The equipment must provide accurate con trol of welding current, weld time, and electrode force. Each of these values may vary within a range without appreciably affecting weld quality. It is, however, desir- able to have sufficient control over them to obtain reproducible results after the optimum values are obtained for a given application. Upslope controls will help prevent expulsion. Dual electrode force systems are sometimes used to provide a high forging force when welding, high-strength, high- temperature alloys. No significant changes in welding characteristics oF static weld properties can be attrib= uted to the use of any specific type of spot welding equipment. For most applications, the restricted dome electrode design shown in Figure 4.27 is preferred. Truncated electrodes or ones with 5 or 8 in, (125 or 200 min) radius faces are sometimes used for metal thicknesses in the range of 0.06 to 0.13 in. (1.5 to 3 mm). Larger nug- gets and correspondingly higher shear strengths can be obtained with these electrode shapes. NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS Resistance Welder Manufacturers Association (RWMA) Group A, Class 1, 2, and 3 electrode alloys are recommended. Class | alloys are hest for low-resis- tivity alloys and for thin sheets t0 minimize sticking ten: dencies. Class 3 electrodes are recommended for high- temperature alloys to minimize mushrooming with high lecirode forces and relatively long weld times, : a Figure 4.27—Rostricted Dome Spot Weld Electrode Design oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 O?842bS OSOb82b 77S Ml WELDING CONDITIONS SPOT. WELDING CONDITIONS are primarily con- trolled by the total thickness of the joint members and, to a rather large degree, by the welding machine being used. Similar welding conditions may be suitable for making welds in the same total thickness where the number of layers differs significantly. However, for any given thickness oF total accumulation, various combina- tions of welding current, time, and electrode force may produce similar welds. Other conditions such as electrode size and shape are important in controlling such characteristics as metal expulsion, sheet indentation, and sheet separation. Up- slope, downslope, and forging force may be used for some high-strength, high-temperature alloys to control heating rate and soundness of the weld nugger. Alloys that have properties similar to stee! behave in a like manner. The high-nickel and high-cobale alloys generally are harder and stronger than low-carbon steel, particularly at elevated temperatures. Higher elec- trode forces are therefore required during spot welding, The time of current flow should be as short as possible, but sufficiently long to gradually build up the welding heat. Welding current should be set somewhat above the value that produces a weak weld, but below the set- ting that causes weld-metal expulsion. Current upslope isan asset in this respect. Suitable conditions for spot welding annealed nickel alloys are given in Tables 4.24 and 4.25. A forging force is sometimes applied near the end of weld time to con- solidate the weld nugget. For some alloys, forging force ‘may be applied during a postheating. impulse. Precipitation-hardenable alloys are best welded in the solution annealed condition with settings similar to those used for similar solid-solution alloys. Howeves high electrode force and low welding current must be used to compensate for their high-temperature strength and high electrical resistance. The weld nuggets will be about the same size as those in the solid-solution alloys, but the shear strengths will be higher in the welded con: dition, Subsequent precipitation hardening will increase the shear strength by about 50 percent. Cracking will generally occur when these alloys are welded in the hardened condition, Postweld solution annealing, fol: lowed by precipitation hardening, is recommended to avoid strain-age cracking, Some cracking may occur during spot welding of some precipitation-hardenable alloys if insufficient elec- trode force is used. If higher electrode force does not overcome cracking, increasing the weld time or lower ing the welding current will help. Welding machines with low-inertia heads and current slope control are preferred.AUS WHB-3 CHx4 x MM 0784265 OSObS27 63) Mm NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 267 Minium ‘Shear Strength N Nugget Diameter Curent, 1A ig) tren WeldTime, Welding ‘gycles Diamotor 6 8 25 31 38 Face n ox 0 0 8 Eloctrode 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Table 4.24 ‘Typical Conditions for Spot Welding Annealed Nickel Alloys with Single-Phase Machines a Radius Electrode Force oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997AUS WHB-3 CHx4 #* MM 0784265 0506828 578 mM 288 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS S5888 52858 Minin Nugget Diameter Shear Strength a0 m0 1750 280 540 Welding Current A Tine, cycles (60 He) Pulse 8 yy UNS N04400) im G7NI-32Cu alo Electrode Force ® Electrodo Face” ® 1D 7 1B Bw 35 % 17 127 3 m3 Table 4.25 ‘Typical Conditions for Spot Welding Annealed Nickel Alloys with Three Phase Frequency Converter Machine Radios Thickness? ‘2. Maximum tickness of mii layers shoud not exceed four testis thickness. Maximum rai for unoqualticknesses is 310 1. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 i. Resticted dome electrode designAUS WHB-3 CHeY ee MM 0784265 0506829 404 mm SEAM WELDING ‘THIS PROCESS IS normally used to join sheet thick- nesses ranging from 0.002 to 0.125 in, (0.05 to 3.2 mm). Wheel electrodes of Resistance Welder Manu- facturers Association (RWMA) Group a, Class 1 or 2 alloy are used. Individual overlapping spots are created by coordinating the welding time and wheel rotation. The wheel electrodes can be rotated continuously or intermittently. Continuous seam welding imposes limi tations on the weld cycle variations that can be used. For example, a forging force cannot be applied during continuous seam welding, but it can be used with inter mittent motion. High-steength alloys, stich as UNS 'N06002 and NO7750, usually are welded with forging force and intermittent drive Suggested conditions for seam welding two nickel alloys with continuous motion are given in Table 4.26. Table 4.27 gives conditions for welding a different nickel alloy using intermittent motion and_ forging force. The force must be high to consolidate the weld ‘nugget to prevent cracking and porosity. PROJECTION WELDING THIS PROCESS REQUIRES die-formed projections, similar to chose used for stel, in one or both parts, The parts are also usually deformed in high-production operations. Nickel and cobalt alloys are seldom projec- tion welded because production requirements are nor mally low. Conditions for projection welding of nickel and cobalt alloys are influenced by the thickness and shape of the joint members, Generally, higher electrode forces and longer weld times than those used for steels are required because of the higher strength of nickel and cobalt alloys at elevated temperature. FLASH WELDING ‘THE NICKEL AND cobalt alloys can be flash-welded to themselves and to dissimilar metals. In two respects, Copy bythe retan Weng Sock he Sas fas 157 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 269 flash welding is well adapted to the high-strength, heat- treatable alloys, First, molten metal is not retained in the joint. Second, the hot metal at the joint is upset. This upsetting may improve the ductility of the heat. affected zone ‘The machine capacity required to weld nickel and nickel alloys does not differ greatly from that required for steel. This is especially true for transformer capacity. ‘The upset force needed for making flash welds in nickel alloys is higher than that required for steel. Joine designs for flash welds are similar to those used for other metals. Flat, sheared, or saw-cut edges and pinch-cut rod or wire ends are satisfactory for welding ‘The edges of thick base metal are sometimes beveled slightly, The overall shortening of the parts due to metal lost during welding should be taken into account so that finished parts will be the proper length The flash welding conditions that are of greatest importance are flashing current, speed, and time, plus upset pressure and distance. With proper control of these conditions, the molten metal at the interface will be forced out of the joint, and the metal at the interface will be at the proper temperature for welding. Generally, high flashing speeds and shore flashing times are used to minimize weld contamination. Para- bolic flashing is more desirable than linear flashing because maximum joint efficiency can be obtained with 4 minimum of metal loss. Flash welding conditions vary with the machine size and the application. Table 4.28 gives typical conditions for flash welding 0.25 and 0.375 in, (6.3 and 9.5 mm) diameter rod of several nickel alloys ‘Welding current is determined by the machine trans- former tap setting. Since these alloys have higher strengths at elevated temperatures than steel, higher force is required t0 upset and extrude all the molten metal from the joint. The time of current flow during upsetting is critical. I the time is too long, the joint may be overheated and oxidized. I the time is too short, the plasticity of the metal will not permit sufficient upset- fing to force the molten metal from the joint. A prop- erly made flash weld will not contain any cast metalAUS WHB=3 CHx4 xx Ml 0784265 0506830 126 mm 270 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 0 arp 3 oe 7 OO oer tbe aoe i ose) ns toot “anes one sue eee ries best Co i a ua . oe en yaa s9R%> ae “SOUL PIAA BUOY BPARIOA 2940, SuyGu04 pus uoneY WessERL YIM (ZODBON SN) AOITY OWN SSEL¥OZZ-INLY 30 Sunn wseOS, orgeL Cee | xg s sassauyougenboun oj ones unuaKeyysso}oKg Sa sou no} 9990x8oU PRoYs SAK cATLL}OSSONIERA UME weeyepameg WOROW snONUBUED WIM eUIySEYY eseYE-eIBUIS YpIM SAoITY 1oxDIN PerwouNTy GuIPIoM WEES 40} suORIPUOD JoOKAL szv eran ee py bythe rercon Weg Sock he Sat ll 05 IC 15 1997AUS WHB-3 CHx4 ex Ml 0764265 OSOb83) Ob2 mm NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 271 SS Table 4.28 ‘Typical Conditions for Flash Welding Nickel Alloy Rods" uns _Diameter” __—Ypset Curent Every lnput soit Metal Number ina Tine, s Wh 3 Fficincy.%% Nickel NO 025 ——~635 15 0125 3i7 2 Te ® 035 = 952 25 os 38 4a) 7s Ey BrNiaecu Noon 025635 15 01 317 183° 660 a 05 95 25 01s 38 555 1998) s BeNESOCGA —NOSSOD 0258.5, 15 018 317 202 70 % om = 982 25 0185 368 a9 1720) 100 TeNiléCrefe —NOBSOD 07585 15 0125 a7 25m 2 0375 982 25 015 368 519 18680 6 18, Rashvoff equals 04t2in (112 mm) andlahing te equals 25 seconds inal b Endstapered ath 10-inclued angle ELECTRON BEAM WELDING ALL NICKEL AND cobalt alloys that can be success- fully joined by conventional arc welding processes can also be electron beam welded. Because ofits lower heat input, this process may be suitable for joining some alloys that are considered difficult to arc weld. In gen- eral, the joint efficiencies of electron beam welds ‘will equal or exceed those of gas tungsten arc welds Welding in vacuum provides excellent protection against atmospheric contamination. Porosity may be a problem when welding some alloys at high welding speeds because dissolved gases do not have time to escape to the surface of the weld pool. Weaving of the beam to slightly agitate the weld pool may help the Bases t0 escape and thus reduce porosity. Hor cracking in the heat-affected zone may be a problem, particularly when welding thick base metal of some alloys. The use of a cosmetic (second) pass to pro- vide a good face contour may aggravate the problem because of the high restraint imposed by the first weld pass. In this case, cracking will likely take place in the heat-affected zone of the cosmetic bead. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Sat 05 15:13 1997 An example of this type of cracking is shown in Fig- ture 4.28. The high degree of restraint imposed by the thick base metal on the narrow heat-affected zone can produce a high tensile stress during cooling. Micro cracking can readily rake place, particularly ifthe alloy ‘ends to be hot short, An obvious solution to this prob- lem is to use a welding procedure that does not require a cosmetic pass. Filler metal addition and subsequent mechanical finishing might be appropriate. As with are welding, the base metal should be in the annealed condition for welding. With precipitation- hardening alloys, the weldment should be solution treated and aged for optimum strength properties However, distortion of the weldment must be consid ‘ered when specifying a heat treatment. Welding conditions used for electron beam welding depend upon the base metal composition and thickness, as well as the type of welding equipment, For a given thickness of base metal, various combinations of accel- erating voltage, beam current, and travel speed may produce satisfactory welds.AWS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM 0784265 0506832 TTS Ml 272 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS (A) Cosmetic Pass Penetrates to (3x, Reduced 65%) (8) Area A Shows Microcrack in the Heat-Affected Zone at the Weld Interface (60x, Reduced 83%) Figure 4.28—Photomacrographe of an Electron Beam Weld in 1.75 in. (45 mm) Thick Ni-19Cr-19Fe5Nb-3Mo Alloy (UNS NO7718) LASER BEAM WELDING ‘THIS PROCESS IS being evaluated for welding various nickel alloys. Welding is normally done in the open, and 4 gas shield is recommended to protect the weld area from oxidation. Argon or helium is suitable. Several nickel alloys have been welded with various laser beam systems in thicknesses ranging from 0.01 to (0.38 in. (0.3 to 10 mm). The welded joint cross sections are similar to those produced by an electron beam. The metallurgical behavior of laser beam welds should be similar to that of electron beam welds. Several nickel alloys in sheet thicknesses of 0.039 and 0.079 in. (1 r0 2 mrn) have been successfully welded using a CO> laser beam with a power of up to 2.0 kW, Welding speeds of 80 and 15 inJmin (2.0 and 0.38 m/min), respectively, were used. FABRICATION FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE SERVICE NICKEL ALLOYS ARE used extensively in equipment for high-temperature service. The demands of this ser- vice bring out the inherent weaknesses in welds; namely, welds are castings possessing a coarse dendritic structure, Welds possess inferior hot-fatigue resistance, and long;term stress-rupture properties of welds gener- ally are lower than for the relatively uniform grain base oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Satu 05 0:45:13 1997 metals found in wrought metal forms (sheet, plate, pipe, forgings, etc.). Figure 4.1 is a classic portrayal of how such deficiencies can be handled by weld metal selection at specific temperatures, though the weld metal compo: sition may vary radically from the base-metal composi- tion. A knowledge of the service environment is alsoAWS WHB-3 CHe4 xx Ml 0784265 0506833 935 mm DESIGN FACTORS ‘THE DESIGNER OF equipment intended for high-tem. perature service should carefully select a weld metal composition that overmatches the base metal composi- tion in stress-rupture strength, as is illustrated in Figure 4.1. Additionally, the designer should be aware that the as-cast weld metal should be protected from the effects of high stresses by locating welds in areas of minimal stresses. For example, a horizontally positioned pipe having a longitudinal weld should be positioned to locate the weld at the top rather than at the bottom. ‘The top location places the weld in an area of compres. sion as the pipe sags when exposed to high temperature. NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS 278 To minimize the effects of thermal and mechanical fatigue, welds should be located in areas of known low stress. Comers and areas where shape or dimensional changes occur are invariably points of stress concentra~ sion and should not contain welded joints, Butt joints are preferred because the stresses act axially rather than eccentrically, as in corner and lap joints. Figure 4.29 shows recommended designs that will allow the weld to survive the base metal. Such designs initially are costly, bur often they are the only means of achieving service life equivalent to that of the base metal. If relocation of the joint is not possible, a complete joine penetration weld should be used, and a back weld: ing should be used if the joint root is accessible. WELD VULNERABLE MAXIMUM STRESS AREA NJ (A) Poor Designs WELDED FITTING EXTRUDED.WALL MAXIMUM <> STRESS AREA WELO RELOCATED (B) Good Designs Copy bythe retan Weng Sock he Sas fas 157AUS WHB-3 CHx4 xx MM 0784265 0506834 87] mm 214 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS WELDING PROCEDURES. AS A FUNDAMENTAL rule, welds should be complete joine penetration welds. If the design permits, no uunfused areas should be left in the joint. Thermal- fatigue failures can often be traced to incomplete joint penetration welds that create stress concentrations. Fig- ure 4.30 shows fatigue failure in a heat-treating basket emanating from incomplete joint penetration welds. Some designs that facilitate complete joint penetr tion are shown in Figure 4.31. The techniques used for these designs are the following: (1) Beveling and root opening. (2) Root opening with round forms (3) Weld-all-around In some applications of Ni-Cr-Fe alloy (N06600) and Courtesy of en os nrematona he se eens Soalh tach ae heal somes ‘ NeCiedts iZaueaon of sel pars alge of __PRW© 0 Cross Secon of Joint na the weld is a foregone conclusion over 2 period of time. | | SEVEN Root O (ly one VU J = ROOT (OPENING TOINT LAP TJOINT CROSSOVER JOINT {B) Weld-All-Around Techniques Courtesy ot Inco Alo trtorationl ne Figure 4.31—Rod and Bar Joint Designs for High-Temperature Service oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Satu 05 0:45:13 1997AUS UHB-3 CHx4 xx MM O784255 OS0b835 708 Mm In those instances, since the base metal still has consid- erable life left in it, a maintenance welding schedule is introduced to repair welds at appropriate service inte vals, Figure 4.30 shows a weld failure that can be repaired, If welds must be placed in areas where changes in member size or direction occur, careful welding proce- dures are required to minimize the inherent higher stress concentrations. For example, it is important £0 avoid undercutting, incomplete joint penetration, weld craters, and excessive weld reinforcement. If complete joint penetration in rod or bar stock cannot be attained, the weld should be continuous and the joint sealed so that none of the process atmosphere (corrodent) can enter to attack the coot side of the weld. [See the lap-T joint and crossover joint illustrations in Figure 4.31(B}.] ‘Welds in heat-treating fixtures fabricated of round or flat stock should blend smoothly into the base metal without undercut, When fixtures are subject to many heating and quenching cycles, wrap-around joints or loosely fitted riveted joints are sometimes used to pro vide some freedom of movement. WELDING SLAG WELDING SLAGS ARE highly corrosive at elevated emperature, and great care must be taken to ensure their complete removal, including any weld spatter. Fig ure 4,32(A) shows the inside of a tubular furnace oper ating at red heat in which the weld slag was not removed, Cotrosion through the entire weld cross sec tion occurs rapidly. Figure 4.32(B) illustrates how cata strophic slag corrosion can be, while the surrounding base metal is in good shape. Welding slag in oxidizing environments becomes increasingly fluid and aggressively attacks the weld and adjacent base metal. In reducing atmospheres, the weld: ing slag acts as an accumulator of sulfur, causing failure by sulfation in atmospheres that otherwise are ade- quately low in sulfur, In the Figure 4.32(A) example, the atmosphere contained 1.01% sulfur, but after only fone month the weld slag contained 1.6% sulfur. Sulfur absorption by the welding slag depresses the melting point of the slag, causing the slag to become corrosive at lower temperatures than normal. Figure 4.33 is a cross section of a weld where weld slag at elevated tem- perature caused severe corzosive attack. If slag cannot be removed from areas such as the tight toot of a lap or crossover joint in round stock, subse- quent weld beads must completely close the joint to prevent the contact of the slag with the atmosphere ‘The gas tungsten arc welding and gas metal are welding processes are slag-free and often replace the use of cov ered electrodes. oprah by the Ameian Nellng Sac he Satu 05 0:45:13 1997 NICKEL AND COBALT ALLovs SS {A) Inside Tubular Furnace 278 (8) Slag Corrosion Damage Coury of ico Alloys internation Ine Figure 4.32—Attack by Molten Welding Flux in High-Temperature Service WELDING METALLURGY AND DESIGN PROCESSES APPLICABLE TO nickel and cobalt alloys based on the use of fine-grain hase metals (ASTM Num ber 5 or finet) are listed in Table 4.7. However, joining processes and procedures must reflect any special metal. lurgical factors of the operation, For example, some alloys are deliberately grain-coarsened to improve high-temperature service performance. Also,