Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Heat Exchangers Design, Operation, Maintenance and Enhancement
Heat Exchangers Design, Operation, Maintenance and Enhancement
Heat Exchangers:
Design, Operation, Maintenance and Enhancement
Table of contents
Table of contents
1 Introduction
8
1.1 Programm outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Classification of heat exchangers
2.1 Classification by construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Tubular heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Double pipe heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Spiral tube heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Shell and tube heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Fixed tubesheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 U-tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Floating head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Plate heat exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Gasketed plate heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 Welded- and Brazed-Plate exchanger (W. PHE and BHE)
2.5.3 Spiral Plate Exchanger (SPHE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Extended surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1 Plate fin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2 Tube fin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Code and standards
3.1 TEMA Designations . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Classification by construction STHE
3.2.1 Fixed tube sheet . . . . . . .
3.2.2 U-Tube Heat Exchanger . . .
3.2.3 Floating Head Designs . . . .
3.3 Shell Constructions . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Tube side construction . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Tube-Side Header: . . . . . .
3.4.2 Tube-Side Passes . . . . . . .
3.4.3 Tubes Type . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4 Tube arrangement . . . . . .
3.4.5 Tube side passes . . . . . . .
3.5 Shell side construction . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Shell Sizes . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Shell-Side Arrangements . . .
3.6 Baffles and tube bundles . . . . . . .
3.6.1 The tube bundle . . . . . . .
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12
14
14
15
16
16
17
17
18
19
20
22
23
26
26
27
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28
28
33
33
35
37
41
42
42
42
43
46
47
47
47
48
48
48
Table of contents
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.6.4
3.6.5
3.6.6
Baffle . . . . . . . . . .
Vapor Distribution . . .
Tube-Bundle Bypassing
Tie Rods and Spacers . .
Tubesheets . . . . . . .
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5 Thermal Design
5.1 Design Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Fluid Stream Allocations . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Shell and tube velocity . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 Stream temperature . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4 Pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.5 Fluid physical properties . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Design data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Tubeside design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Heat-transfer coefficient . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2 Pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Shell side design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1 Shell configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Tube layout patterns . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.3 Tube pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.4 Baffling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.5 Equalize cross-flow and window velocities .
5.4.6 Shellside stream analysis (Flow pattern) .
5.4.7 Heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop
5.4.8 Heat transfer coefficient . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.9 Pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Design Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 Specification sheet
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48
51
51
52
52
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55
55
56
57
59
61
61
61
64
64
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66
66
66
66
67
67
67
68
69
69
70
72
72
73
73
74
76
76
77
78
78
79
80
Table of contents
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Information included . . . .
Information not included . .
Operation conditions . . . .
Bid evaluation . . . . . . . .
6.4.1 Factor to be consider
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80
80
80
81
81
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83
83
85
85
86
87
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91
91
92
93
94
94
95
100
103
103
104
104
105
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106
. 106
. 106
. 106
. 107
. 107
. 107
. 107
. 108
. 108
. 109
. 109
. 109
. 110
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Table of contents
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
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110
110
110
110
110
111
111
111
112
112
112
113
113
113
114
114
116
116
117
118
118
118
119
119
121
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131
. 131
. 131
. 131
. 131
. 133
. 133
. 133
. 133
. 133
. 134
Table of contents
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C Physical properties
C.1 Physical properties: Pure fluid . . . . . . . . . . .
C.1.1 Specific heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.1.2 Vapor pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.1.3 Liquid viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.1.4 Vapor dynamic viscosity VDI-Warmeatlas
C.1.5 Dynamic viscosity of Fenghour et al. [40] .
C.1.6 Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.1.7 Thermal conductivity for liquids . . . . . .
C.1.8 Thermal conductivity for gases . . . . . .
C.1.9 Specific enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.2 Physical properties: Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.2.1 Liquid dynamic viscosity of mixtures . . .
C.2.2 Vapor dynamic viscosity of mixtures . . .
C.2.3 Liquid thermal conductivity of mixtures .
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[157]
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Table of contents
1 Introduction
Introduction
Heat exchanger is an important and expensive item of equipment that is used almost in
every industry (oil and petrochemical, sugar, food, pharmaceutical and power industry).
A better understanding of the basic principles of heat transfer and fluid flow and their
application to the design and operation of heat exchangers that you gain from this course
will enable you to improve their efficiency and extend their life. You understand how to use
the applicable API, TEMA and ASME recommended practices, standards and codes for
heat exchangers. This will enable you to communicate with the designers, manufacturers
and bidders of heat exchangers. You will understand how to avoid fouling, corrosion and
failure and leak problems by your design. You will also be able to survey and troubleshoot
heat exchangers and assist in performing inspection, cleaning, and maintenance. You will
be exposed to recent development and future trend in heat exchangers.
The course includes worked examples to reinforce the key learning as well as a demonstration of mechanical design and challenging problems encountered in the operation of
heat exchangers.
Objectives
To learn the classification, code and standards (API, TEMA,...) and selection procedure for heat exchangers.
To review the thermal and mechanical design of heat exchangers.
To learn the installation, operation and maintenance procedure for heat exchanger.
To acquire information that will enable decisions to be made on the repair and
refurbishment of aging equipment as well as repair vs. replacement options.
To learn techniques of failure elimination and appropriate maintenance and troubleshooting procedures.
To delineate the factors that lead to overall economically advantageous decisions.
Who should attend: Project engineers, process engineers and plant engineers in the oil,
chemical, sugar, power, and other industries who requires a wider and deeper appreciation
of heat exchangers design, performance and operation. The detailed review of thermal
and mechanical design is particularly useful to plant and maintenance engineers as well
as to those generally knowledgeable in the subject, but who require a refresher or update. Codes and standards are useful for project engineer to help him communicate with
manufacturers, designers and bidders of heat exchangers. Troubleshooting procedures are
important for process engineers. Participants will be taken through an intensive primer
of heat transfer principles as applicable to heat exchangers.
1.1
Programm outline
Storage
Installation procedure
Operation
start up
shut down
Maintenance
Cleaning
Repair
Plug
Sleeving
Expansion
Replacement
Retubing
Rebundling
Replacement (new unit)
5. DAY V Troubleshooting
Heat exchangers problem
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
10
1 Introduction
Fouling: causes, mechanisms, design considerations and exchanger selection, remedies, cleaning
Leakage: Location (tube sheet, tube failure), causes (differential thermal
expansion, flow-induced vibration),
Corrosion: Type, causes, material of construction, fabrication
Vibration: causes (velocity), design procedure to avoid vibration including
baffle selection, rod baffles, impingement baffles
Past incidents failure.
Examples of common problems encountered in heat exchangers (low rate, uncontrolled outlet temperature, failure of tubes near the inlet nozzles)
Achieve the learning outcomes to:
Understand the principles of heat transfer and fluid flow, application of industry practices and a substantial amount of supporting data needed for design, performance and
operation of modern heat exchangers.
Gain insight not only into shell and tube heat exchangers but also heat transfer fundamentals as applied to heat exchangers, the types of heat exchangers and their application,
and recent advance in heat exchanger technologies
Become familiar with the practical aspects and receive tips on shell and tube heat
exchanger thermal design and rating: mechanical design and rating using the applicable
API, TEMA and ASME recommended practices, standards and codes, troubleshooting,
and performance improvement and enhancement
Avoid future problems by gaining insight into vibration forcing mechanisms
Enhance your awareness of causes of failure and learn practical ways for determining
and correcting them
Daily Schedule: 8:00 Registration and Coffee (1st day only) 8:30 Session begins 4:30
Adjournment
There will be a forty-minute lunch break each day in addition to refreshment and networking break of 20 minutes during each morning and afternoon session.
1.2
Instructor
Faculty: Ali. Rabah, BSc. MSc., PhD., MSES., Assistant professor, Department of Chemical Engineering University of Khartoum
Dr. Rabah holds a BSc. degree (Chemical Engineering) from the University of Khartoum,
MSc. degree from university of Nairobi, Kenya, and PhD. degree from University of
Hannover, Germany. He has a wide professional experience in teaching heat and mass
transfer and engineering thermodynamics to BSc and MSc Chemical, Mechanical and
Petroleum Engineering students.
Dr. Rabah is a consultant engineer to a number of chemical industries and factories.
He has developed and delivered numerous designs of heat exchangers, evaporators and
boilers. He designed, for example, a 5 ton/hr (10 bar) fired tube boiler. His design is
under fabrication.
Dr. Rabah has designed and manufactured double pipe heat exchangers for education
proposes to a number of chemical engineering departments country-wide e.g. University
of Nileen.
Dr. Rabah assumed engineering design positions with responsibilities covering design,
construction and inspection of heat transfer equipments. The design projects are sponsored by the federal ministry of research and technology and the University of Khartoum
consultancy cooperation.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
1.2 Instructor
11
Dr. Rabah is a member of the Sudan Engineering Society (SES) and serving as a member
of editorial board of SES Journal. He is a reviewer to a number of world wide software packages for chemical engineering simulations and the prediction of thermodynamic
properties.
Dr. Rabah has a number of publications in field of heat transfer and thermodynamics.
12
The word exchanger really applies to all types of equipment in which heat is exchanged but
is often used specially to denote equipment in which heat is exchanged between two process
streams. Exchangers in which a process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream
are referred to as heatsers and coolers. If the process stream is vaporized the exchanger is
called a vaporizer if the the stream is essentially completely vaporized: called a reboiled
if associated with a distillation column: and evaporator if used to concentrate a solution.
If the process fluid is condensed the exchanger is called a condenser. The term fired
exchanger is used for exchangers heated by combustion gases, such as boiler. In heat
exchanger the heat transfer between the fluid takes place through a separating wall. The
wall may a solid wall or interface. Heat exchangers are used in
Oil and petrochemical Industry (upstream and down stream)
Sugar industry
Power generation industry
Air-cooling and refrigeration industry
These heat exchanger may be classified according to:
Transfer process
1. Direct contact
2. indirect contact
(a) Direct transfer type
(b) Storage type
(c) Fluidized bed
Surface compactness
1. Compact (surface area density 700m2 /m3 )
2. non-compact (surface area density < 700m2 /m3 )
Construction
1. Tubular
(a) Double pipe
(b) Shell and tube
(c) Spiral tube
2. Plate
(a) Gasketed
(b) Spiral plate
(c) Welded plate
3. Extended surface
(a) Plate fin
(b) Tube fin
4. Regenerative
(a) Rotory
i. Disc-type
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
13
ii. Drum-type
(b) Fixed-matrix
Flow arrangement
1. Single pass
(a) Parallel flow
(b) Counter flow
(c) Cross flow
2. Multipass
(a) Extended surface H.E.
i. Cross counter flow
ii. Cross parallel flow
(b) Shell and tube H.E.
i. Parallel counter flow (Shell and fluid mixed, M shell pass, N Tube pass)
ii. Split flow
iii. Divided flow
(c) Plate H.E. (N-parallel plate multipass)
Number of fluids
1. Two-fluid
2. Three fluid
3. N-fluid (N > 3)
Transfer mechanisms
1.
2.
3.
4.
Classification based on service: Basically, a service may be single phase (such as the
cooling or heating of a liquid or gas) or two-phase (such as condensing or vaporizing).
Since there are two sides to an STHE, this can lead to several combinations of services. Broadly, services can be classified as follows: single-phase (both shellside and
tubeside); condensing (one side condensing and the other single-phase); vaporizing
(one side vaporizing and the other side single-phase); and condensing/vaporizing
(one side condensing and the other side vaporizing). The following nomenclature is
usually used:
Heat exchanger: both sides singlephase and process streams (that is, not a
utility).
Cooler: one stream a process fluid and the other cooling water or air. Dirty
water can be used as the cooling medium. The top of the cooler is open to the
atmosphere for access to tubes. These can be cleaned without shutting down
the cooler by removing the distributors one at a time and scrubbing the tubes.
Heater: one stream a process fluid and the other a hot utility, such as steam
or hot oil.
Condenser: one stream a condensing vapor and the other cooling water or air.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
14
Chiller: one stream a process fluid being condensed at sub-atmospheric temperatures and the other a boiling refrigerant or process stream. By cooling the
falling film to its freezing point, these exchangers convert a variety of chemicals
to the solid phase. The most common application is the production of sized ice
and paradichlorobenzene. Selective freezing is used for isolating isomers. By
melting the solid material and refreezing in several stages, a higher degree of
purity of product can be obtained.
Reboiler: one stream a bottoms stream from a distillation column and the
other a hot utility (steam or hot oil) or a process stream.
Evaporators:These are used extensively for the concentration of ammonium
nitrate, urea, and other chemicals sensitive to heat when minimum contact
time is desirable. Air is sometimes introduced in the tubes to lower the partial
pressure of liquids whose boiling points are high. These evaporators are built
for pressure or vacuum and with top or bottom vapor removal.
Absorbers: These have a two-phase flow system. The absorbing medium is
put in film flow during its fall downward on the tubes as it is cooled by a cooling
medium outside the tubes. The film absorbs the gas which is introduced into
the tubes. This operation can be cocurrent or countercurrent.
Falling-Film Exchangers: Falling-film shell-and-tube heat exchangers have
been developed for a wide variety of services and are described by Sack [Chem.
Eng. Prog., 63, 55 (July 1967)]. The fluid enters at the top of the vertical
tubes. Distributors or slotted tubes put the liquid in film flow in the inside
surface of the tubes, and the film adheres to the tube surface while falling
to the bottom of the tubes. The film can be cooled, heated, evaporated, or
frozen by means of the proper heat-transfer medium outside the tubes. Tube
distributors have been developed for a wide range of applications. Fixed tube
sheets, with or without expansion joints, and outside-packed-head designs are
used. Principal advantages are high rate of heat transfer, no internal pressure
drop, short time of contact (very important for heat-sensitive materials), easy
accessibility to tubes for cleaning, and, in some cases, prevention of leakage
from one side to another. These falling-film exchangers are used in various
services as described in the following paragraphs.
Among these classifications the classification by construction is the most widely used one.
2.1
Classification by construction
2.2
15
This is usually consists of concentric pipes. One fluid flow in the inner pipe and the other
fluid flow in the annulus between pipes. The two fluid may flow concurrent (parallel) or
in counter current flow configuration; hence the heat exchanger are classified as:
counter current double pipe heat exchanger (see Fig. 4.1and Fig. 2.2)and
cocurrent double pipe heat exchanger
Figure 2.1. Double pipe heat exchanger. Courtesy of Perry, Chemical engineering hand book
Elbew 3/4"
Tee 2"x1/2"
Galv. pipe
Threaded 3/4"
Union 2"
Part A
Cu pipe 3/4"
Tee 3/4"x1/2"
Part B
Specification Sheet
Valve 3/4"
Item
pump
Qty
Item
Qty
Tee 2"x3/4"
Tee 3/4"x1/2"
14
Union 2"
Cu Bush 1/2"
Valve 3/4"
Elbew 3/4"
10
Cu pipe 3/4"x4ft
Selector
(Threaded)
24
(20 Channel)
Cu Flange 2"
Union 3/4"
30
Amplifier
Microvoltmeter
Elbew 1/2"
Union 1/2"
Thermocouples
(NiCr-Ni)
10
Flow meter
Bypass
Bypass
Double pipe heat exchanger is perhaps the simplest of all heat exchanger types. The
advantages of this type are:
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
16
2.3
Spiral tube heat exchanger consists of one or more spirally wound coils fitted in a shell
(Fig. 2.3). Heat transfer associated with spiral tube is higher than than that for a straight
tube . In addition, considerable amount of surface area can be accommodated in a given
space by spiralling. Thermal expansion is no problem but cleaning is almost impossible.
Figure 2.3. Spiral tube heat exchanger. Courtesy of The German Atlas
2.4
Shell and tube heat exchanger is built of round tubes mounted in a cylindrical shell with
the tube axis parallel to that of the shell. One fluid flow inside the tube, the other flow
across and along the tubes. The major components of the shell and tube heat exchanger
are tube bundle, shell, front end head, rear end head, baffles and tube sheets (Fig.2.4).
17
The shell and tube heat exchanger is further divided into three catogaries as
1. Fixed tube sheet
2. U tube
3. Floating head
2.4.1 Fixed tubesheet
A fixed-tubesheet heat exchanger (Figure 2.5) has straight tubes that are secured at both
ends to tubesheets welded to the shell. The construction may have removable channel
covers , bonnet-type channel covers , or integral tubesheets. The principal advantage of
the fixedtubesheet construction is its low cost because of its simple construction. In fact,
the fixed tubesheet is the least expensive construction type, as long as no expansion joint
is required.
Other advantages are that the tubes can be cleaned mechanically after removal of the
channel cover or bonnet, and that leakage of the shellside fluid is minimized since there
are no flanged joints.
A disadvantage of this design is that since the bundle is fixed to the shell and cannot be
removed, the outsides of the tubes cannot be cleaned mechanically. Thus, its application
is limited to clean services on the shellside. However, if a satisfactory chemical cleaning program can be employed, fixed-tubesheet construction may be selected for fouling
services on the shellside.
In the event of a large differential temperature between the tubes and the shell, the
tubesheets will be unable to absorb the differential stress, thereby making it necessary to
incorporate an expansion joint. This takes away the advantage of low cost to a significant
extent.
2.4.2 U-tube
As the name implies, the tubes of a U-tube heat exchanger (Figure 2.6) are bent in
the shape of a U. There is only one tubesheet in a Utube heat exchanger. However,
the lower cost for the single tubesheet is offset by the additional costs incurred for the
bending of the tubes and the somewhat larger shell diameter (due to the minimum U-bend
radius), making the cost of a U-tube heat exchanger comparable to that of a fixedtubesheet
exchanger.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
18
The advantage of a U-tube heat exchanger is that because one end is free, the bundle
can expand or contract in response to stress differentials. In addition, the outsides of the
tubes can be cleaned, as the tube bundle can be removed.
The disadvantage of the U-tube construction is that the insides of the tubes cannot be
cleaned effectively, since the U-bends would require flexible- end drill shafts for cleaning.
Thus, U-tube heat exchangers should not be used for services with a dirty fluid inside
tubes.
19
In the design without packing service construction (Figure 2.8), the entire tube bundle,
including the floating-head assembly, can be removed from the stationary end, since the
shell diameter is larger than the floating-head flange. The floatinghead cover is bolted
directly to the floating tubesheet so that a split backing ring is not required. The advantage of this construction is that the tube bundle may be removed from the shell without
removing either the shell or the floatinghead cover, thus reducing maintenance time. This
design is particularly suited to kettle reboilers having a dirty heating medium where Utubes cannot be employed. Due to the enlarged shell, this construction has the highest
cost of all exchanger types.
2.5
These exchangers are generally built of thin plates. The plate are either smooth or have
some form of corrugations and they are either flat or wound in exchanger. Generally
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
20
The frame and channel plates have portholes which allow the process fluids to enter alternating flow passages (the space between two adjacent-channel plates) Fig.2.10. Gaskets
around the periphery of the channel plate prevent leakage to the atmosphere and also prevent process fluids from coming in contact with the frame plates. No inter fluid leakage
is possible in the port area due to a dual-gasket seal. Fig.2.11 shows the plate profiles.
Expansion of the initial unit is easily performed in the field without special considerations.
The original frame length typically has an additional capacity of 15-20 percent more
channel plates (i.e. surface area). In fact, if a known future capacity is available during
fabrication stages, a longer carrying bar could be installed, and later, increasing the
surface area would be easily handled. When the expansion is needed, simply untighten
the carrying bolts, pull back the frame plate, add the additional channel plates, and
tighten the frame plate.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
21
Applications: Most PHE applications are liquid-liquid services but there are numerous
steam heater and evaporator uses from their heritage in the food industry. Industrial users
typically have chevron style channel plates while some food applications are washboard
style.
Fine particulate slurries in concentrations up to 70 percent by weight are possible with
standard channel spacings. Wide-gap units are used with larger particle sizes. Typical
particle size should not exceed 75 percent of the single plate (not total channel) gap.
Close temperature approaches and tight temperature control possible with PHEs and the
ability to sanitize the entire heat transfer surface easily were a major benefit in the food
and pharmaceutical industry.
Advantages: Easily assembled and dismantled
Easily cleaned both chemically and mechanically
Flexible (the heat transfer can be changed as required)
Can be used for multiple service as required
Leak is immediately deteced since all plates are vented to the atmosphere, and the
fluid split on the floor rather than mixing with other fluid
Heat transfer coefficient is larger and hence small heat transfer area is required than
STHE
The space required is less than that for STHE for the same duty
Less fouling due to high turbulent flow
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
22
Material
Styrene-Butadiene
Neoprene
Acrylonitrile- Butadiene
Ethylene/Propylene
Fluorocarbon
Resin-Cured Butyl
Compressed Asbestos
Common name
Buna-S
Neoprene
Buna-N
EPDM
Viton
Resin-Cured Butyl
Compressed Asbestos
23
stacking of plates method of assembly, entirely braze the plates together with copper or
nickel brazing, diffusion bond then pressure form plates and bond etched, passage plates
Fig. 2.12 and Fig. 2.13.
Typical applications include district heating where the low cost and minimal maintenance
have made this type of heat exchanger especially attractive.
Most methods of welded-plate manufacturing do not allow for inspection of the heattransfer surface, mechanical cleaning of that surface, and have limited ability to repair
or plug off damage channels. Consider these limitations when the fluid is heavily fouling,
has solids, or in general the repair or plugging ability for severe services.
2.5.3 Spiral Plate Exchanger (SPHE)
The spiral-plate heat exchanger (SHE) may be one exchanger selected primarily on its
virtues and not on its initial cost. SPHEs offer high reliability and on-line performance in
many severely fouling services such as slurries. The SHE is formed by rolling two strips
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
24
of plate, with welded-on spacer studs, upon each other into clock-spring shape Fig.2.14
and Fig.2.15. This forms two passages. Passages are sealed off on one end of the SHE by
welding a bar to the plates; hot and cold fluid passages are sealed off on opposite ends of
the SHE. A single rectangular flow passage is now formed for each fluid, producing very
high shear rates compared to tubular designs. Removable covers are provided on each
end to access and clean the entire heat transfer surface.
Pure countercurrent flow is achieved and LMTD correction factor is essentially = 1.0.
Since there are no dead spaces in a SHE, the helical flow pattern combines to entrain
any solids and create high turbulence creating a self-cleaning flow passage. There are
no thermal-expansion problems in spirals. Since the center of the unit is not fixed, it
can torque to relieve stress. The SHE can be expensive when only one fluid requires a
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
25
high alloy material. Since the heat-transfer plate contacts both fluids, it is required to be
fabricated out of the higher alloy. SHEs can be fabricated out of any material that can be
cold-worked and welded. The channel spacings can be different on each side to match the
flow rates and pressure drops of the process design. The spacer studs are also adjusted in
their pitch to match the fluid characteristics. As the coiled plate spirals outward, the plate
thickness increases from a minimum of 2 mm to a maximum (as required by pressure)
up to 10 mm. This means relatively thick material separates the two fluids compared to
tubing of conventional exchangers.
Applications: The most common applications that fit SHE are slurries. The rectangular channel provides high shear and turbulence to sweep the surface clear of blockage
and causes no distribution problems associated with other exchanger types. A localized
restriction causes an increase in local velocity which aids in keeping the unit free flowing.
Only fibers that are long and stringy cause SHE to have a blockage it cannot clear itself.
As an additional antifoulant measure, SHEs have been coated with a phenolic lining. This
provides some degree of corrosion protection as well, but this is not guaranteed due to
pinholes in the lining process.
There are three types of SHE to fit different applications:
Type I is the spiral-spiral flow pattern (Fig. 2.15a). It is used for all heating and
cooling services and can accommodate temperature crosses such as lean/rich services
in one unit. The removable covers on each end allow access to one side at a time to
perform maintenance on that fluid side. Never remove a cover with one side under
pressure as the unit will telescope out like a collapsible cup.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
26
Type II units are the condenser and reboiler designs (Fig. 2.15b). One side is spiral
flow and the other side is in cross flow. These SHEs provide very stable designs
for vacuum condensing and reboiling services. A SHE can be fitted with special
mounting connections for reflux-type ventcondenser applications. The vertically
mounted SHE directly attaches on the column or tank.
Type III units are a combination of the Type I and Type II where part is in spiral
flow and part is in cross flow. This SHE can condense and subcool in a single
unit. The unique channel arrangement has been used to provide on-line cleaning,
by switching fluid sides to clean the fouling (caused by the fluid that previously
flowed there) off the surface. Phosphoric acid coolers use pond water for cooling
and both sides foul; water, as you expect, and phosphoric acid deposit crystals. By
reversing the flow sides, the water dissolves the acid crystals and the acid clears up
the organic fouling. SHEs are also used as oleum coolers, sludge coolers/ heaters,
slop oil heaters, and in other services where multiple flow- passage designs have not
performed well.
2.6
Extended surface
The tubular and plate exchangers described previously are all prime surface heat exchangers. The design thermal effectiveness is usually 60 % and below and the heat transfer area
density is usually less than 300 m2 m3 . In many application an effectiveness of up to 90
% is essential and the box volume and mass are limited so that a much more compact
surface is mandated. Usually either a gas or a liquid having a low heat transfer coefficient
is the fluid on one or both sides. This results in a large heat transfer area requirements.
for low density fluid (gases), pressure drop constraints tend to require a large flow area.
so a question arises how can we increase both the surface area and flow area together in
a reasonably shaped configuration.
The surface area may be increased by the fins. The flow area is increased by the use of
thin gauge material and sizing the core property. There are two most common types of
extended surface heat exchangers. These are
Plate-fin
Tube-fin
2.6.1 Plate fin
Plate -fin heat exchanger has fins or spacers sandwiched between parallel plates (refereed
to as parting plates or parting sheets) or formed tubes as shown in fig. 2.16(left). While
the plates separate the two fluid streams, the fins form the individual flow passages. Fins
are used on both sides in a gas-gas heat exchanger. In gas-liquid applications fins are
used in the gas side.
27
Figure 2.16. Examples of extended surfaces on one or both sides. Plate fins on both sides
(left) and Tubes and plate fins (right).
28
The objective of codes and standards are best described by ASME: The objectives of
code rules and standards (apart from fixing dimensional values) is to achieve minimum
requirements for safe construction, in other words, to provide public protection by defining
those materials, design, fabrication and inspection requirements; whose omission may
radically increase operating hazards.... Experience with code rules has demonstrated that
the probability of disastrous failure can be reduced to the extremely low level necessary to
protect life and property by suitable minimum requirements and safety factors. Obviously,
it is impossible for general rules to anticipate other than conventional service,.... Suitable
precautions are therefore entirely the responsibility of the design engineer guided by the
needs and specifications of the user.
Over years a number of standardization bodies have been developed by individual country,
manufacturers and designers to lay down nomenclatures for the size and type of shell and
tube heat exchangers. These include among other
TEMA standards (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturer Association., 1998)[147]
HEI standards (Heat Exchanger Institute, 1980),
API (American Petroleum Institute).
Other national standards include the German (DIN), Japan, India, to mention a
few.
In this work, being most widely used one, the TEMA standard is presented.
3.1
TEMA Designations
In order to understand the design and operation of the shell and tube heat exchanger, it
is important to know the nomenclature and terminology used to describe them and the
various parts that go to their construction. Only then we can understand the design and
reports given by the researchers, designers, manufacturer and users.
It is essential for the designer to have a good working knowledge of the mechanical features
of STHEs and how they influence thermal design. The principal components of an STHE
are:
shell;
shell cover;
tubes;
channel;
channel cover;
tubesheet;
baffles; and
nozzles.
Other components include tie-rods and spacers, pass partition plates, impingement plate,
longitudinal baffle, sealing strips, supports, and foundation. Table 3.1 shows the nomenclature used for different parts of shell and tube exchanger in accordance with TEMA
standards; the numbers refer to the feature shown in Fig. 3.2 to Fig. 3.8.
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29
Index Notation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Index
Notation
slip on backing flange
floating head cover-external
floating tube sheet skirt
packing box
packing
packing gland
latern ring
tie rods and spacers
traverse baffle or support plate
impingement plate
longitudinal baffle
pass partition
vent connection
drain connection
instrument connection
support saddle
lifting lug
support bracket
weir
liquid level connection
Because of the number of variations in mechanical designs for front and rear heads and
shells, and for commercial reasons, TEMA has divided STHE into main three components:
front head, shell and rear head. Fig. 3.1 illustrates TEMA nomenclature for the various
construction possibilities. TEMA has classified the front head channel and bonnet types as
given the letters (A,B,C,N,D) and the shell is classified according to the nozzles locations
for the inlet and outlet. There are type of shell configuration ( E,F,G,H,J,K,X). Similarly
the rear head is classified ( M,N,P,S,T,U,W).
Exchangers are described by the letter codes of the three sections. The first letter stands
for the front head, the second letter for the shell type and the third letter for the rear head
type. For example a BFL exchanger has a bonnet cover, two-shell pass with longitudinal
baffles and a fixed tube sheet rear head.
In addition to these the size of the exchanger is required to be identified with the notation.
The size is identified by the shell inside diameter (nominal) and tube length (both are
rounded to the nearest integer in inch or mm). Demonstration examples are shown below:
Type AES size 23-192 in (590-4880): This exchanger has a removable channel
cover (A), single pass shell (E) and Split ring floating front head (S) it has , 23 in
(590 mm) inside diameter with tubes of 16 ft (4880 mm) long.
Type BGU Size 19-84 (480-2130)This exchanger has a bonnet-type stationary
front head (B), split flow shell (G) and U-tube bundle rear head(U) with 19 in (480)
inside diameter and 7 ft (2130 mm) tube length.
Type AFM size 33-96 (840-2440): This exchanger has a removable channel and cover
front head (A), two-pass shell (F) and fixed tube sheet bonnet-type rear head (M)
with 331/8 in (840 mm) inside diameter and 8ft (2440 mm) tube length.
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30
Figure 3.1. TEMA-type designations for shell-and-tube heat exchangers. (Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th ed., 1978.)
In the above illustration the term single pass and two pass shell have been used. This
mean that the shell side fluid travels only one through the shell (single pass) or twice (two
pass shell). Two pass shell mean that the fluid enters at one end, travel to other end and
back to the end where it entered (making U-turn). Similarly there are multiple pases. To
be remembered is that the number of tube passes is equal to or greater than the number
of shell passes. Generally the multi shell and tube passes are usually designated by two
numerals separated by a hyphen, with the first numeral indication the number of shell
pass and the other stands for the tube passes. For example a one-shell pass and two tube
pass AEL exchanger will be written as 1-2 AEL. To be remembered is that this not an
TEMA standards. TEMA requires the number of shell and tube passes to be spelled out
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31
as in the pervious examples. In a heat exchanger specification sheet there is a space for
indicating the number of shell and tube passes. Another identification of the shell and
tube heat exchanger is the number of shell passes. 1 shell pass, 2 shell pass, etc. This is
not a TEMA standardization. The tube passes can be equal to or greater than the shell
pass.
Type
of design
T.E.M.A. rear
-head type
Relative cost increases
from A (least
expensive) through
E (most expensive)
Provision for
differential expansion
Removable bundle
Replacement bundle
possible
Individual tubes
replaceable
Tube cleaning by
chemicals inside
and outside
Interior tube
cleaning mechanically
Exterior tube
cleaning mechanically:
Triangular pitch No
Square pitch
Hydraulic-jet
cleaning:
Tube interior
Tube exterior
Double tube
sheet feasible
Number of tube passes
Internal gaskets
eliminated
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Expansion
joint in
shell
No
L or M or N
Fixed
tube sheet
No
Yes
Yes
Only those in
outside row
Yes
Yes
Individual tubes
free to expand
U-tube
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Floating head
Packed
lantern-ring
floating head
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Floating head
Internal
floating head
(split backing ring)
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Floating head
Outside
packed
floating head
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Floating head
Pull-through
floating head
No
No
No
No practical
limitations
Yes
Yes
Yes
No practical
limitations
No
Yes
Yes
No
No practical
limitations
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Limited to one
or two passes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Any even
number possible
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
3.2
33
Fig. 3.2 to Fig. 3.8 show details of the construction of the TEMA types of shell-and-tube
heat exchangers. These types are:
Fixed tube sheet
U-tube
Floating head
3.2.1 Fixed tube sheet
Fixed-tube-sheet exchangers (Fig. 3.2) are used more often than any other type, and
the frequency of use has been increasing in recent years. The tube sheets are welded
to the shell. Usually these extend beyond the shell and serve as flanges to which the
tube-side headers are bolted. This construction requires that the shell and tube-sheet
materials be weldable to each other. When such welding is not possible, a blind-gasket
type of construction is utilized. The blind gasket is not accessible for maintenance or
replacement once the unit has been constructed. This construction is used for steam
surface condensers, which operate under vacuum.
Figure 3.2. Heat-exchanger-component nomenclature. Fixed tube heat sheet shell and tube
heat exchanger. (Standard of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th ed., 1978.)
The tube-side header (or channel) may be welded to the tube sheet, as shown in Fig. 3.1
for type C and N heads. This type of construction is less costly than types B and M or
A and L and still offers the advantage that tubes may be examined and replaced without
disturbing the tube-side piping connections. There is no limitation on the number of
tube-side passes. Shell-side passes can be one or more, although shells with more than
two shell side passes are rarely used. Tubes can completely fill the heat-exchanger shell.
Clearance between the outermost tubes and the shell is only the minimum necessary
for fabrication. Between the inside of the shell and the baffles some clearance must be
provided so that baffles can slide into the shell. Fabrication tolerances then require some
additional clearance between the outside of the baffles and the outermost tubes. The edge
distance between the outer tube limit (OTL) and the baffle diameter must be sufficient
to prevent vibration of the tubes from breaking through the baffle holes. The outermost
tube must be contained within the OTL.
Clearances between the inside shell diameter and OTL are 13 mm (1/2 in) for 635-mm(25-in-) inside-diameter shells and up, 11 mm for 254- through 610-mm (10- through
24-in) pipe shells, and slightly less for smaller-diameter pipe shells.
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34
Tubes can be replaced. Tube-side headers, channel covers, gaskets, etc., are accessible for
maintenance and replacement. Neither the shell-side baffle structure nor the blind gasket
is accessible. During tube removal, a tube may break within the shell. When this occurs,
it is most difficult to remove or to replace the tube. The usual procedure is to plug the
appropriate holes in the tube sheets.
Differential expansion between the shell and the tubes can develop because of differences
in length caused by thermal expansion. Various types of expansion joints are used to
eliminate excessive stresses caused by expansion. The need for an expansion joint is a
function of both the amount of differential expansion and the cycling conditions to be
expected during operation. A number of types of expansion joints are available (Fig. 3.3)
.
a Flat plates. Two concentric flat plates with a bar at the outer edges. The flat plates
can flex to make some allowance for differential expansion. This design is generally
used for vacuum service and gauge pressures below 103 kPa (15 lbf/in2). All welds
are subject to severe stress during differential expansion.
b Flanged-only heads. The flat plates are flanged (or curved). The diameter of these
heads is generally 203 mm (8 in) or more greater than the shell diameter. The
welded joint at the shell is subject to the stress referred to before, but the joint
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35
connecting the heads is subjected to less stress during expansion because of the
curved shape.
c Flared shell or pipe segments. The shell may be flared to connect with a pipe
section, or a pipe may be halved and quartered to produce a ring.
d Formed heads. A pair of dished-only or elliptical or flanged and dished heads can
be used. These are welded together or connected by a ring. This type of joint is
similar to the flanged-only-head type but apparently is subject to less stress.
e Flanged and flued heads. A pair of flanged-only heads is provided with concentric
reverse flue holes. These heads are relatively expensive because of the cost of the
fluing operation. The curved shape of the heads reduces the amount of stress at the
welds to the shell and also connecting the heads.
f Toroidal. The toroidal joint has a mathematically predictable smooth stress pattern of low magnitude, with maximum stresses at sidewalls of the corrugation and
minimum stresses at top and bottom. The foregoing designs were discussed as ring
expansion joints by Kopp and Sayre, Expansion Joints for Heat Exchangers (ASME
Misc. Pap., vol. 6, no. 211). All are statically indeterminate but are subjected
to analysis by introducing various simplifying assumptions. Some joints in current
industrial use are of lighter wall construction than is indicated by the method of
this paper.
g Bellows. Thin-wall bellows joints are produced by various manufacturers. These are
designed for differential expansion and are tested for axial and transverse movement
as well as for cyclical life. Bellows may be of stainless steel, nickel alloys, or copper.
(Aluminum, Monel, phosphor bronze, and titanium bellows have been manufactured.) Welding nipples of the same composition as the heat-exchanger shell are
generally furnished. The bellows may be hydraulically formed from a single piece
of metal or may consist of welded pieces. External insulation covers of carbon steel
are often provided to protect the light-gauge bellows from damage. The cover also
prevents insulation from interfering with movement of the bellows (see h).
h Toroidal bellows. For high-pressure service the bellows type of joint has been modified so that movement is taken up by thin-wall small-diameter bellows of a toroidal
shape. Thickness of parts under high pressure is reduced considerably (see f ).
Improper handling during manufacture, transit, installation, or maintenance of the heat
exchanger equipped with the thin-wallbellows type or toroidal type of expansion joint can
damage the joint. In larger units these light-wall joints are particularly susceptible to
damage, and some designers prefer the use of the heavier walls of formed heads.
Chemical-plant exchangers requiring expansion joints most commonly have used the
flanged-and-flued-head type. There is a trend toward more common use of the lightwall-bellows type.
3.2.2 U-Tube Heat Exchanger
Fig. 3.4 shows U-tube heat exchanger Type CFU. The tube bundle consists of a stationary
tube sheet, U tubes (or hairpin tubes), baffles or support plates, and appropriate tie rods
and spacers. The tube bundle can be removed from the heat-exchanger shell. A tube-side
header (stationary head) and a shell with integral shell cover, which is welded to the
shell, are provided. Each tube is free to expand or contract without any limitation being
placed upon it by the other tubes. The U-tube bundle has the advantage of providing
minimum clearance between the outer tube limit and the inside of the shell for any of
the removable-tube-bundle constructions. Clearances are of the same magnitude as for
fixed-tube-sheet heat exchangers. The number of tube holes in a given shell is less than
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36
The U-tube design offers the advantage of reducing the number of joints. In high-pressure
construction this feature becomes of considerable importance in reducing both initial and
maintenance costs. The use of U-tube construction has increased significantly with the
development of hydraulic tube cleaners, which can remove fouling residues from both the
straight and the U-bend portions of the tubes. Rods and conventional mechanical tube
cleaners cannot pass from one end of the U tube to the other. Power-driven tube cleaners,
which can clean both the straight legs of the tubes and the bends, are available. Hydraulic
jetting with water forced through spray nozzles at high pressure for cleaning tube interiors
and exteriors of removal bundles is reported in the recent ASME publications.
U-tube can be used for high pressure and high temperature application like kettle reboiler,
evaporator, tank section heaters ,etc.
The tank suction heater, as illustrated in Fig. 3.5, contains a U-tube bundle. This design
is often used with outdoor storage tanks for heavy fuel oils, tar, molasses, and similar
fluids whose viscosity must be lowered to permit easy pumping. Uusally the tube-side
heating medium is steam. One end of the heater shell is open, and the liquid being heated
passes across the outside of the tubes. Pumping costs can be reduced without heating the
entire contents of the tank. Bare tube and integral low-fin tubes are provided with baffles.
Longitudinal fin-tube heaters are not baffled. Fins are most often used to minimize the
fouling potential in these fluids.
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37
Kettle-type reboilers, evaporators, etc. , are often U-tube exchangers with enlarged shell
sections for vapor-liquid separation (Fig.3.6). The U-tube bundle replaces the floatingheat bundle of Fig. 3.4.
The U-tube exchanger with copper tubes, cast-iron header, and other parts of carbon
steel is used for water and steam services in office buildings, schools, hospitals, hotels, etc.
Nonferrous tube sheets and admiralty or 90-10 copper-nickel tubes are the most frequently
used substitute materials. These standard exchangers are available from a number of
manufacturers at costs far below those of custombuilt process-industry equipment.
3.2.3 Floating Head Designs
In an effort to reduce thermal stresses and provide a means to remove the tube bundle
for cleaning, several floating rear head designs have been established. The simplest is a
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38
Internal floating head (pull- through design) Fig3.9 design which allows the tube bundle to
be pulled entirely through the shell for service or replacement. In order to accommodate
the rear head bolt circle, tubes must be removed resulting in a less efficient use of shell
size. In addition, the missing tubes result in larger annular spaces and can contribute to
reduced flow across the effective tube surface, resulting in reduced thermal performance.
Some designs include sealing strips installed in the shell to help block the bypass steam.
Another floating head design that partially addresses the above disadvantages is a splitring floating head. Here the floating head bonnet is bolted to a split backing ring instead
of the tube sheet. This eliminates the bolt circle diameter and allows a full complement
of tubes to fill the shell. This construction is more expensive than a common pull through
design, but is in wide use in petrochemical applications. For applications with high
pressures or temperatures, or where more positive sealing between the fluids is desired,
the pull-through design should be specified.
Two other types, the outside packed lantern ring and the outside packed stuffing box
designs offer less positive sealing against leakage to the atmosphere than the pull though
or split ring designs, but can be configured for single tube pass duty. More details about
the various types of floating head shell and tube heat exchanger is given the following
sections
Packed-Lantern-Ring Exchanger: (Fig. 3.7 ) This construction is the least costly
of the straight-tube removable bundle types. The shell- and tube-side fluids are each
contained by separate rings of packing separated by a lantern ring and are installed at the
floating tube sheet. The lantern ring is provided with weep holes. Any leakage passing
the packing goes through the weep holes and then drops to the ground. Leakage at the
packing will not result in mixing within the exchanger of the two fluids. The width of the
floating tube sheet must be great enough to allow for the packings, the lantern ring, and
differential expansion. Sometimes a small skirt is attached to a thin tube sheet to provide
the required bearing surface for packings and lantern ring. The clearance between the
outer tube limit and the inside of the shell is slightly larger than that for fixed-tube-sheet
and U-tube exchangers.
The use of a floating-tube-sheet skirt increases this clearance. Without the skirt the
clearance must make allowance for tubehole distortion during tube rolling near the outside
edge of the tube sheet or for tube-end welding at the floating tube sheet.
The packed-lantern-ring construction is generally limited to design temperatures below
191 C (375 F) and to the mild services of water, steam, air, lubricating oil, etc. Design
gauge pressure does not exceed 2068 kPa (300 lbf/in2 ) for pipe shell exchangers and is
limited to 1034 kPa (150 lbf/in2 ) for 610- to 1067-mm- (24- to 42-in-) diameter shells.
39
Outside-Packed Floating-Head Exchanger: (Fig. 3.8) The shell-side fluid is contained by rings of packing, which are compressed within a stuffing box by a packing
follower ring. This construction was frequently used in the chemical industry, but in
recent years usage has decreased. The removable-bundle construction accommodates differential expansion between shell and tubes and is used for shell-side service up to 4137
kPa gauge pressure (600 lbf/in2) at 316 C (600 F).
Figure 3.8. Heat-exchanger-component nomenclature. Outside-packed floating-head exchanger. Type AEP. (Standard of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th ed., 1978.)
There are no limitations upon the number of tube-side passes or upon the tube-side
design pressure and temperature. The outside-packed floating-head exchanger was the
most commonly used type of removable- bundle construction in chemical-plant service.
The floating-tube-sheet skirt, where in contact with the rings of packing, has fine machine
finish. A split shear ring is inserted into a groove in the floating-tube-sheet skirt. A slipon backing flange, which in service is held in place by the shear ring, bolts to the external
floating- head cover. The floating-head cover is usually a circular disk. With an odd
number of tube-side passes, an axial nozzle can be installed in such a floating- head cover.
If a side nozzle is required, the circular disk is replaced by either a dished head or a channel
barrel (similar to Fig. 11-36f ) bolted between floating-head cover and floating-tube-sheet
skirt. The outer tube limit approaches the inside of the skirt but is farther removed from
the inside of the shell than for any of the previously discussed constructions. Clearances
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40
between shell diameter and bundle OTL are 22 mm (7.8 in) for small-diameter pipe shells,
44 mm (1e in) for large-diameter pipe shells, and 58 mm (2g in) for moderatediameter
plate shells.
Internal Floating-Head Exchanger: (Fig. 3.9) The internal floating-head design
is used extensively in petroleum-refinery service, but in recent years there has been a
decline in usage. The tube bundle is removable, and the floating tube sheet moves (or
floats) to accommodate differential expansion between shell and tubes. The outer tube
limit approaches the inside diameter of the gasket at the floating tube sheet. Clearances
(between shell and OTL) are 29 mm for pipe shells and 37 mm for moderatediameter plate
shells. A split backing ring and bolting usually hold the floating-head cover at the floating
tube sheet. These are located beyond the end of the shell and within the larger-diameter
shell cover. Shell cover, split backing ring, and floating-head cover must be removed before
the tube bundle can pass through the exchanger shell. With an even number of tube-side
passes the floating-head cover serves as return cover for the tube-side fluid. With an odd
number of passes a nozzle pipe must extend from the floating-head cover through the shell
cover. Provision for both differential expansion and tube-bundle removal must be made.
41
cover bolts directly to the floating tube sheet. The tube bundle can be withdrawn from
the shell without removing either shell cover or floating-head cover. This feature reduces
maintenance time during inspection and repair.
The large clearance between the tubes and the shell must provide for both the gasket
and the bolting at the floating-head cover. This clearance is about 2 to 2.5 times that
required by the split-ring design. Sealing strips or dummy tubes are often installed to
reduce bypassing of the tube bundle.
3.3
Shell Constructions
The most common TEMA shell type is the E shell as it is most suitable for most
industrial process cooling applications. However, for certain applications, other
shells offer distinct advantages. For example, the TEMA-F shell design provides
for a longitudinal flow plate to be installed inside the tube bundle assembly. This
plate causes the shell fluid to travel down one half of the tube bundle, then down
the other half, in effect producing a counter-current flow pattern which is best for
heat transfer. This type of construction can be specified where a close approach
temperature is required and when the flow rate permits the use of one half of the
shell at a time. In heat recovery applications, or where the application calls for
increased thermal length to achieve effective overall heat transfer, shells can be
installed with the flows in series. Up to six shorter shells in series is common and
results in counter-current flow close to performance as if one long shell in a single
pass design were used.
TEMA G and H shell designs are most suitable for phase change applications where
the bypass around the longitudinal plate and counter-current flow is less important than even flow distribution. In this type of shell, the longitudinal plate offers
better flow distribution in vapor streams and helps to flush out non-condensable.
They are frequently specified for use in horizontal thermosiphon reboilers and total
condensers.
TEMA J Shells are typically specified for phase change duties where significantly
reduced shell side pressure drops are required. They are commonly used in stacked
sets with the single nozzles used as the inlet and outlet. A special type of J-shell
is used for flooded evaporation of shell side fluids. A separate vapor disengagement
vessel without tubes is installed above the main J shell with the vapor outlet at the
top of this vessel. The
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42
TEMA K shell, also termed a kettle reboiler, is specified when the shell side stream
will undergo vaporization. The liquid level of a K shell design should just cover the
tube bundle, which fills the smaller diameter end of the shell. This liquid level is
controlled by the liquid flowing over a weir at the far end of the entrance nozzle. The
expanded shell area serves to facilitate vapor disengagement for boiling liquid in the
bottom of the shell. To insure against excessive liquid carry-though with the vapor
stream, a separate vessel as described above is specified. Liquid carry-through can
also be minimized by installing a mesh demister at the vapor exit nozzle. U-bundles
are typically used with K shell designs. K shells are expensive for high pressure
vaporization due to shell diameter and the required wall thickness.
The TEMA X shell, or crossflow shell is most commonly used in vapor condensing
applications, though it can also be used effectively in low pressure gas cooling or
heating. It produces a very low shell side pressure drop, and is therefore most
suitable for vacuum service condensing. In order to assure adequate distribution
of vapors, X-shell designs typically feature an area free of tubes along the top of
the exchanger. It is also typical to design X shell condensers with a flow area at
the bottom of the tube bundle to allow free condensate flow to the exit nozzle.
Careful attention to the effective removal of non-condensables is vital to X-shell
constructions.
3.4
43
44
2. Finned tube: As the name implies, finned tube have fins to the tubular surface.
Fins can be longtiudinal, radial or helical and may be on the outside or inside or on
both sides of the tube. Fig. 5.7shows some of the commonly used fins. The fins are
generally used when at least one of the fluid is gas.
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45
Figure 3.13. Examples of extended surfaces on one or both sides. (a) Radial fins. (b) Serrated
radial fins. (c) Studded surface. (d) Joint between tubesheet and low fin tube with three times
bare surface. (e) External axial fins. ( f ) Internal axial fins. (9) Finned surface with internal
spiral to promote turbulence. (h) Plate fins on both sides. (i) Tubes and plate fins.
(a) Integrally finned tube, which is available in a variety of alloys and sizes, is
being used in shell-and-tube heat exchangers. The fins are radially extruded
from thick-walled tube to a height of 1.6 mm (1/16 in) spaced at 1.33 mm (19
fins per inch) or to a height of 3.2 mm (1/8 in) spaced at 2.3 mm (11 fins per
inch). External surface is approximately 2 1/2 times the outside surface of a
bare tube with the same outside diameter. Also available are 0.93-mm- (0.037in-) high fins spaced 0.91 mm (28 fins per inch) with an external surface about
3.5 times the surface of the bare tube. Bare ends of nominal tube diameter are
provided, while the fin height is slightly less than this diameter. The tube can
be inserted into a conventional tube bundle and rolled or welded to the tube
sheet by the same means, used for bare tubes. An integrally finned tube rolled
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46
into a tube sheet with double serrations and flared at the inlet is shown in
Fig. 11-39. Internally finned tubes have been manufactured but have limited
application.
(b) Longitudinal fins are commonly used in double-pipe exchangers upon the
outside of the inner tube. U-tube and conventional removable tube bundles
are also made from such tubing. The ratio of external to internal surface
generally is about 10 or 15:1.
(c) Transverse fins upon tubes are used in low-pressure gas services. The primary
application is in air-cooled heat exchangers (as discussed under that heading),
but shell-and-tube exchangers with these tubes are in service.
3. Bimetallic Tubes When corrosive requirements or temperature conditions do not
permit the use of a single alloy for the tubes, bimetallic (or duplex) tubes may be
used. These can be made from almost any possible combination of metals. Tube
sizes and gauges can be varied. For thin gauges the wall thickness is generally
divided equally between the two components. In heavier gauges the more expensive
component may comprise from a fifth to a third of the total thickness.
The component materials comply with applicable ASTM specifications, but after
manufacture the outer component may increase in hardness beyond specification
limits, and special care is required during the tube-rolling operation. When the
harder material is on the outside, precautions must be exercised to expand the
tube properly. When the inner material is considerably softer, rolling may not be
practical unless ferrules of the soft material are used.
In order to eliminate galvanic action the outer tube material may be stripped from
the tube ends and replaced with ferrules of the inner tube material. When the end
of a tube with a ferrule is expanded or welded to a tube sheet, the tube-side fluid
can contact only the inner tube material, while the outer material is exposed to the
shell-side fluid. Bimetallic tubes are available from a small number of tube mills
and are manufactured only on special order and in large quantities.
4. Enhance surface These kind of tubes enhance the heat transfer coefficient (Fig.
5.7h,i). This may be achieved by two techniques.
(a) The surface is contoured or grooved in a variety of ways forming valley and
ridges. These are applicable in condenser and.
(b) The surface is prepared with special coating to provide a large number of
nucleation sites for use in boiling operations.
47
pt
do
pt
pt
Flow
Square pitch
Rotaed square
2
Two tube passes
1
2
3
4
Four tube passes
1
1
3
2
5
2
5
4
6
6
Six tube passes
3.5
48
3.6
49
Figure 3.16. Types of baffle used in shell and tube heat exchanger. (a) Segmental. (b)
Segmental and strip. (c) Disc and doughnut. (d) Oriffice.
Minimum baffle spacing is generally one-fifth of the shell diameter and not less
than 50.8 mm (2 in). Maximum baffle spacing is limited by the requirement to
provide adequate support for the tubes. The maximum unsupported tube span
in inches equals 74d0.75 (where d is the outside tube diameter in inches). The
unsupported tube span is reduced by about 12 percent for aluminum, copper, and
their alloys.
Baffles are provided for heat-transfer purposes. When shell-side baffles are not
required for heat-transfer purposes, as may be the case in condensers or reboilers,
tube supports are installed.
Maximum baffle cut is limited to about 45 percent for single segmental baffles so
that every pair of baffles will support each tube. Tube bundles are generally provided with baffles cut so that at least one row of tubes passes through all the baffles
or support plates. These tubes hold the entire bundle together. In pipe-shell exchangers with a horizontal baffle cut and a horizontal pass rib for directing tube
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50
side flow in the channel, the maximum baffle cut, which permits a minimum of one
row of tubes to pass through all baffles, is approximately 33 percent in small shells
and 40 percent in larger pipe shells.
Maximum shell-side heat-transfer rates in forced convection are apparently obtained
by cross-flow of the fluid at right angles to the tubes. In order to maximize this
type of flow some heat exchangers are built with segmental-cut baffles and with no
tubes in the window (or the baffle cutout). Maximum baffle spacing may thus equal
maximum unsupported-tube span, while conventional baffle spacing is limited to
one-half of this span.
The maximum baffle spacing for no tubes in the window of single segmental baffles
is unlimited when intermediate supports are provided. These are cut on both sides
of the baffle and therefore do not affect the flow of the shell-side fluid. Each support
engages all the tubes; the supports are spaced to provide adequate support for the
tubes.
2. Rod Baffles Rod or bar baffles (fig. 3.17) have either rods or bars extending
through the lanes between rows of tubes. A baffle set can consist of a baffle with
rods in all the vertical lanes and another baffle with rods in all the horizontal lanes
between the tubes. The shell-side flow is uniform and parallel to the tubes. Stagnant
areas do not exist.
One device uses four baffles in a baffle set. Only half of either the vertical or the
horizontal tube lanes in a baffle have rods. The new design apparently provides a
maximum shell-side heat-transfer coefficient for a given pressure drop.
3. Impingement Baffle The tube bundle is customarily protected against impingement by the incoming fluid at the shell inlet nozzle when the shell-side fluid is at a
high velocity, is condensing, or is a twophase fluid. Minimum entrance area about
the nozzle is generally equal to the inlet nozzle area. Exit nozzles also require adequate area between the tubes and the nozzles. A full bundle without any provision
for shell inlet nozzle area can increase the velocity of the inlet fluid by as much as
300 percent with a consequent loss in pressure.
Impingement baffles are generally made of rectangular plate, although circular plates
(Fig. 3.18) are more desirable. Rods and other devices are sometimes used to
protect the tubes from impingement. In order to maintain a maximum tube count
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51
the impingement plate is often placed in a conical nozzle opening or in a dome cap
above the shell.
Impingement baffles or flow-distribution devices are recommended for axial tubeside nozzles when entrance velocity is high.
(a)
(c)
(B)
(d)
Figure 3.18. Impingment baffless;(a)Flat plate (b)curved plate (c)expanded or flared nozzle
(d) jacket type.
52
1. Dummy tubes. These tubes do not pass through the tube sheets and can be
located close to the inside of the shell.
2. Tie rods with spacers. These hold the baffles in place but can be located to
prevent bypassing.
3. Sealing strips. These longitudinal strips either extend from baffle to baffle or may
be inserted in slots cut into the baffles.
4. Dummy tubes or tie rods with spacers may be located within the pass partition
lanes (and between the baffle cuts) in order to ensure maximum bundle penetration
by the shell-side fluid.
When tubes are omitted from the tube layout to provide entrance area about an
impingement plate, the need for sealing strips or other devices to cause proper
bundle penetration by the shell-side fluid is increased.
3.6.5 Tie Rods and Spacers
Tie rods are used to hold the baffles in place with spacers, which are pieces of tubing or
pipe placed on the rods to locate the baffles. Occasionally baffles are welded to the tie
rods, and spacers are eliminated. Properly located tie rods and spacers serve both to hold
the bundle together and to reduce bypassing of the tubes.
In very large fixed-tube-sheet units, in which concentricity of shells decreases, baffles are
occasionally welded to the shell to eliminate bypassing between the baffle and the shell.
Metal baffles are standard. Occasionally plastic baffles are used either to reduce corrosion
or in vibratory service, in which metal baffles may cut the tubes.
baffle
Rods
Spacer
Tube plate
3.6.6 Tubesheets
Tubesheets are usually made from a round flat piece of metal with holes drilled for the
tube ends in a precise location and pattern relative to one another. Tube sheet materials
range as tube materials. Tubes are attached to the tube sheet by pneumatic or hydraulic
pressure or by roller expansion. Tube holes can be drilled and reamed and can be machined
with one or more grooves. This greatly increases the strength of the tube joint.
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53
0.4mm
3 mm
The tubesheet is in contact with both fluids and so must have corrosion resistance allowances and have metalurgical and electrochemical properties appropriate for the fluids
and velocities. Low carbon steel tube sheets can include a layer of a higher alloy metal
bonded to the surface to provide more effective corrosion resistance without the expense
of using the solid alloy. The tube hole pattern or pitch varies the distance from one tube
to the other and angle of the tubes relative to each other and to the direction of flow. This
allows the manipulation of fluid velocities and pressure drop, and provides the maximum
amount of turbulance and tube surface contact for effective heat transfer. Where the
tube and tube sheet materials are joinable, weldable metals, the tube joint can be further
strengthened by applying a seal weld or strength weld to the joint. A strength weld has
a tube slightly reccessed inside the tube hole or slightly extended beyond the tube sheet.
The weld adds metal to the resulting lip. A seal weld is specified to help prevent the
shell and tube liquids from intermixing. In this treatment, the tube is flush with the tube
sheet surface. The weld does not add metal, but rather fuses the two materials. In cases
where it is critical to avoid fluid intermixing, a double tube sheet can be provided. In this
design, the outer tube sheet is outside the shell circuit, virtually eliminating the chance
of fluid intermixing. The inner tube sheet is vented to atmosphere so any fluid leak is
easily detected.
Mechanisms of attaching tubes to tube sheet
Rolled Tube Joints Expanded tube-to-tube-sheet joints are standard. Properly
rolled joints have uniform tightness to minimize tube fractures, stress corrosion,
tube-sheet ligament pushover and enlargement, and dishing of the tube sheet. Tubes
are expanded into the tube sheet for a length of two tube diameters, or 50 mm (2
in), or tube-sheet thickness minus 3 mm (1/8 in). Generally tubes are rolled for the
last of these alternatives. The expanded portion should never extend beyond the
shell-side face of the tube sheet, since removing such a tube is extremely difficult.
Methods and tools for tube removal and tube rolling were discussed by John, 1959.
Tube ends may be projecting, flush, flared, or beaded (listed in order of usage). The
flare or bell-mouth tube end is usually restricted to water service in condensers and
serves to reduce erosion near the tube inlet.
For moderate general process requirements at gauge pressures less than 2058 kPa
(300 lbf/in2) and less than 177 C (350 F), tube-sheet holes without grooves are
standard. For all other services with expanded tubes at least two grooves in each
tube hole are common. The number of grooves is sometimes changed to one or three
in proportion to tube-sheet thickness.
Expanding the tube into the grooved tube holes provides a stronger joint but
results in greater difficulties during tube removal (see Fig. 3.20a).
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54
Welded Tube Joints When suitable materials of construction are used, the tube
ends may be welded to the tube sheets. Welded joints may be seal-welded for additional tightness beyond that of tube rolling or may be strength-welded. Strengthwelded joints have been found satisfactory in very severe services. Welded joints
may or may not be rolled before or after welding (see Fig. 3.20b).
The variables in tube-end welding were discussed in two unpublished papers [39] and
[119]. Tube-end rolling before welding may leave lubricant from the tube expander in
the tube hole. Fouling during normal operation followed by maintenance operations
will leave various impurities in and near the tube ends. Satisfactory welds are rarely
possible under such conditions, since tube-end welding requires extreme cleanliness
in the area to be welded.
Tube expansion after welding has been found useful for low and moderate pressures. In high-pressure service tube rolling has not been able to prevent leakage
after weld failure.
Double-Tube-Sheet Joints This design prevents the passage of either fluid into
the other because of leakage at the tube-to-tubesheet joints, which are generally the
weakest points in heat exchangers. Any leakage at these joints admits the fluid to
the gap between the tube sheets. Mechanical design, fabrication, and maintenance
of double- tube-sheet designs require special consideration (see Fig. 3.20c).
55
There are two types of design problems: sizing and rating. In sizing the main objective
is to find the geometry of the heat exchanger. Rating is to find the duty or performance
for a given geometry.
RATING
Given: Geometry
mh , Ch , Th1 , ph
mc , Cc , Tc1 , pc
Find:
Q(Duty)
SIZING
Given: Q(duty)
mh , Ch , Th1 , ph
mc , Cc , Tc1 , pc
Find:
Geometry
The are three design approaches generally used in the design of heat exchanger. These
are
LMTD-method,
NTU--method and
-method.
These notation are explained in the respective sections.
4.1
LMTD-Method
Assumptions
Steady state flow (mh , mc )
Constant overall heat transfer coefficient (U )
Constant specific heat (Cph , Cpc )
negligible heat loss to surrounding
Heat Transfer (or rate equation)
Q = U ATlm F
(4.1)
where
Q=
heat transferred per unit time W (duty)
U=
overall heat transfer coefficient
A=
heat transfer area
Tlm = logarithmic mean temperature difference
F =
temperature correction factor
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56
4.1.1
Tlm =
T2 T1
ln(T2 /T1 )
(4.2)
The temperature difference T1 , T2 for different tube heat exchanger are defined below:
Thi
T1
Tho
T2
Tco
T1
Thi
T1
Tco
Thi
Tho
Tho
Tci
Tco
T2
Tc
Tci
Thi
Tci
Tci
Tci
Tco
Tco
Tci
Thi
Tho
Thi
Tho
Cocurrent
Tco
Shell and Tube
Counter current
Tho
Cocurrent
Counter current
Shell and tube
Plate heat exchanger
T1
Thi Tci
Thi Tco
Thi Tco
Thi Tco
T2
Tho Tco
Tho Tci
Tho Tci
Tho Tci
1. counter current
2. co-current
Solution
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
4.1 LMTD-Method
57
Thi=110 oC
T1=45oC
Tco=65oC
Thi=110 oC
Tho=75oC
T1 =75
T2
Tho=75oC
=10oC
T2=40oC
Tco=65oC
Tci= 35 oC
Tci= 35 oC
Tci
Tco
Tco
Thi
Tho
Thi
Tci
Tho
Counter current
Cocurrent
T2 T1
10 75
=
= 32.26o C
ln(T2 /T1 )
ln(10/75)
(4.3)
T2 T1
40 45
=
= 42.45o C
ln(T2 /T1 )
ln(40/45)
(4.4)
F =1
(4.5)
Shell and tube heat exchanger. For a 1 shell 2 tube pass exchanger the correction
factor is given by:
q
h
i
1S
(R2 + 1) ln 1RS
h
i
F =
(4.6)
(R 1) ln
where
R=
T1 T2
,
t2 t1
S=
t2 t1
T1 t 1
(4.7)
or in words
R=
S=
(4.8)
the derivation of the equation 4.6 is given by Kern (1950). The equation can be
used for any exchanger with an even number of tube passes and is plotted in Fig.4.4.
The correction factor for 2 shell passes and 4 or multiple of 4 tube passes is
h
F =
ln 1S
1RS
2/S1R+(2/S) (1S)(1RS)+ R2 +1
ln
2
R2+1
2(R1)
2/S1R+(2/S)
(4.9)
(1S)(1RS) R +1
58
R=
T1 T2
35 65
=
= 0.86,
t2 t1
75 110
S=
t2 t1
75 110
=
= 0.467
T1 t1
35 110
(4.10)
t2
T2
t2
T2
Figure 4.3. Temperature distribution for 1-2 and 2-4 shell and tube heat exchanger
4.1 LMTD-Method
59
Figure 4.4. Temperature correction factor: one shell, 2 shell pass, divide flow shell and split
flow shell and cross flow
60
methods.
Hot Fluid
Heat exchangers
Water
Organic solvents
light oils
heavy oils
Gases
Coolers
Organic solvents
light oils
heavy oils
gase
organic solvent
water
Gases
Heaters
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Dowtherm
Dowtherm
flue gases
flue gases
Condensers
Aqueous vapor
Organic vapor
Organic (some non condensable gases)
Vacuum condensers
Vaporizers
Steam
Steam
Steam
Cold fluid
U (W/m2 o C)
Water
organic solvent
light oils
heavy oils
gass
800-1500
100-300
100-400
50-300
10-50
water
water
water60-900
water
brine
brine
Brine
250-750
350-900
20-300
150-500
600-1200
15-250
Water
organic solvent
light oils
heavy oils
gass
Heavy oils
Gases
steam
hydrocarbon vapor
1500-4000
500-1000
300-900
60-450
30-300
50-300
20-200
30-100
30-100
water
Water
Water
Water
1000-1500
700-1000
500-700
200-500
Aqueuos solutions
Light organics
Heavy organics
1000-1500
900-1200
600-900
Alternatively the overall heat transfer coefficient is evalauted from the individual heat
transfer coefficient as:
1
1
do ln (do /di ) do 1
do 1
1
=
+
+
+
+
Uo
ho hod
2kw
di hi di hid
(4.11)
4.2 - NTU
61
where
Uo =
ho =
hi =
hod =
hi =
kw =
do =
di =
hd
d
Nu =
= f Re, P r, ,
k
L w
(4.12)
hd
Nu =
= f Gr, P r,
k
w
(4.13)
Design equations for the heat transfer coefficient for various flow geometry (tube, plate)
and configuration are given in Appendix 1. Design equation for the heat transfer coefficient
for condensation and boiling is given also in appendix A.
4.1.5 Fouling factor (hid , hod )
Heat transfer may be degraded in time by corrosion, deposits of reaction products, organic growths, etc. These effects are accounted for quantitatively by fouling resistances.
Extensive data on fouling factor are given TEMA standards. Typical fouling factors for
common process and service fluids are given in the table 4.2. These values are for shell
and tube heat exchangers with plain (not finned) tubes.
4.2
- NTU
The effectiveness () of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio between the actual heat
load to the maximum possible heat load.
=
Q
Qmax
(4.14)
(4.15)
UA
Cmin
(4.16)
and C is the heat capacity ratio defined using energy equation as:
Q = Mh Cph (Thi Tho ) = Mc Cpc (Tco Tci )
(4.17)
62
Fluid
River water
Sea water
cooling water (towers)
Towns water (soft)
Towns water (hard)
Steam condensate
Steam oil free
Steam oil traces
Refrigerated brine
Air and industrial gases
Flue gases
Organic vapor
Organic liquids
Light hydrocarbons
Heavy hydrocarbons
Boiling organics
Condensing organics
Heavy transfer fluids
Aqueous salt solutions
3000-12000
1000-3000
3000-6000
3000-5000
1000-2000
1500-5000
4000-10000
2000-5000
3000-5000
5000-10000
2000-5000
5000
5000
5000
2000
2500
5000
5000
3000-5000
0.003-0.0001
0.001-0.0003
0.0003-0.00017
0.0003-0.0002
0.001-0.0005
0.00067-0.0002
0.0025-0.00001
0.0005-0.0002
0.0003-0.0002
0.0002-0.00001
0.0005-0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0005
0.0004
0.0002
0.0002
0.0003-0.0002
(4.18)
(4.19)
(4.20)
Cmin
Cmax
(4.21)
Thi Tho
Tco Tci
, c =
Thi Tci
Thi Tci
(4.22)
Tc
Tspan
(4.23)
C=
h =
4.2 - NTU
63
Thi
Tco
Tho
Tspan
Tci
0
1 exp [N (1 + C)]
1+C
(4.24)
1 exp [N (1 + C)]
1 C exp [N (1 C)]
(4.25)
=
Counter current flow
=
Cross flow
1. Both fluid unmixed mixed
"
exp(N Cn) 1
= 1 exp
Cn
where
(4.26)
n = N 0.22
(4.27)
C
1
1
+
=
1 exp(N ) 1 1 exp(N C) 1 N
#1
(4.28)
1
{1 exp [C (1 exp(N ))]}
C
(4.29)
64
= 1 exp
1
[1 exp(N C)]
C
(4.30)
(1 + C 2 )
=2 1+C +
Condenser
Evaporator
1 + exp N (1 + C 2 )
1 exp N (1 + C 2 )
(4.31)
= 1 eN
(4.32)
= 1 eN
(4.33)
Alternatively these equations are presented in a graphical form. The various curves of
vs N T U can be found in textbooks like Kern (1964( and Perry and Green (2000).
4.3
Cocurrent
T1
T2
T1
ln
T2
ln
Counter current
4.4
Thi Tci
Tho Tco
Thi Tco
= ln
Tho Tci
= ln
= N h + Nc
(4.34)
= Nh Nc
(4.35)
Tm
Tspan
(4.36)
where Tm is the mean temperature difference and Tspan is the maximum temperature
difference (Thi Tci ) (see Fig. 4.5). The Theta method is related is related to the associated
and N T U methods by expressions
=
Tm
=
Tspan
NT U
(4.37)
The relationship between parameters are often presented in graphical form as shown in
Fig.4.6. However, they all depend on finding Tm or Tlm
65
Figure 4.6. correction charts for mean temperature difference: (a) One shell pass and any
multiple of two tube passes. (b) Two shell passes and any multiple of four tube passes.[121].
66
5 Thermal Design
Thermal Design
5.1
Design Consideration
Liquids
1. Tube-side process fluids:1 to 2 m/s, maximum 4 m/s if required to reduce fouling:
water 1.5 to 2.5 m/s
2. Shell side: 0.3 to 1/m/s
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67
Vapors
For vapors, the velocity used will depend on the operating pressure and fluid density; the
lower values in the range given below will apply to molecular weight materials
Vacuum
50 to 70 m/s
Atmospheric pressure 10 to 30 m/s
High pressure
5 to 10 m/s
5.1.3 Stream temperature
The closer the temperature approach used (the difference between the outlet temperature
of one stream and the inlet temperature of the other stream) the larger will be the heat
transfer area required for a given duty. The optimum value will depend on the application
and can only be determined by making an economic analysis of alternative designs. As
a general guide the greater temperature difference should be at least 20 o C. and the
least temperature difference 5 to 7 o C for cooler using cooling water and 3 to 5 o C using
refrigerated brine. The maximum temperature rise in recirculated cooling water is limited
to around 30 o C. Care should be taken to ensure that cooling media temperatures are kept
well above the freezing point of the process materials. When heat exchange is between
process fluids for heat recovery the optimum approach temperatures will normally not be
lower than 20 o C.
5.1.4 Pressure drop
The value suggested below can be used as a general guide and will normally give designs
that are near the optimum.
Liquids
Viscosity<1 mN s/m2
p< 35kN/m2
Viscosity=1 to 10mN s/m2 p= 50-70 kN/m2
0.4-0.8 kN/m2
0.1absolute pressure
0.5system gauge pressure
0.1system gauge pressure
When a high-pressure drop is utilized, care must be taken to ensure that the resulting
high fluid velocity does not cause erosion or flow -induced tube vibration.
5.1.5 Fluid physical properties
In the correlation used to predict heat-transfer coefficients, the physical properties are
usually evaluated at the mean stream temperature. This is satisfactory when the temperature change is small, but can cause a significant error when change in temperature
is large. In these circumstances , a simple and safe procedure is to evaluate the heat
transfer coefficients at the stream inlet and outlet temperatures and use the lowest of the
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68
5 Thermal Design
two value. Alternatively, the method suggested by Frank (1978) can be used; in which
Q=
U2 (T1 t2 )
U1 (T2 t1 )
(5.1)
5.2
Design data
Before discussing actual thermal design, let us look at the data that must be furnished
by the process licensor before design can begin:
1. flow rates of both streams.
2. inlet and outlet temperatures of both streams.
3. operating pressure of both streams. This is required for gases, especially if the gas
density is not furnished; it is not really necessary for liquids, as their properties do
not vary with pressure.
4. allowable pressure drop for both streams. This is a very important parameter for
heat exchanger design. Generally, for liquids, a value of 0.5-0.7 kg/cm2 is permitted
per shell. A higher pressure drop is usually warranted for viscous liquids, especially
in the tubeside. For gases, the allowed value is generally 0.05-0.2 kg/cm2 , with 0.1
kg/cm2 being typical.
5. fouling resistance for both streams. If this is not furnished, the designer should
adopt values specified in the TEMA standards or based on past experience.
6. physical properties of both streams. These include viscosity, thermal conductivity,
density, and specific heat, preferably at both inlet and outlet temperatures. Viscosity data must be supplied at inlet and outlet temperatures, especially for liquids,
since the variation with temperature may be considerable and is irregular (neither
linear nor log-log).
7. heat duty. The duty specified should be consistent for both the shellside and the
tubeside.
8. type of heat exchanger. If not furnished, the designer can choose this based upon
the characteristics of the various types of construction described earlier. In fact, the
designer is normally in a better position than the process engineer to do this.
9. line sizes. It is desirable to match nozzle sizes with line sizes to avoid expanders
or reducers. However, sizing criteria for nozzles are usually more stringent than for
lines, especially for the shellside inlet. Consequently, nozzle sizes must sometimes be
one size (or even more in exceptional circumstances) larger than the corresponding
line sizes, especially for small lines.
10. preferred tube size. Tube size is designated as O.D., thickness, length. Some plant
owners have a preferred O.D., thickness (usually based upon inventory considerations), and the available plot area will determine the maximum tube length. Many
plant owners prefer to standardize all three dimensions, again based upon inventory
considerations.
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69
11. maximum shell diameter. This is based upon tube-bundle removal requirements
and is limited by crane capacities. Such limitations apply only to exchangers with
removable tube bundles, namely U-tube and floating-head. For fixed-tubesheet
exchangers, the only limitation is the manufas fabrication capability and the availability of components such as dished ends and flanges. Thus, floating-head heat
exchangers are often limited to a shell I.D. of 1.4-1.5 m and a tube length of 6 m
or 9 m, whereas fixedtubesheet heat exchangers can have shells as large as 3 m and
tubes lengths up to 12 m or more.
12. materials of construction. If the tubes and shell are made of identical materials, all
components should be of this material. Thus, only the shell and tube materials of
construction need to be specified. However, if the shell and tubes are of different
metallurgy, the materials of all principal components should be specified to avoid
any ambiguity. The principal components are shell (and shell cover), tubes, channel
(and channel cover), tubesheets, and baffles. Tubesheets may be lined or clad.
13. special considerations. These include cycling, upset conditions, alternative operating
scenarios, and whether operation is continuous or intermittent.
5.3
Tubeside design
Tubeside calculations are quite straightforward, since tubeside flow represents a simple
case of flow through a circular conduit. Heat-transfer coefficient and pressure drop both
vary with tubeside velocity, the latter more strongly so. A good design will make the best
use of the allowable pressure drop, as this will yield the highest heat-transfer coefficient.
If all the tubeside fluid were to flow through all the tubes (one tube pass), it would lead
to a certain velocity. Usually, this velocity is unacceptably low and therefore has to be
increased. By incorporating pass partition plates (with appropriate gasketing) in the
channels, the tubeside fluid is made to flow several times through a fraction of the total
number of tubes. Thus, in a heat exchanger with 200 tubes and two passes, the fluid flows
through 100 tubes at a time, and the velocity will be twice what it would be if there were
only one pass. The number of tube passes is usually one, two, four, six, eight, and so on.
5.3.1 Heat-transfer coefficient
The tubeside heat-transfer coefficient is a function of the Reynolds number, the Prandtl
number, and the tube diameter. These can be broken down into the following fundamental parameters: physical properties (namely viscosity, thermal conductivity, and specific
heat); tube diameter; and, very importantly, mass velocity.
The variation in liquid viscosity is quite considerable; so, this physical property has the
most dramatic effect on heat-transfer coefficient. The fundamental equation for turbulent
heat-transfer inside tubes is:
N u = CRe P r
!c
(5.2)
or
k
h=C
D
GD
!a
Cp
k
!c
(5.3)
70
where
5 Thermal Design
Nu =
Pr =
Re
de
A
P
u
w
k
Cp
hde
k
Cp
k
ud
4A
P
Nusselt number
Prandtl number
Reynolds number
hydraulic diameter
cross-sectional area
wetted perimeter
fluid velocity
fluid viscosity at the tube wall temperature
fluid thermal conductivity
fluid specific heat
C=
0.021 gases
0.023 non-viscous liquid
0.027 viscous liquid
a = 0.8
b = 0.3 for cooling
b = 0.4 for heating
c = 0.14
(5.4)
71
various approaches have been taken, for example the frictional pressure gradient is given
as
!
4o
dp
4f G2
=
=
,
(5.5)
dz f
d
2d
where G is the mass flux in kg/m2 s and f is the friction factor calculated using a Blasiustype model as
f=
0.3164
Re0.25
64
Re
Re
2320
Re < 2320 .
4f G2 L
,
2 d
(5.6)
Mass velocity strongly influences the heat-transfer coefficient. For turbulent flow, the
tubeside heat-transfer coefficient varies to the 0.8 power of tubeside mass velocity, whereas
tubeside pressure drop varies to the square of mass velocity. Thus, with increasing mass
velocity, pressure drop increases more rapidly than does the heat-transfer coefficient.
Consequently, there will be an optimum mass velocity above which it will be wasteful to
increase mass velocity further.
Furthermore, very high velocities lead to erosion. However, the pressure drop limitation
usually becomes controlling long before erosive velocities are attained. The minimum
recommended liquid velocity inside tubes is 1.0 m/s, while the maximum is 2.5-3.0 m/s.
Pressure drop is proportional to the square of velocity and the total length of travel.
Thus, when the number of tube passes is increased for a given number of tubes and a
given tubeside flow rate, the pressure drop rises to the cube of this increase. In actual
practice, the rise is somewhat less because of lower friction factors at higher Reynolds
numbers, so the exponent should be approximately 2.8 instead of 3.
Tubeside pressure drop rises steeply with an increase in the number of tube passes. Consequently, it often happens that for a given number of tubes and two passes, the pressure
drop is much lower than the allowable value, but with four passes it exceeds the allowable
pressure drop. If in such circumstances a standard tube has to be employed, the designer
may be forced to accept a rather low velocity. However, if the tube diameter and length
may be varied, the allowable pressure drop can be better utilized and a higher tubeside
velocity realized.
The following tube diameters are usually used in the CPI: (1/4, 3/8, 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 1
1/4, 1 1/2 in. Of these, 3/4 in. and 1 in. are the most popular. Tubes smaller than 3/4
in. O.D. should not be used for fouling services. The use of small-diameter tubes, such as
1 in., is warranted only for small heat exchangers with heat-transfer areas less than 20-30
m2 .
It is important to realize that the total pressure drop for a given stream must be met.
The distribution of pressure drop in the various heat exchangers for a given stream in a
particular circuit may be varied to obtain good heat transfer in all the heat exchangers.
Consider a hot liquid stream flowing through several preheat exchangers. Normally, a
pressure drop of 0.7 kg/cm2 per shell is permitted for liquid streams. If there are five
such preheat exchangers, a total pressure drop of 3.5 kg/cm2 for the circuit would be
permitted. If the pressure drop through two of these exchangers turns out to be only 0.8
kg/cm2 , the balance of 2.7 kg/cm2 would be available for the other three.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
72
5.4
5 Thermal Design
Shell side design The shellside calculations are far more complex than those for the tubeside. This is mainly because on the shellside there is not just one flow stream but one
principal cross-flow stream and four leakage or bypass streams. There are various shellside flow arrangements, as well as various tube layout patterns and baffling designs, which
together determine the shellside stream analysis.
5.4.1 Shell configuration
TEMA defines various shell patterns based on the flow of the shellside fluid through the
shell: E, F, G, H, J, K, and X (see Figure 3.1).
In a TEMA E single-pass shell, the shellside fluid enters the shell at one end and leaves
from the other end. This is the most common shell type - more heat exchangers are built
to this configuration than all other con- figurations combined.
A TEMA F two-pass shell has a longitudinal baffle that divides the shell into two passes.
The shellside fluid enters at one end, traverses the entire length of the exchanger through
one-half the shell cross-sectional area, turns around and flows through the second pass,
then finally leaves at the end of the second pass. The longitudinal baffle stops well short
of the tubesheet, so that the fluid can flow into the second pass.
The F shell is used for temperature- cross situations - that is, where the cold stream leaves
at a temperature higher than the outlet temperature of the hot stream. If a two-pass (F)
shell has only two tube passes, this becomes a true countercurrent arrangement where a
large temperature cross can be achieved.
A TEMA J shell is a divided-flow shell wherein the shellside fluid enters the shell at the
center and divides into two halves, one flowing to the left and the other to the right and
leaving separately. They are then combined into a single stream. This is identified as a
J 1-2 shell. Alternatively, the stream may be split into two halves that enter the shell at
the two ends, flow toward the center, and leave as a single stream, which is identified as
a J 2-1 shell.
A TEMA G shell is a split-flow shell (see Figure 3.1). This construction is usually employed for horizontal thermosyphon reboilers. There is only a central support plate and
no baffles. A G shell cannot be used for heat exchangers with tube lengths greater than
3 m, since this would exceed the limit on maximum unsupported tube length specified by
TEMA - typically 1.5 m, though it varies with tube O.D., thickness, and material.
When a larger tube length is needed, a TEMA H shell (see Figure3.1) is used. An H shell
is basically two G shells placed side-by-side, so that there are two full support plates. This
is described as a double-split configuration, as the flow is split twice and recombined twice.
This construction, too, is invariably employed for horizontal thermosyphon reboilers. The
advantage of G and H shells is that the pressure drop is drastically less and there are no
cross baffles.
A TEMA X shell (see Figure 3.1) is a pure cross-flow shell where the shellside fluid enters
at the top (or bottom) of the shell, flows across the tubes, and exits from the opposite side
of the shell. The flow may be introduced through multiple nozzles located strategically
along the length of the shell in order to achieve a better distribution. The pressure drop
will be extremely low - in fact, there is hardly any pressure drop in the shell, and what
pressure drop there is, is virtually all in the nozzles. Thus, this configuration is employed
for cooling or condensing vapors at low pressure, particularly vacuum. Full support plates
can be located if needed for structural integrity; they do not interfere with the shellside
flow because they are parallel to the flow direction.
A TEMA K shell (see Figure 3.1) is a special cross-flow shell employed for kettle reboilers
(thus the K). It has an integral vapor-disengagement space embodied in an enlarged shell.
Here, too, full support plates can be employed as required.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
73
A triangular (or rotated triangular) pattern will accommodate more tubes than a square
(or rotated square) pattern. Furthermore, a triangular pattern produces high turbulence
and therefore a high heat-transfer coefficient. However, at the typical tube pitch of 1.25
times the tube O.D., it does not permit mechanical cleaning of tubes, since access lanes
are not available. Consequently, a triangular layout is limited to clean shellside services.
For services that require mechanical cleaning on the shellside, square patterns must be
used. Chemical cleaning does not require access lanes, so a triangular layout may be used
for dirty shellside services provided chemical cleaning is suitable and effective.
A rotated triangular pattern seldom offers any advantages over a triangular pattern, and
its use is consequently not very popular.
For dirty shellside services, a square layout is typically employed. However, since this is an
in-line pattern, it produces lower turbulence. Thus, when the shellside Reynolds number
is low (< 2,000), it is usually advantageous to employ a rotated square pattern because
this produces much higher turbulence, which results in a higher efficiency of conversion
of pressure drop to heat transfer.
As noted earlier, fixed-tubesheet construction is usually employed for clean services on
the shellside, Utube construction for clean services on the tubeside, and floating-head
construction for dirty services on both the shellside and tubeside. (For clean services
on both shellside and tubeside, either fixed-tubesheet or U-tube construction may be
used, although U-tube is preferable since it permits differential expansion between the
shell and the tubes.) Hence, a triangular tube pattern may be used for fixed-tubesheet
exchangers and a square (or rotated square) pattern for floating-head exchangers. For
U-tube exchangers, a triangular pattern may be used provided the shellside stream is
clean and a square (or rotated square) pattern if it is dirty.
5.4.3 Tube pitch
Tube pitch is defined as the shortest distance between two adjacent tubes.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
74
5 Thermal Design
For a triangular pattern, TEMA specifies a minimum tube pitch of 1.25 times the tube
O.D. Thus, a 25- mm tube pitch is usually employed for 20-mm O.D. tubes.
For square patterns, TEMA additionally recommends a minimum cleaning lane of 4 in.
(or 6 mm) between adjacent tubes. Thus, the minimum tube pitch for square patterns
is either 1.25 times the tube O.D. or the tube O.D. plus 6 mm, whichever is larger. For
example, 20-mm tubes should be laid on a 26-mm (20 mm + 6 mm) square pitch, but
25-mm tubes should be laid on a 31.25-mm (25 mm 1.25) square pitch.
Designers prefer to employ the minimum recommended tube pitch, because it leads to
the smallest shell diameter for a given number of tubes. However, in exceptional circumstances, the tube pitch may be increased to a higher value, for example, to reduce
shellside pressure drop. This is particularly true in the case of a cross-flow shell.
5.4.4 Baffling
Type of baffles. Baffles are used to support tubes, enable a desirable velocity to be
maintained for the shellside fluid, and prevent failure of tubes due to flow-induced vibration. There are two types of baffles: plate and rod. Plate baffles may be single-segmental,
double-segmental, or triple-segmental, as shown in Figure 5.2.
75
to the 1.7-2.0 power. For laminar flow (Re < 100), the exponents are 0.33 for the heattransfer coefficient and 1.0 for pressure drop. Thus, as baffle spacing is reduced, pressure
drop increases at a much faster rate than does the heat-transfer coefficient.
This means that there will be an optimum ratio of baffle spacing to shell inside diameter
that will result in the highest efficiency of conversion of pressure drop to heat transfer.
This optimum ratio is normally between 0.3 and 0.6.
Baffle cut. As shown in Figure 5.3, baffle cut is the height of the segment that is cut in
each baffle to permit the shellside fluid to flow across the baffle. This is expressed as a
percentage of the shell inside diameter. Although this, too, is an important parameter
for STHE design, its effect is less profound than that of baffle spacing.
Baffle cut can vary between 15% and 45% of the shell inside diameter.
Both very small and very large baffle cuts are detrimental to efficient heat transfer on the
shellside due to large deviation from an ideal situation, as illustrated in Figure 5.4.
It is strongly recommended that only baffle cuts between 20% and 35% be employed. Reducing baffle cut below 20% to increase the shellside heat-transfer coefficient or increasing
the baffle cut beyond 35% to decrease the shellside pressure drop usually lead to poor designs. Other aspects of tube bundle geometry should be changed instead to achieve those
goals. For example, doublesegmental baffles or a divided-flow shell, or even a cross-flow
shell, may be used to reduce the shellside pressure drop.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
76
5 Thermal Design
For single-phase fluids on the shellside, a horizontal baffle cut (Figure 5.5) is recommended,
because this minimizes accumulation of deposits at the bottom of the shell and also
prevents stratification. However, in the case of a two-pass shell (TEMA F), a vertical cut
is preferred for ease of fabrication and bundle assembly.
77
Since the flow fractions depend strongly upon the path resistances, varying any of the
following construction parameters will affect stream analysis and thereby the shellside
performance of an exchanger:
baffle spacing and baffle cut;
tube layout angle and tube pitch;
number of lanes in the flow direction and lane width;
clearance between the tube and the baffle hole;
clearance between the shell I.D. and the baffle; and
location of sealing strips and sealing rods.
Using a very low baffle spacing tends to increase the leakage and bypass streams. This
is because all five shellside streams are in parallel and, therefore, have the same pressure
drop. The leakage path dimensions are fixed. Consequently, when baffle spacing is decreased, the resistance of the main cross-flow path and thereby its pressure drop increases.
Since the pressure drops of all five streams must be equal, the leakage and bypass streams
increase until the pressure drops of all the streams balance out. The net result is a rise
in the pressure drop without a corresponding increase in the heat-transfer coefficient.
The shellside fluid viscosity also affects stream analysis profoundly. In addition to influencing the shellside heat transfer and pressure drop performance, the stream analysis also
affects the mean temperature difference (MTD) of the exchanger. This will be discussed
in detail later. First, though, lets look at an example that demonstrates how to optimize
baffle design when there is no significant temperature profile distortion.
5.4.7 Heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop
For the shell side heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop there are a number of methods
these include:
Kerns method
Donohues method
Bell-Delaware method
Tinkers method
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
78
5 Thermal Design
Besides these methods there is some proprietary methods putout by various organization
for use by their member companies. A number of these method are based on one of the
above methods. Some are based upon a judicious combination of methods 3 and 4 above
and supplemented by further research data. Among the most popular of the proprietary
methods, judged by their large clientele are
Heat Transfer Research Inc. (HTRI), Alliambra, california. This method is also
known as stream analysis method.
Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS), Engineering Science Division, AERE,
Harwell, United Kingdom Method.
In this work only Kerns method is given below. Bell-Delaware method may be found in
Coulson and Richardsons
5.4.8
N u = 0.36Re
where
Nu =
Pr =
Re =
de =
A=
P =
G=
As =
pt =
Ds =
lB =
hde
k
Cp
k
Gde
4A
P
M
As
(pt do )Ds lB
pt
0.55
Pr
1/3
!0.14
(5.7)
Nusselt number
Prandtl number
Reynolds number
hydraulic diameter
cross-sectional flow area
wetted perimeter
Mass flux
fluid viscosity at the tube wall temperature
pitch diameter
shell diameter
Baffle spacing
5.4.9
p2t d2o /4
do
0.87p2t /2d2o /8
do /2
Pressure drop
Ds
p = 4f
d
where
u2
2
0.3164
Re0.25
f =
64
Re
Re
L
lb
!0.14
(5.8)
2320
Re < 2320 .
L=tube length
lB = baffle spacing. The term (L/lB ) is the number of times the flow crosses the tube
bundle=(NB + 1). Where NB is the number of baffles.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
5.5
79
Design Algorithm
Step1
Specification
Define duty Q
Make energy balance if needed
to calcualted unspecified flow
rates or temperature
Q=Mccpc(Tc2-Tc1)=MhCph(Th1-Th2)
Step 9
Estimate tube-side heat
transfer coefficient
Step 10
Decide baffle spacing and estimate
shell side heat transfer coefficient
Step2
Calculate physical properties
Step 11
Calculate overall heat transfer
Coefficient including fouling factors
Uo,cal
Step3
Assume value of overall
coefficient Uo,ass
Step 4
Decide number of shell and
tube passes
Calculate Tlm, F and Tm
No
Set Uo,ass=Uo,cal
0<(Uo,cal-Uo,ass)/Uo,ass<30
Step 12
Estimate tube and shell side
pressure drop
Step 5
Determine heat transfer area
required Ao=q/Uo,assTm
Step 6
Decide type, tube size, material,
layout
Assign fluids to shell or tube
No
Step 13
Estimate cost of heat exchanger
Step 7
Calculate number of tubes
Step 8
Calculate shell diameter
Is pressure drops
within specification?
Yes
Can design be
optmized to
reduce cost?
Accept design
Figure 5.7. Design procedure for shell and tube heat exchanger.
80
6 Specification sheet
Specification sheet
Specification sheet is a data sheet that contains the information provided by the customer
to the vendor for the process and mechanical designs of an exchanger. After the process
design is done, the engineer fills in some further information. The rest of the information
is filled after the mechanical design is completed. The specification sheet is a medium of
communication between different parties involved in the procurement, design and fabrication of heat exchanger. It is also used to compare the performance of the installed unit
with the design conditions.
6.1
Information included
The information contained in the sheet is best decribed by a data sheet. Although each
company has its own version of data sheet, the most popular one is that of the TEMA
standards. It is similar to that of API standard 660. It contains the fluid
flow rate and properties,
heat duty,
heat transfer coefficient,
fouling resistance,
details about the shell and tube size,
materials,
baffle nozzle, etc..
Some variations include information for alternate designs and different systems of units
(British, SI, metric).
6.2
The regarding the type of flanges, studs, vent and relief valves, drains lines, welding,
inspection and testing requirement of the material of construction, etc.. are not given in
the specification sheet.
6.3
Operation conditions
The following operating conditions regarding the exchanger operation should be known
to the thermal designer for critical application.
1. Start-up condition and procedure
2. Normal operating conditions
3. Upset and emergency conditions
4. shut down conditions and procedure
5. possibility of switching the shell-side and tube tube side fluid for better design
6. possibility of increasing the allowable pressure drop to control the fouling
7. beside these the spec-sheet should provided with other information concerning the
composition of the streams, their thermal and physical properties and any phase
change occurring.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
6.4
81
Bid evaluation
82
6 Specification sheet
83
Proper storage, installation handling and correct start up emergency, and shutdown procedure are important for the successful working of a well designed and fabricated heat
exchanger. regular cleaning, maintenance and repairs are necessary to ensure trouble free
operation of the unit for its designed life span. These will be discussed in the following
sections.
NOTE: Before placing your equipment in operation, environment and service conditions
should be checked for compatibility with materials of construction. Contact your nearest
heat exchanger Standard representative if you are not sure what the actual materials of
construction are.
Successful performance of heat transfer equipment, length of service and freedom from
operating difficulties are largely dependent upon:
1. Proper thermal design.
2. Proper physical design.
3. Storage practice prior to installation.
4. Manner of installation, including design of foundation and piping.
5. The method of operation.
6. The thoroughness and frequency of cleaning.
7. The materials, workmanship, and tools used in maintenance and making repairs
and replacements.
Failure to perform properly may be due to one or more of the following:
1. Exchanger being dirty.
2. Failure to remove preservation materials after storage.
3. Operating conditions being different than design conditions.
4. Air or gas binding.
5. Incorrect piping connections.
6. Excessive clearances between internal parts due to corrosion.
7. Improper application.
7.1
Storage
Standard heat exchangers are protected against the elements during shipment. If they
cannot be installed and put into operation immediately upon receipt at the jobsite, certain precautions are necessary to prevent deterioration during storage. Responsibility for
integrity of the heat exchangers must be assumed by the user. The manufacturer will not
be responsible for damage, corrosion or other deterioration of heat exchanger equipment
during transit and storage.
Good storage practices are important, considering the high costs of repair or replacement,
and the possible delays for items which require long lead times for manufacture. The
following suggested practices are provided solely as a convenience to the user, who shall
make his own decision on whether to use all or any of them.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
84
1. On receipt of the heat exchanger, inspect for shipping damage to all protective covers. If damage is evident, inspect for possible contamination and replace protective
covers as required. If damage is extensive, notify the carrier immediately.
2. If the heat exchanger is not to be placed in immediate service, take precautions to
prevent rusting or contamination.
3. Heat exchangers for oil service, made of ferrous materials, may be pressure-tested
with oil at the factory. However, the residual oil coating on the inside surfaces of
the exchanger does not preclude the possibility of rust formation. Upon receipt,
fill these exchangers with appropriate oil or coat them with a corrosion prevention
compound for storage. These heat exchangers have a large warning decal, indicating
that they should be protected with oil.
4. The choice of preservation of interior surfaces during storage for other service applications depends upon your system requirements and economics. Only when included
in the original purchase order specifications will specific preservation be incorporated
prior to shipment from the factory.
5. Remove any accumulations of dirt, water, ice or snow and wipe dry before moving
exchangers into indoor storage. If unit was not filled with oil or other preservative,
open drain plugs to remove any accumulated moisture, then reseal. Accumulation
of moisture usually indicates rusting has already started and remedial action should
be taken.
6. Store under cover in a heated area, if possible. The ideal storage environment for
heat exchangers and accessories is indoors, above grade, in a dry, low humidity atmosphere which is sealed to prevent entry of blowing dust, rain or snow. Maintain
temperatures between 70 F and 105 F (wide temperature swings may cause condensation and sweating of steel parts). Cover windows to prevent temperature
variations caused by sunlight. Provide thermometers and humidity indicators at
several points, and maintain atmosphere at 40% relative humidity or lower.
7. In tropical climates, it may be necessary to use trays of renewable dessicant (such as
silica gel), or portable dehumidifiers, to remove moisture from the air in the storage
enclosure. Thermostatically controlled portable heaters (vented to outdoors) may
be required to maintain even air temperatures inside the enclosure.
8. Inspect heat exchangers and accessories frequently while they are in storage. Start
a log to record results of inspections and maintenance performed while units are
in storage. A typical log entry should include, for each component, at least the
following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
Date
Inspectors name
Identification of unit or item
Location
Condition of paint or coating
Condition of interior
Is free moisture present?
Has dirt accumulated?
Corrective steps taken
9. To locate ruptured or corroded tubes or leaking joints between tubes and tubesheets,
the following procedure is recommended:
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
7.2 Installation
85
7.2
Installation
86
3. Provide valves and bypasses in the piping system so that both the shell side and
tube side may be bypassed to permit isolation of the heat exchanger for inspection,
cleaning and repairs.
4. Provide convenient means for frequent cleaning as suggested under maintenance.
5. Provide thermometer wells and pressure gauge pipe taps in all piping to and from
the heat exchanger, located as close to the heat exchanger as possible.
6. Provide necessary air vent valves for the heat exchanger so that it can be purged to
prevent or relieve vapor or gas binding on both the tube side and shell side.
7. Provide adequate supports for mounting the heat exchanger so that it will not settle
and cause piping strains. Foundation bolts should be set accurately. In concrete
footings, pipe sleeves at least one pipe size larger than the bolt diameter slipped over
the bolt and cast in place are best for this purpose as they allow the bolt centers to
be adjusted after the foundation has set.
8. Install proper liquid level controls and relief valves and liquid level and temperature
alarms, etc.
9. Install gauge glasses or liquid level alarms in all vapor or gas spaces to indicate any
failure occurring in the condensate drain system and to prevent flooding of the heat
exchanger.
10. Install a surge drum upstream from the heat exchanger to guard against pulsation
of fluids caused by pumps, compressors or other equipment.
11. Do not pipe drain connections to a common closed manifold; it makes it more
difficult to determine that the exchanger has been thoroughly drained.
7.2.2 Installation at Jobsite
1. If you have maintained the heat exchanger in storage, thoroughly inspect it prior to
installation. Make sure it is thoroughly cleaned to remove all preservation materials
unless stored full of the same oil being used in the system, or the coating is soluble
in the lubricating system oil. If the exchanger was oil-tested by any Standard and
your purchase order did not specify otherwise, the oil used was Tectyl 754, a lightbodied oil which is soluble in most lubricating oils. Where special preservations were
applied, you should consult the preservative manufacturers product information
data for removal instructions.
2. If the heat exchanger is not being stored, inspect for shipping damage to all protective covers upon receipt at the jobsite. If damage is evident, inspect for possible
contamination and replace protective covers as required. If damage is extensive,
notify the carrier immediately.
3. When installing, set heat exchanger level and square so that pipe connections can
be made without forcing.
4. Before piping up, inspect all openings in the heat exchanger for foreign material.
Remove all wooden plugs, bags of dessicant and shipping covers immediately prior to
installing. Do not expose internal passages of the heat exchanger to the atmosphere
since moisture or harmful contaminants may enter the unit and cause severe damage
to the system due to freezing and/or corrosion.
5. After piping is complete, if support cradles or feet are fixed to the heat exchanger,
loosen foundation bolts at one end of the exchanger to allow free movement. Oversized holes in support cradles or feet are provided for this purpose.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
7.3 Operation
87
7.3
Operation
1. Be sure entire system is clean before starting operation to prevent plugging of tubes
or shell side passages with refuse. The use of strainers or settling tanks in pipelines
leading to the heat exchanger is recommended.
2. Open vent connections before starting up.
3. Start operating gradually. See Table 1 for suggested start-up and shut-down procedures for most applications. If in doubt, consult the nearest manufactuerer representative for specific instructions.
4. After the system is completely filled with the operating fluids and all air has been
vented, close all manual vent connections.
5. Re-tighten bolting on all gasketed or packed joints after the heat exchanger has
reached operating temperatures to prevent leaks and gasket failures. Standard published torque values do not apply to packed end joints.
6. Do not operate the heat exchanger under pressure and temperature conditions in
excess of those specified on the nameplate.
7. To guard against water hammer, drain condensate from steam heat exchangers and
similar apparatus both when starting up and shutting down.
8. Drain all fluids when shutting down to eliminate possible freezing and corroding.
9. In all installations there should be no pulsation of fluids, since this causes vibration
and will result in reduced operating life.
10. Under no circumstances is the heat exchanger to be operated at a flowrate greater
than that shown on the design specifications. Excessive flows can cause vibration
and severely damage the heat exchanger tube bundle.
11. Heat exchangers that are out of service for extended periods of time should be
protected against corrosion as described in the storage requirements for new heat
exchangers. Heat exchangers that are out of service for short periods and use water
as the flowing medium should be thoroughly drained and blown dry with warm air,
if possible. If this is not practical, the water should be circulated through the heat
exchanger on a daily basis to prevent stagnant water conditions that can ultimately
precipitate corrosion.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
88
1. Clean exchangers subject to fouling (scale, sludge deposits, etc.) periodically, depending on specific conditions. A light sludge or scale coating on either side of the
tube greatly reduces its effectiveness. A marked increase in pressure drop and/or
reduction in performance usually indicates cleaning is necessary. Since the difficulty
of cleaning increases rapidly as the scale thickens or deposits increase, the intervals
between cleanings should not be excessive.
2. Neglecting to keep tubes clean may result in random tube plugging. Consequent
overheating or cooling of the plugged tubes, as compared to surrounding tubes, will
cause physical damage and leaking tubes due to differential thermal expansion of
the metals.
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7.3 Operation
89
3. To clean or inspect the inside of the tubes, remove only the necessary tube side
channel covers or bonnets, depending on type of exchanger construction.
4. If the heat exchanger is equipped with sacrificial anodes or plates, replace these as
required.
5. To clean or inspect the outside of the tubes, it may be necessary to remove the tube
bundle. (Fixed tubesheet exchanger bundles are non-removable).
6. When removing tube bundles from heat exchangers for inspection or cleaning, exercise care to see that they are not damaged by improper handling.
The weight of the tube bundle should not be supported on individual tubes
but should be carried by the tubesheets, support or baffle plates or on blocks
contoured to the periphery of the tube bundles.
Do not handle tube bundles with hooks or other tools which might damage
tubes. Move tube bundles on cradles or skids.
To withdraw tube bundles, pass rods through two or more of the tubes and
take the load on the floating tubesheet.
Rods should be threaded at both ends, provided with nuts, and should pass
through a steel bearing plate at each end of the bundle.
Insert a soft wood filler board between the bearing plate and tubesheet face to
prevent damage to the tube ends.
Screw forged steel eyebolts into both bearing plates for pulling and lifting.
As an alternate to the rods, thread a steel cable through one tube and return
through another tube.
A hardwood spreader block must be inserted between the cable and each
tubesheet to prevent damage to the tube ends.
7. If the heat exchanger has been in service for a considerable length of time without
being removed, it may be necessary to use a jack on the floating tubesheet to break
the bundle free.
Use a good-sized steel bearing plate with a filler board between the tubesheet
face and bearing plate to protect the tube ends.
8. Lift tube bundles horizontally by means of a cradle formed by bending a light-gauge
plate or plates into a U-shape. Make attachments in the legs of the U for lifting.
9. Do not drag bundles, since baffles or support plates may become easily bent. Avoid
any damage to baffles so that the heat exchanger will function properly.
10. Some suggested methods of cleaning either the shell side or tube side are listed
below:
Circulating hot wash oil or light distillate through tube side or shell side will
usually effectively remove sludge or similar soft deposits.
Soft salt deposits may be washed out by circulating hot fresh water.
Some commercial cleaning compounds such as Oakite or Dowell may be
effective in removing more stubborn deposits. Use in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.
11. Some tubes have inserts or longitudinal fins and can be damaged by cleaning when
mechanical means are employed. Clean these types of tubes chemically or consult
the nearest manufacturer representative for the recommended method of cleaning.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
90
If the scale is hard and the above methods are not effective, use a mechanical
means. Neither the inside nor the outside of the tube should be hammered
with a metallic tool. If it is necessary to use scrapers, they should not be sharp
enough to cut the metal of the tubes. Take extra care when employing scrapers
to prevent tube damage.
Do not attempt to clean tubes by blowing steam through individual tubes. This
overheats the individual tube and results in severe expansion strains and leaking
tube-to-tubesheet joints.
12. Table 2 shows safe loads for steel rods and eyebolts.
91
(This subject of chapter is collected from: Bruce W Schafer Framatome ANP, Inc. 155
Mill Ridge Road Lynchburg, VA 24502 (434) 832-3360 bschafer@framatech.com)
Abstract The traditional method of repairing degraded tubes in shell-and-tube heat
exchangers is to remove the effected tubes from service by plugging. Since heat exchangers
are designed with excess heat transfer capability, approximately 10% of tubes can be
plugged before performance is affected. When the number of plugged tubes becomes
excessive, heat exchanger efficiency is lost, resulting in reduced power output, high system
pressure drop, further heat exchanger damage, or abnormal loads placed on other plant
heat exchangers.
As an option to component retubing or replacement, repair methods, including tube sleeving and tube expansion, have proven to be an effective method to repair defective tubes
and keep the existing heat exchanger in service. For the sleeving process, a new tube
section is installed inside the existing tube to bridge across the degraded area. Tube
expansion is used to close off a gap between the tube and the tubesheet or end plate (to
eliminate a leak path) or between the tube and tube support (to minimize vibration).
While not all heat exchangers can be returned to their original design condition by performing tube repairs, in some instances it may be possible to get many more years of
useful life out of a heat exchanger at a fraction the cost of replacement.
This paper presents options which the Plant Maintenance Engineer should consider in
making the repair versus replacement decision. This includes the repair options (sleeving
and tube expansion), other conditions within the heat exchanger, and the effect of tube
repair on heat exchanger performance.
8.1
Introduction
92
tubes) is removed from the heat exchanger and the old tubes are removed from the
bundle. New tubes are then inserted and re-attached to the tubesheet (typically by
either mechanical expansion, welding, or both). In many instances, the existing shell
side hardware is used as-is, although some modifications may be made. Retubing
is typically performed on straight tube heat exchangers, such as condensers and
coolers.
Since the 1970s, tube sleeving has been used to allow damaged tubes to remain in service. The sleeves are installed by various means (roll, explosive, or hydraulic expansion,
explosively welded, or press-fit or epoxied in place) over the defective area of the tube.
Through the use of sleeving, which is a low-cost option to retubing, rebundling, or replacement, the useful life of a heat exchanger can be economically extended. The decision
to perform sleeving also can be made with short notice as opposed to replacement (2-6
weeks compared with 18 months), possibly allowing repairs to be performed the same
outage that the damage is noted. Tube expansion also can be performed to minimize or
eliminate leakage within heat exchangers. In the tubesheet, tubes can be re-expanded to
strengthen the original tube-to-tubesheet joint, reducing or eliminating leakage and prolonging the life of the heat exchanger. Expansions also can be made deep within the tube
to expand the tube into tube support plates and end plates. These expansion can reduce
tube-to-plate clearance for vibration control or, at end plates, to minimize steam flow
from the high to low pressure side of the plate.Since the 1970s, tube sleeving has been
used to allow damaged tubes to remain in service. The sleeves are installed by various
means (roll, explosive, or hydraulic expansion, explosively welded, or press-fit or epoxied
in place) over the defective area of the tube. Through the use of sleeving, which is a lowcost option to retubing, rebundling, or replacement, the useful life of a heat exchanger
can be economically extended. The decision to perform sleeving also can be made with
short notice as opposed to replacement (2-6 weeks compared with 18 months), possibly
allowing repairs to be performed the same outage that the damage is noted.
Tube expansion also can be performed to minimize or eliminate leakage within heat exchangers. In the tubesheet, tubes can be re-expanded to strengthen the original tubeto-tubesheet joint, reducing or eliminating leakage and prolonging the life of the heat
exchanger. Expansions also can be made deep within the tube to expand the tube into
tube support plates and end plates. These expansion can reduce tube-to-plate clearance
for vibration control or, at end plates, to minimize steam flow from the high to low
pressure side of the plate.
8.2
There are numerous factors to consider when deciding whether to repair the tubes in a
heat exchanger or to perform a larger repair scope and rebundle or replace the component.
The following factors should be considered when making the repair vs. replace decision.
1. The budget available for repair or replacement needs to be determined. Typically,
the cost of performing a substantial heat exchanger repair (consisting of plug removal, tube inspection, tube expansion, and sleeving) is less than 10% of the cost of
replacing the unit. Because of the lower cost, the payback time on the repair option
is much shorter than for replacement.
If the heat exchanger is critical to plant operation (either from a safety, efficiency,
or power production standpoint) or is resulting in costly forced outages, it may be
possible to justify a 3 repair to the unit in the near-term and a scheduled replacement
when a longer outage can be planned. If there are a large number of tube plugs
to remove, or if they are difficult to remove (explosive or welded), then the cost to
repair the heat exchanger will increase, and the scheduled time needed on-site may
not fit within the outage window. If it appears that tube repair may be possible,
it may be worthwhile to plug tubes, using removable plugs, until a certain quantity
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
93
of tubes are removed from service. At that point the plugs would be removed and
sleeves installed, thereby minimizing the overall maintenance cost.
2. The location and quantity of the tube defects need to be examined to decide if
tube repair is an option. Tube repair may be appropriate if the damage is limited
to a certain area of the tube, which would allow the use of a short repair sleeve.
If the damage is over a significant portion of the tube, it is possible to install a
longer sleeve (up to the full length of the tube) to ensure that all tube defects are
repaired. However, if the u-bend region of the tube is damaged then tube repair is
not possible. Also, it would not be possible to install a sleeve if a large portion of
the tube had damage but there was inadequate clearance for a long sleeve at the
tube end.
3. One of the more important items to consider when deciding whether a heat exchanger can be repaired is the condition of the remainder of the heat exchanger.
The condition of the shell side components, such as the impingement plates, tube
supports, end plates, and other structural members, should be in good shape if a
long term repair is being planned. An evaluation also should be made of the shell
thickness in areas that are prone to shell erosion/corrosion. If the tube repair is only
a short-term fix, to allow component operation until a replacement heat exchanger
can be installed, the condition of the shell side is not as critical.
4. The life expectancy of the power plant needs to be factored into the decision to
repair or replace a heat exchanger. If the only problem with the heat exchanger is
in one section of the tube, and the expected run time on the unit is relatively short,
it would be advantageous to repair rather than replace the heat exchanger since it
will be very difficult to pay back the cost for replacement over the remaining plant
life.
5. The outage time required to repair a heat exchanger, even when tube and shell side
inspections are performed, is typically much less than for replacement. In addition,
very few, if any, plant modifications need to be made to make the repairs. This
allows other work to be performed in the vicinity of the heat exchanger. Along
with the shorter outage duration, the site support required for repair is much less.
Usually, there are no shell or head modifications required since all work can usually
be performed through the manways and pass partition plates. Less repair equipment
is required, resulting in less space being needed in the area of the heat exchanger
for setup and storage. In addition, the time required to prepare for tube repair is
much less than for replacement (2- 6 weeks compared with 18 months), allowing a
decision on repair to be made just before, or even during, an outage.
6. At nuclear plants, the added cost for the disposal of radioactively contaminated
heat exchangers must be taken into account. Before disposal, there is the cost of
surveying the heat exchangers for release and, if contamination is found, they must
either be decontaminated or disposed of as radioactive waste. Tube repairs can
eliminate these costs.
7. If the heat exchanger is being replaced to eliminate detrimental materials in the
cooling system (i.e. copper in the condensate/feedwater system) then tube sleeving
will not be beneficial. The only solution would be to retube/rebundle/replace to
change out the tube material.
8.3
There have always been options available to either repair or replace heat exchanger tubes
in the event that tube leakage or degradation is present. The repair options include:
1. Plug the tube
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
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2. Sleeving
3. Tube expansion
The replacement options include
1. Retubing
2. Rebundling
3. Replace with new unit
8.4
Repair option
8.4.1 Plug
The initial option, after the problem tubes have been located (either through non-destructive
examinations, such as eddy current testing, visual inspections, or leak tests) is to plug the
tube. Depending on the type of service and operating pressures of the heat exchanger,
various types of plugs are employed. These include
1. tapered fiber and metal pin plugs,
2. rubber compression plugs,
3. two piece ring and pin plugs,
4. two piece serrated ring and pin plugs (installed with a hydraulic cylinder),
5. welded plugs, and explosively welded plugs.
In addition to the tube end plug, there also may be a stabilizer rod or cable that is inserted
into the tube to minimize future tube vibration damage.
At the beginning of the life of a heat exchanger, inserting a few plugs into damaged tubes
has little effect on the performance of the heat exchanger. However, if heat exchanger
problems continue, and the number of plugs increases significantly, it is possible that
the heat exchanger will eventually reach a point that it will not handle the full load
that is placed on it. This is due to a combination of loss of heat transfer area and the
increased pressure drop. In addition, as the number of plugged tubes increases, abnormal
temperature conditions (either hot or cold spots) may be set up in the heat exchanger.
These conditions can result in an acceleration of tube damage, creating a faster demise
of the heat exchanger.
Once the number of plugs reaches a unacceptable level, the heat exchanger will need to be
repaired, replaced, or bypassed. However, bypassing the unit is usually not recommended,
at least for a long time period, since it will result in a loss of efficiency and heat transfer
area. Also, the heat load from the bypassed heat exchanger will be transferred to another
heat exchanger in the string, resulting in greater than normal operating flow rates and
higher degradation in that heater.
The following sections show the options that can be used to replace or repair the entire
heat exchanger or just the tubes.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
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8.4.2 Sleeving
An alternate approach to retubing, rebundling, or replacement of a heat exchanger is to
install sleeves over the defective portions of the tubes. The sleeve consists of a smaller
diameter piece of tubing that is inserted into the parent tube and positioned over the
tube defects. After insertion, each end of the sleeve is expanded into the parent tube
material. These expansions serve the dual function of structurally anchoring the sleeve
into the tube and providing a leak limiting path, allowing the sleeve to become the new
pressure boundary for the tube. This means that a sleeved tube can have a 100% throughwall indication and still remain in-service, since the sleeve is now the new structural and
pressure boundary. The installation of the sleeve into the tube will allow the majority of
the tubes heat transfer area and flow to be maintained.
If heat exchanger repair by sleeving is a possibility then a strategy needs to be used to
prepare for future repair. It may be cost effective to plug a quantity of tubes, per the nondestructive examination results, each outage using a removable plug. When the quantity
of plugged tubes reaches a certain level the plugs can be removed and sleeves installed.
Using this approach will minimize the cost and time during each inspection outage while
allowing the maximum tube repair later in the heat exchangers life.
There are three types of sleeves that are installed into heat exchanger tubes. These are
1. full length,
2. partial length structural, and
3. partial length barrier sleeves.
The three types are discussed below. Figure Figure 8.1 shows the sleeve layout.
96
97
For sleeves installed deep within the tube, a hydraulic expansion device is used to
connect the sleeve to the tube. The expander consists of multiple plastic bladders
that are filled with high pressure water. As the water pressure increases, the bladders
expanded against the inside of the sleeve, pushing the sleeve into the tube. The
expansion process, which is computer controlled, continues until either a preset
volume of water or a preset pressure is reached. At this point the sleeve is properly
expanded and the bladders are depressurized. Hydraulic expansions can be made
anywhere along the tube length since the expander is connected to flexible high
pressure tubing and is not restricted by tube end access. The expansion parameters
are qualified to meet the proper structural and leakage requirements for the sleeve.
Full length expansions are not usually used for structural or leak limiting purposes
but instead are used to improve heat transfer and flow through the sleeve and to
close the annulus between the sleeve and tube. The full length expansion is made
by placing a tool, with seals on each end, into the sleeve. The inside of the sleeve
is filled and then pressurized with water to a preset pressure setting, expanding the
sleeve into tight contact with the tube. After the full length expansion is made,
the ends of the sleeve are typically either roll or hydraulically expanded to form the
structural and leak limiting sleeve-to-tube joint.
Many times, the partial length structural sleeves are used to repair indications at one
particular area of the tube, such as wear damage at tube support locations, cracking
in roll transitions, or pitting indications at one discreet location along the tube length.
Longer versions of these sleeves also have been used to repair an entire damaged section
of a heat exchanger, such as a desuperheater or drain cooler section of a feedwater heater.
Because of the wide variety of uses, the sleeve length can range from as short as 1 foot to
over 12 feet in length.
Qualification testing is performed on the structural sleeves to ensure that they can withstand the design temperature and pressure conditions imposed on them. The test results
must show that the sleeve will be the new pressure boundary even with a 100% throughwall indication in the parent tube. Sleeves of this type, using mechanical expansions (roll
and hydraulic), have reliably been in-service for more than 15 years.
Partial Length Barrier Sleeve
These sleeves, also known as shields, are used at the ends of the tubes to act as a barrier
to tube end erosion. These sleeves are usually very thing, are not designed to act as a
pressure boundary or structural repair, and are installed in areas of high turbulence. The
materials for these sleeves are compatible with the existing tube material and may include
plastic inserts. The sleeves are either roll or hydraulic expanded or pressed or epoxied
in place. If tube end erosion is occurring, or is expected to occur, the use of these tube
end sleeves will protect and prolong the life of the parent tube, although over time tube
erosion may begin to occur at the end of the sleeve. Many heat exchanger tube ends have
been protected with shields, significantly prolonging the life of the tubes.
Items to Consider for Tube Sleeving
Prior to choosing to perform tube sleeving, the following factors should be considered.
The length, location, and quantity of tube defects that would require sleeving need
to be determined. If the defects are in one or a few short areas then either a single or
a couple of partial length sleeves could be used. However, if the defects are spaced
throughout the length of the tube, then the only option would be a full length sleeve.
The parent tube in the area where the sleeve will be expanded is to be defect free.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
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This will insure the highest sleeve-to-tube joint integrity. Also, the tube support
designations must be clearly identified to insure that the sleeve is installed at the
correct location along the tube length. This is especially true in areas where there
may be skipped baffles and the tube only touches every other support plate.
The condition of the remainder of the tube away from the sleevable defects needs
to be known. If there are u-bend defects that may require plugging then the tube
should not be sleeved. Sleeving is an option if the remainder of the tube is in good
shape.
The space available at the tube end to insert a sleeve and its installation tooling
needs to be known, as shown in Figure 8.4. If a short, partial length sleeve is being
used, the amount of space required is not as critical, although there can still be
access issues around the tubesheet periphery for hemi-head channel covers and at
pass partition plates. However, if a full length sleeve is required, there will need to
be a significant amount of clearance from the tubesheet face.
Inspection records need to be reviewed to determine if there are any tube inside
diameter (ID) restrictions that would block the sleeve from being inserted to the
target location. The size of the eddy current probe used for the inspection, plus any
other hardware that has been inserted into the tube, can be used to help determine
the tube ID access issues.
The post-sleeving tube inspection requirements need to be considered. Typically,
the ability to inspect the tube beyond a sleeve is not a significant issue. While
the presence of the sleeve reduces the inside diameter of the tube, which will result
in the need for a smaller inspection probe, the probe will remain large enough
to detect pluggable tube indications (usually greater than 40%), however small
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
99
indications may go undetected. As part of the post-sleeve inspection, the sleeve and
its attachment to the tube should be examined. There is no need to inspect the
section of the parent tube between the sleeve expansions since this is no longer part
of the pressure boundary.
If tube cleaning is to be performed in the heat exchanger, then the type of sleeve to
be installed needs to be evaluated. If on-line cleaning is performed, the sleeve size
cannot restrict the passage of the balls or brushes. For off-line cleaning, the projectiles need to pass through the sleeve without becoming stuck. Many sleeves that are
installed in tubes that require cleaning are full length expanded to ensure the best
results for the cleaning equipment. If it appears that tube sleeving is possible, then
information will be needed to ensure that the heat exchanger is properly repaired.
The following information is used when planning for sleeving.
Tube sleeving will need to be coordinated with eddy current inspection and plug
removal.
If it is expected that sleeving may be performed, then it is important that the proper
sleeve material be purchased in advance of the job.
The sleeve material needs to be compatible with the heat exchanger parent tubing
and with the water chemistry within the heat exchanger. The galvanic corrosion
potential between the sleeve and tube needs to be determined. Also, effects of crevice
corrosion between the sleeve and tube, in the heat exchanger water chemistry, need
to be considered to determine if sleeving is a viable repair option.
The sleeve dimensions need to fit the heat exchanger operating and design conditions plus any restrictions within the tube ID. The sleeve outside diameter (OD) is
to be designed to fit into the tube but must be long enough to limit the amount of
sleeve expansion. The sleeve wall thickness needs to be sized for the heat exchanger
operating parameters, including any ASME Code minimum wall thickness calculations, if needed. The sleeve length must be long enough to span the expected tube
defects but needs to be sized to fit any tube end clearance restrictions.
Before installing sleeves into heat exchanger tubes, testing needs to be performed to
set the installation parameters. Depending on the type of sleeve being used, these
tests may include setting the rolling torque, hydraulic expansion constants, and full
length expansion pressure. In addition, depending on the application for the sleeve,
there may be a need to do qualification testing, which would consist of hydrostatic
leak and pressure tests and temperature and pressure cycling. These tests would
verify that the expansion parameters were set correctly for the sleeve application.
If a large quantity of sleeves are being installed, it may be necessary to calculate
the heat transfer and flow loss due to sleeving. These calculations will give a sleeveto-plug ratio that can be used to determine the expected improvement in heat
exchanger performance after sleeving is complete (and tubes have been returned to
service, if applicable).
The sleeve may need to be full-length expanded based on the heat exchanger operating environment. However, the production rates for sleeve installation are lower
when full length expansions are performed. While full length expansion is typically not needed in many applications, such as most feedwater heaters, it should be
considered for the following.
if tube ID cleaning needs to routinely be performed
if a long sleeve is being inserted that would severely restrict the tubes heat
transfer or flow
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
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101
102
103
If it appears that tube expansion is possible, then information will be needed to ensure
that the heat exchanger is properly repaired. The following information is used when
planning for tube expansion.
Tube expansion will need to be coordinated with eddy current inspection and plug
removal.
The tube expander design (diameter and length) needs to be based on the requirements for the expansion. Before performing tube expansions into heat exchanger
tubes, testing needs to be performed to set the tooling operating parameters. Depending on the type of expansion, these tests may include setting the rolling torque
for tubesheet re-expansions or setting the hydraulic expansion constants for end
plate expansions. In addition, for the tube-intotubesheet re-expansion process, qualification testing should be performed. This would consist of hydrostatic leak and
pressure tests and temperature and pressure cycling. These tests would verify that
the expansion parameters were set correctly for the tube reexpansions. exchanger.
8.5
Replacement option
8.5.1 Retubing
The tubes can be replaced, if the unit has:
straight tubes,
good access, and
the remaining components (shell, tube supports, internal structural pieces) of the
heat exchanger are in good shape.
The old tubes are removed from the unit and new ones, typically manufactured from
an improved material, are inserted, and then expanded, into place. Insertion of the new
tubes is shown in Figure 8.6. In addition to performing retubing to replace damaged
tubes, retubing has been performed to eliminate detrimental materials (such as copper
from condenser tubes) to minimize damage to other equipment within the plant (nuclear
steam generators or fossil boilers).
104
8.5.2 Rebundling
Some heat exchangers are designed to be rebundled rather than replaced. For these units
the entire tube bundle, including tubes, tubesheet, and tube supports are replaced, as
shown in Figure 8.7. The original shell and any other internal structural pieces would
be reused (although any necessary internal repairs could be made when the shell was
removed). The new tube bundle can be manufactured to ensure that original design
problems with the existing unit are corrected. However, the same basic design must
be maintained since the new bundle must fit within the existing heat exchanger shell.
Rebundling costs about 15-25% more than retubing.
8.6 Conclusions
8.6
105
Conclusions
The costs associated with heat exchanger replacement can be significant. These costs
include the new heat exchanger or tube bundle, the manpower required to remove the
old and install the new heat exchanger components, plant modifications to allow for the
removal of the heat exchanger, and the amount of outage time associated with replacement. In addition, the replacement of a heat exchanger can adversely affect other work
going on in the their vicinity. Because of the cost and time involved, and if the damage
is confined to only the tubing (which is typically the case), repair of the heat exchanger,
through either sleeving or tube expansion, should be considered. If the tube damage is
confined to one general area, there is a good possibility that the expense of a replacement
can be avoided. In addition, the time required to prepare for tube repair is much less
than for replacement (2-6 weeks compared with 18 months), allowing a decision on repair
to be made just before, or even into, an outage.
By removing plugs and installing sleeves, it is possible to return lost heat transfer area to
service. Tubes that would be likely to fail in the near term also can be repaired. This will
improve the performance and reliability of the heat exchanger. The cost to perform the
repairs is also much less than for replacement (usually less than 1/10th the cost). Sleeving
has been shown to be a proven tube repair technique, having been performed since the
1970s. During this time, tube repairs have economically extended the useful life of heat
exchangers worldwide.
As the number of plugged tubes approaches the upper limits or if damage is consistently
occurring in one area of a heat exchanger, tube repair, through both sleeving and tube
expansions, should be considered to minimize future damage and extend the life of the
heat
The following table shows the various heat exchanger repair options and the factors to
be considered when choosing each of the options. Note that the table contains selected
criteria for evaluating component repair versus replacement options. A final decision to
implement a particular option should be made on a case by case basis with proper weight
given to all factors. The information listed in this table is for relative comparison purposes
only.
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9 Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting
9.1
Heat transfer equipment provides the economic and process viability for many plant operations. The basis for successful application of such equipment depends on the designer.
The problem that should be anticipated by the design to avoid high maintenance or
cleaning and costly shut down production include:
1. Fouling
2. Leakage
3. Corrosion
To anticipate maintenance problems the designer should need to be familiar with the
plant location, process flow sheet, plant operation. Some of the questions that must be
considered are:
1. will the heat exchanger need cleaning? how often? what cleaning method will be
used?
2. what penalty will the plant pay for leakages between the tubeside and shell side?
3. what kind of production upsets can occur that could affect the heat exchanger?will
cycling occur?
4. how will heat exchanger be started up and shut down?
5. will the heat exchanger be likely to require repairs? if so, will the repairs present
any special problem?
9.2
9.2.1
Fouling
Costs of fouling
9.2 Fouling
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108
9 Troubleshooting
3. surface structure
Fluid Properties
1.
2.
3.
4.
suspended solids
dissolved solids
dissolved gases
trace elements
9.3
109
110
9.4
9 Troubleshooting
Corrosion
The heat transfer surface reacts chemically with elements of the fluid stream producing
a less conductive, corrosion layer on all or part of the surface.
9.4.1
Corrosion effects
Type of corrosion
stress corrosion
galvanic corrosion
uniform corrosion
Pitting
Crevice Corrosion
9.4.4
Stress corrosion
9.4 Corrosion
111
9.4.6 Pitting
Pitting is a localized form of corrosive attack. Pitting corrosion is typified by the formation
of holes or pits on the tube surface.
Causes:
dissolved oxygen content
eposition of corrosion products
Methods for reducing the effects of pitting corrosion: Reduce the aggressiveness of the
environment (pH, O2) Use more pitting resistant materials Improve the design of the
system
9.4.7 Uniform or rust corrosion
Some common methods used to prevent or reduce general corrosion are listed below:
Coatings
Inhibitors
Cathodic protection
Proper materials selection
9.4.8 Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosive attack. Crevice corrosion occurs at
narrow openings or spaces between two metal surfaces or between metals and nonmetal
surfaces.Some examples of crevices are listed below:
Flanges
Deposits
Washers
Rolled tube ends
Threaded joints
O-rings
Gaskets
Lap joints
Sediment
Some methods for reducing the effects of crevice corrosion :
Eliminate the crevice from the design. For example close fit. A 3-mm- long gap is
thus created between the tube and the tube hole at this tube-sheet face. The tube
is allowed to protrude 3 mm of the tube sheet.
Select materials more resistant to crevice corrosion
Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
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9 Troubleshooting
9.5
Troubleshooting
This chapter presents potential failure mechanisms for heat transfer equipment and suggests design alternatives for reducing the risks associated with such failures. The types
of heat exchangers covered in this chapter include:
Shell and tube exchangers
Air cooled exchangers
Direct contact exchangers
Others types including helical, spiral, plate and frame, and carbon block exchangers
This chapter presents only those failure modes that are unique to heat transfer equipment.
Some of the generic failure scenarios pertaining to vessels may also be applicable to heat
transfer equipment. Unless specifically noted, the failure scenarios apply to more than
one class of heat transfer equipment.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
9.6
113
This section provides several case histories of incidents involving failure of heat transfer
equipment to reinforce the need for the safe design practices presented in this chapter.
9.6.1 Ethylene Oxide Redistillation Column Explosion:
In March 1991, an Ethylene Oxide (EO) redistillation column exploded at a Seadrift,
Texas chemical facility. The explosion was caused by energetic decomposition of essentially pure EO vapor and liquid mist inside the column.
A set of extraordinary circumstances was found to have coincided, resulting in the catalytic
initiation of decomposition in a localized region of a reboiler tube. Extensive investigation
by reference [158] showed that:
1. A low liquid level in the column, plus a coinciding temporary condensate backup
and accumulation of inert gas in the reboiler shell, significantly diminished the EO
liquid fraction leaving the reboiler. Nevertheless, sufficient heat transfer capacity remained to satisfy the vaporization rate required by the column controls, so operation
appeared normal.
2. A localized imbalance resulted in some reboiler tubes losing thermosyphon action,
so that the existing EO was essentially all vapor. Due to ongoing reaction with
traces of water, high boiling glycols accumulated in the stalled tubes, increasing
the boiling point while reducing the heat flux and resulting mass flow rate. This
self-reinforcing process continued leading to minimal EO vapor velocity through the
stalled tubes. Since the vapor was no longer in equilibrium with boiling EO it could
momentarily attain the 150o C temperature of the reboiler steam supply.
3. The insides of the reboiler tubes had collected a thin film of EO polymer containing
percent-level amounts of catalytic iron oxides. This film had in numerous places
peeled away from the tube wall producing a catalytic surface of low heat capacity
and negligible effect on mass flow rate. EO vapor heating was aided by the absence of
liquid plus the small vapor velocity through the stalled tubes. These conditions led
to a rapid rate of film heating which encouraged a fast disproportionation reaction of
EO to predominate over slower polymerization reactions. The previously unknown
fast reaction between EO vapor and supported high surface area iron oxide led to a
hotspot and initiation of vapor decomposition. Once ignited the EO decomposition
flame spread rapidly through the column causing overpressurization.
9.6.2 Brittle Fracture of a Heat Exchanger
An olefin plant was being restarted after repair work had been completed. A leak developed on the inlet flange of one of the heat exchangers in the acetylene conversion preheat
system. To eliminate the leak, the control valve supplying feed to the conversion system
was shut off and the acetylene conversion preheat system was depressured. Despite the
fact that the feed control valve was given a signal to close, the valve allowed a small flow.
High liquid level in an upstream drum may have allowed liquid carryover which resulted
in extremely low temperature upon depressurization to atmospheric pressure.
The heat exchanger that developed the leak was equipped with bypass and block valves
to isolate the exchanger. After the leaking heat exchanger was bypassed, the acetylene
conversion system was repressured and placed back in service. Shortly thereafter, the first
exchanger in the feed stream to the acetylene converter system failed in a brittle manner,
releasing a large volume of flammable gas. The subsequent fire and explosion resulted in
two fatalities, seven serious burn cases, and major damage to the olefins unit.
The acetylene converter pre-heater failed as a result of inadequate lowtemperature resistance during the low temperature excursion caused by depressuring the acetylene converter
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
114
9 Troubleshooting
system. The heat exchanger that failed was fabricated from ASTM A515 grade 70 carbon steel. After the accident, all process equipment in the plant which could potentially
operate at less than 200F was reviewed for suitable low-temperature toughness [116].
Ed. Note: It should have been recognized that upstream cryogenic conditions may have
a deleterious effect on downstream equipment during normal and abnormal operations.
9.6.3 Cold Box Explosion
Ethylene plants utilize a series of heat exchangers to transfer heat between a number of
low temperature plant streams and the plant refrigeration systems. This collection of
heat exchangers is known collectively as the cold box. In one operating ethylene plant,
a heat exchanger in the cold box that handled a stream fed to the demethanizer column
required periodic heating and backflushing with methane to prevent excessive pressure
drop due to the accumulation of nitrogen-containing compounds.
During a plant upset which resulted in the shutdown of the plant refrigeration compressors,
the temperature of the cold box began to increase. During this temperature transient an
explosion occurred which destroyed the cold box and disabled the ethylene plant for about
5 months. An estimated 20 tons of hydrocarbon escaped. Fortunately, the hydrocarbon
did not ignite.
An investigation revealed that the explosion was caused by the accumulation and subsequent violent decomposition of unstable organic compounds that formed at the low
temperatures inside the cold box. The unstable gums55 were found to contain nitro
and nitroso components on short hydrocarbon chains. The source of the nitrogen was
identified as nitrogen oxides (NOx) present in a feed stream from a catalytic cracking
unit. Operating upsets could have promoted unstable gums by permitting higher than
normal concentrations of 1, 3-butadiene and 1, 3-cyclopentadiene to enter the cold box.
To prevent NOx from entering the cold box, the feed stream from the catalytic cracking
unit was isolated from the ethylene plant [87].
9.7
Table 9.1 presents information on equipment failure scenarios and associated design solutions specific to heat transfer equipment.
115
116
9 Troubleshooting
9.8
Discussion
9.8 Discussion
117
118
9 Troubleshooting
mitigation measures, such as siting outside the potential fire zone or diking with sloped
drainage, may be used to reduce the likelihood and magnitude of external fire impinging
on the heat exchanger. Alternative heat exchanger designs may also be used to reduce
the surface area presented to an external fire.
9.9
Troubleshooting Examples
9.9.1
55 oC
oC
55-62
uncontrolled
67 oC
Control
vlave
55-62 oC
controlled
Bypass
Control
vlave
30 oC
Organic
o
125 C
Water
Symptom: Shellside outlet
temperaturee cannot be
controlled within desired
range (55-62 oC) by
controlling flow of 125 oC
water to tubes. The heat
exchanger is 4 tube pass.
30 oC
Organic
o
70 C
Water
Diagnosis: Heat exchanger is
Cure: Tube side water
considerablyo versized for the
temperature reduced to 70oC
duty (because of an alternative and control valve removed.
service). Temperature correction Control valve is installed
factors F for LMTD fluctuate
in new shellside bypass
line
widely with small changes in
tube side flow
9.9.2
200 oC
487 oC
belows joint
9.9.3
119
Steam
ondensate
Control hunting: As condensate backs up in the exchanger, the heat transfer rate to
the process is greatly reduced. The control valve opens wide enough to allow flow
into the exchanger. As condensate drains out, the steam space is now greater and
the steam pressure increases. The process overheats, the control valve closes down,
and the cycle repeats.
Temperature shock: Condensate backed up inside the steam space cools the tubes
that carry the process fluid. When this sub-cooled condensate is suddenly replaced
by hot steam due to poor steam trap operations, the expansion and contraction of
the tubes stress the tube joints. Constantly repeating this cycle causes premature
failure.
Corrosion from:
1. Flooding - A flooded heat exchanger will permit the oxygen to dissolve, as well
as carbon dioxide and other gases found in the steam. Because the condensate
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
120
is often sub-cooled due to the time it is in the exchanger, these gases are more
readily dissolved. Together the cool condensate and dissolved gases are extremely corrosive and will tend to decrease the efficiency of the heat exchanger
and reduce the heat transfer through the tubes.
2. Steam collapse - Under very low loads with the steam valve closed, the steam
volume collapses to smaller volume condensate, inducing a vacuum. When
the vacuum breaker opens, atmospheric air and condensate mix inside the
exchanger, increasing the possibility of corrosion of the tubes, shells, tube
sheet and tube supports.
3. Freezing - Steam/air coils cannot afford poor condensate drainage, especially
if the coil experiences air below freezing temperature. Condensate backed up
inside the coil will freeze, often within seconds, depending on the air temperature. A low temperature detection thermostat is recommended on the coil
leaving side to sense freezing conditions. As we previously explained, the only
way to avoid stall is to eliminate back pressure on the steam trap. There are
a number of options available for designing a system that greatly reduces the
risk of stall. The following are two such options:
Install the heat exchanger in a position so that the condensate freely drains by
gravity to the condensate return line. In many cases this is not possible because
of existing piping around the area in which the heat exchanger is needed (e.g., the
heat exchanger is installed at a level lower than the condensate return tank).
Use an electric or pressure driven condensate pump package installed below the
steam trap to pump condensate back to the boiler.
In actual practice, the first option may not be possible, and so the use of electric or
pressure driven pumps to return condensate to the boiler room should be considered.
10
1. Accurate data on the thermodynamic properties: These are needed for both pure
fluid and mixtures in single phase and two phase system under extremes conditions.
It would be best if more predictable methods could be obtained
2. fouling (predictive method not available)
3. flow induced vibration (prediction)
4. two phase flow (flow regime)
5. boiling of mixture (heat transfer coefficient)
6. turbulence (better understanding)
10.1
Future trend
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usseldorf, Germany, 1991
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uller-Steinhagen, H.; Schl
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131
A.1
A.1.1
Single phase
Inside tube: Turbulent flow
N u = CRe P r
where
Nu =
Pr =
Re
de
A
P
u
w
k
Cp
hde
k
Cp
k
ud
4A
P
!c
(A.1)
Nusselt number
Prandtl number
Reynolds number
hydraulic diameter
cross-sectional area
wetted perimeter
fluid velocity
fluid viscosity at the tube wall temperature
fluid thermal conductivity
fluid specific heat
C=
0.021 gases
0.023 non-viscous liquid
0.027 viscous liquid
a = 0.8
b = 0.3 for cooling
b = 0.4 for heating
c = 0.14
A.1.2
d
N u = 1.86 ReP r
L
!1/3
!0.14
(A.2)
132
Heat Transfer Research Inc. (HTRI), Alliambra, california. This method is also
known as stream analysis method.
Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS), Engineering Science Division, AERE,
Harwell, United Kingdom Method.
In this work only Kerns method is given below. Bell-Delaware method may be found in
Coulson and Richardsons
N u = 0.36Re
where
Nu =
Pr =
Re =
de =
A=
P =
G=
As =
pt =
Ds =
lB =
hde
k
Cp
k
Gde
4A
P
M
As
(pt do )Ds lB
pt
0.55
Pr
1/3
!0.14
(A.3)
Nusselt number
Prandtl number
Reynolds number
hydraulic diameter
cross-sectional flow area
wetted perimeter
Mass flux
fluid viscosity at the tube wall temperature
pitch diameter
shell diameter
Baffle spacing
p2t d2o /4
do
0.87p2t /2d2o /8
do /2
de =
do
pt
pt
As
Square pitch
Cross-flow area
A.2 Condensation
A.1.4
133
N u = 0.26Re
0.65
Pr
0.4
!0.14
(A.4)
where
Nu =
Pr =
Re =
de =
A=
P =
G=
Af =
up =
M=
A.2
A.2.1
hde
=
k
Cp
=
k
up de
e
= Gd
M
Af
Nusselt number
Prandtl number
= Reynolds number
hydraulic diameter, taken as twice the gap between the plates
cross-sectional flow area
wetted perimeter
Mass flux
cross-sectional area for flow
channel velocity
mass flow rate
Condensation
Condensation on vertical plate or outside vertical tube
k 3 g
hm = 0.943
T L
!1/4
(A.5)
where
hm =
L=
k
=
=
=
T = Ts Tw
g=
Ts =
Tw =
A.2.2
k 3 g
hm = 0.725
T do
where
A.2.3
do =
!1/4
(A.6)
k 3 g
hm = 0.725
T Jdo
!1/4
(A.7)
134
where
J=
In the above equation the condensate film properties save the latent heat of vaporization
are evaluated at the film temperature.
Tf =
Ts + Tw
,
2
(A.8)
the latent heat of vaporization is evaluated at the condensate temperature. For the case
of subcooling or superheating the heat transfer coefficient is corrected by substituting the
corrected latent heat the heat transfer equation (Rohsenow et al. [121] and Carey [18]) in
Nusselt [109])
= + 0.68cp T .
(A.9)
A.2.4
k 3 g
hm = 0.555
T d
A.3
!1/4
(A.10)
h = h3n + h3c
1/3
(A.11)
where hn and hc is the nucleate and convective boiling heat transfer coefficient respectively.
The convective boiling heat transfer coefficient for a completely wetted tube (i.e. all types
of flow patterns save stratified and stratified-wavy flow) is calculated as
hc
L
= (1 x)
+ 1.2x 0.4 (1 x)
0.01
hL0
G
h
G0 x 0.01 1 + 8(1 x)
0.7
hL0
!0.37
+
!0.67 2 0.5
(A.12)
The heat transfer coefficients hL0 and hG0 are those of single phase flow, assuming that
the total mass velocity is pure liquid or pure vapor respectively. They are calculated in
the case of a fully developed turbulent flow from the Gnielinski [46] model
Nu =
(/8)(Re 1000)P r
,
1 + 12.7(/8)0.5 (P r2/3 1)
(A.13)
taken in to account the respective dimensionless group N uL0 , N uG0 , ReL0 , ReG0 , P rl and
P rg . These dimensionless groups are defined as
N uL0/G0 =
hL0/G0 d
,
kL/G
(A.14)
135
md
,
L/G
L/G cp,L/G
=
.
kL/G
ReL0/G0 =
P rL/G
The friction factor is
(A.15)
(A.16)
= (1.82logRe 1.62)2 .
(A.17)
For a partial wetting of the tube (stratified or stratified-wavy flow) the average heat
transfer coefficient at the tube circumference under the thermal boundary condition of a
constant wall temperature is given as
hc = hwet (1 ) + hG ,
(A.18)
where hwet is the convective boiling heat transfer coefficient at the wetted part of the
tube and it is calculated by using equation A.12. In the non-wetted part of the tube,
the convective heat transfer coefficient hg is calculated from the Gnielinski [46] model
(equation A.13). In this case Re and N u are defined with the hydraulic diameter of the
vapor-occupied part of the tube cross-section
sin
dh = d
d + 2 sin(/2)
(A.19)
m
xd
hyd
,
G
(A.20)
N uG kG
.
dhyd
(A.21)
The void fraction is calculated using the Rauhani [117] model given as
(
1/4
x
x
1 x
1.18(1 x)[g(
L G )]
=
(1 + 0.12(1 x))
+
+
1/2
G
G
L
m
.L
)1
(A.22)
The wetting boundary can be estimated (see Fig. A.2) from the void fraction as
=
fG
.
fG + fL
(A.23)
With some mathematical manipulation of equation A.23 the non-wetted perimeter can
calculated iteratively from the following relationship
= 2 + sin ,
(A.24)
with the assumption that no bubbles in the liquid phase and no entrainment (hold-up) in
the vapor phase, the scaling parameter of equation A.18 can thus be calculated as
=
G
,
2
(A.25)
where G = 0.5.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
136
UG
fG
Ui
fL
UL
Figure A.2. Cross-section and perimeter parts of the vapor flow in a horizontal tube.
The local nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient hnb of a horizontal tube is estimated
as
!n(pr)
hnb
q
= Cf
F (pr )F (Ra )F (d)F (m,
x)
.
(A.26)
ho
qo
The value with a subscript o is a reference value.
The pressure function is given as
F (pr ) =
2.692p0.43
r
1.6p6.5
r
+
1 p4.4
r
(A.27)
!0.3
x ,
(A.28)
q
m
0.25
F (m,
x)
=
1 p0.1
r
m
o
qcr,nb
where
The critical value of qcr,0,1
0.25
qcr,0.1 = 0.13hV,0 0.5
.
G,0 [o g(L,0 G,0 )]
(A.29)
(A.30)
The function for the effect of surface roughness and tube diameter is F (Ra ) =(Ra /Rao )0.133
and F (d)=(do /d)0.5 respectively. The pressure dependence of the heat flux exponent n(pr )
can be predicted as
n(pr ) = 0.9 0.3p0.3
(A.31)
r .
The experimental value of the specific constant Cf for a number of substances is be found
in VDI-Warmeatlas[157], for example for water it is 0.72. In absence of an experimental
value it can be estimated as
f
M
Cf = 0.789 f
MH2
!0.11
(A.32)
137
wall temperature is 0.86 for all other type of flow patterns it is taken as unity (VDIWarmeatlas[157]).
Table A.1 shows the reference factors for the nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient for
R134a and R290.
Table A.1. Values of the reference parameters used in evaluation of the local nucleate boiling
heat transfer coefficient.
Refrigerant
R134a
R290
ho
W/m2 K
qo
W/m2
Rao
m
do
m
3,500
4,000
20,000
20,000
106
106
0.01
0.01
(A.33)
The vapor heat transfer coefficient hG is determined by using the Dittus-Boelter [33]
correlation as
0.8 0.4 kG
hG = 0.023ReG
PrG
,
(A.34)
d
with Reynold number given as
m
xd
ReG =
,
(A.35)
G
where is the void fraction given by the Rauhani [117] model (equation A.22). The heat
transfer coefficient on the wetted portion of the tube is
q
hwet =
h3n + h3c .
(A.36)
The nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient hn is given by the Cooper [27] model as
0.55 f 05
hn = 55p0.12
M q .
r (0.4343 ln pr )
(A.37)
The convective heat transfer coefficient is given by a modified form of the Dittus-Boelter
[33] model as
0.4 kL
hc = 0.0133ReL0.69 PrL
.
(A.38)
d
The liquid Reynolds number is given as
ReL =
4m(1
x)
.
(1 )G
(A.39)
d(1 )
,
2(2 dry )
(A.40)
138
where dry is
dry = strat
(m
wavy m)
,
(m
wavy m
strat )
(A.41)
where strat is calculated iteratively from equation A.24. The mass flux under a stratified
and wavy flow pattern is
m
strat =
(A.42)
and
(
m
wavy =
"
16fG3 gdL G
2
We
F1 (q)
(1
x)
2
x 2 2 (1 (2hL 1)2 )0.5 25hL
Fr
F2 (q)
1
+
cos
#)0.5
+ 50 ,
(A.43)
respectively. The parameters fL , fG , hL are defined in Fig.A.2. is the angle of inclination
to the horizontal and
F1 (q)
= 646.0
!2
q
qcrit
+ 64.8
qcrit
; F2 (q)
= 18.8
q
qcrit
+ 1.023 .
(A.44)
The stratified-wavy flow model is also valid for the stratified flow patten with strat
replacing dry and for the annular flow condition with dry is set to zero and the film
thickness is set to (1 )d/4.
A.3.3 Kandlikar [70] correlation
The flow boiling heat transfer coefficient for a pure fluid is given by Kandlikar [70] as
h = max(hn , hc ) ,
(A.45)
wher the subscript n and c in equation A.45 refers to the nucleate and convective boiling
respectively. The convective and the nucleate boiling part is given as
hn = 0.6683Co0.2 (1 x)
0.8 hL0 f (FrL0 ) + 1058.0Bo0.7 (1 x)
0.8 FF l hL0 ,
(A.46)
hc = 1.136Co0.9 (1 x)
0.8 hL0 f (FrL0 ) + 667.2Bo0.7 (1 x)
0.8 FF l hL0 ,
(A.47)
and
respectively, where F rL0 is the liquid Froude number, Bo is the boiling number and Co
is the convection number. These dimensionless groups are defined as
F rL0
,
=
L gd
q
Bo =
,
mh
Co =
G
L
!0.5
1 x
x
0.8
(A.48)
FrL0 0.04 ,
139
coefficient hL0 is obtained from the Petukhov and Popov [114] correlation or Gnielinski
[46] correlation. The Petukhov and Popov [114] correlation is valid in the range of 0.5
PrL 2000 and 104 ReL0 5 106 and it is given as
N uL0 =
ReL0 P rL (/2)
hL0 d
=
.
2/3
k
1.07 + 12.7(PrL 1)(/2)0.5
(A.49)
The Gnielinski [46] correlation (equation A.13) is valid in the range of 0.5 PrL
2000 and 2300 ReL0 5 104 . The friction factor in equation A.49 is given by
equation A.17.
A.3.4 Chen [19] correlation
Chen [19] postulated that the heat transfer coefficient is made of two parts: a) a microconvective (or nucleate boiling) portion hn and b) a macro-convective (or forced convective) portion hc as
h = hc F + hn S ,
(A.50)
where hc is calculated using the Dittus and Boelter [33] correlation as
hc = 0.023
where
ReL =
kL 0.8 0.4
ReL P rL ,
d
(A.51)
cpL L
(1 x)
md
, P rL =
,
L
kL
(A.52)
F =
h
i0.736
2.35 1 + 0.213
Xtt
,
if 1/Xtt 0.1
1 x
X=
x
0.875
G
L
!0.5
L
G
!0.125
(A.53)
0.49
kL0.79 c0.45
p,L L
0.24
Tsat
p0.75
sat ,
0.24
0.24
0.5 0.29
h
L
G
V
(A.54)
where
Tsat = Tw Ts ;
(A.55)
1
.
1 + 2.53 106 Retp
(A.56)
140
(0.12F rL )
1.16
+ 1.37(1/xtt )0.86 )F rL
if F r < 0.05
(1 + 24, 000Bo
F =
,
1/2
2
1
(1 + 0.00000115F ReL ) F rL
S=
(1 + 0.00000115F ReL )
if F r < 0.05
,
if F r 0.05
The convective boiling part is calculated from the Dittus-Boelter [33] correlation (equation
A.51).
A.3.6 Shah [130] correlation
The Shah [130] correlation is given as
h = max(hc , hn ) ,
(A.57)
where the subscript n and c in equation A.57 refers to the nucleate and convective boiling
respectively. The convective heat transfer coefficient is defined as
hc = 1.8hL N 0.8 ,
where
N=
Co
(A.58)
F rL > 0.04
,
where hL is calculated using the Dittus-Boelter [33] correlation (equation A.51). The
nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient is calculated as follows
For N > 1
hn =
230hL Bo0.5
Bo > 0.0003
.
1 + 46hL Bo
0.5
Bo < 0.0003
(A.59)
(A.60)
where
F =
14.7
Bo > 0.0011
.
141
h = 1.91hL
1
104 Bo + 1.5
Xtt
2/3 #0.6
(A.61)
q
G hV $
!0.64
gd
hV
and
!0.27
i0.11 m
2 hV
kL h 4
hc = 0.115
x (1 x)
2
d
L g
m
2d
L hV $
!0.14
(A.62)
!0.14
0.27
PrL
,
(A.63)
(A.64)
hn1 = 7.4 10
hn2
Pe =
wm b
,
Rem =
L
kL
= 0.087
b
kw
kL
kw
kL
!0.15
1/3
P e0.6 Kp0.5 P rL
!0.09
Re0.6
m
G
L
"
!#
(A.65)
P rL ,
(A.66)
!0.2
qb
p
, Kp = q
, b=
hV G aL
g(L G )
L
wm =
1+x
1
L
G
1/6
2
,
g(L G )
qb
, Re =
,
hV G L
NCB
Rem
=
Re
(A.67)
L
.
G
(A.68)
142
kL q(b.d)
hn = 207
b.d kL Ts
where
#0.745
G
L
!0.581
0.533
PrL
,
2
(b.d) = 0.511
g(L G )
1
F = 2.37 0.29 +
Xtt
S=
A.4
4048Xtt1.22 Bo1.13
(A.69)
!0.5
(A.70)
(A.71)
Xtt < 1
.
"
hid,n
Bo q
Fn = 1 +
(Tb,k Tb,j )(yej xej ) 1 exp
q
L hV L
#)
(A.72)
where Tb is the saturated (boiling) temperature of the pure component, the index j and
k stands for the more volatile and less volatile component respectively. L /B0 = 5 105
is the mass transfer coefficient. The ideal nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient for a
mixture hid,n is calculated from the heat transfer coefficient of pure components as
"
hid,n =
X x
ei
#1
hi,n
(A.73)
and Bo /L = 5.103 and L and hV is the ideal density and enthalpy of evaporation of
the mixture respectively. xe and ye is the liquid and vapor mole fraction of the more volatile
component respectively.
The same approach applies also to the convective part for the liquid-liquid immiscible
mixture. That is to say for a liquid-liquid miscible mixture the convective suppression
factor made analogous to that for the nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient as
(
"
Bo q
hid,c
(Tb,k Tb,j )(yej xej ) 1 exp
Fc = 1 +
q
L hV L
#)
(A.74)
143
(A.75)
where hn and hc is obtained from equation A.77 and equation A.47 respectively
using the mixture properties.
Region II: Moderate diffusion-induced suppression region
h = hc ,
(A.76)
"
V1 =
cpL
hV
a
D12
FD =
0.5
dT
|ye xe|
dxe
0.678
.
1 + V1
(A.77)
!#
(A.78)
(A.79)
Tw Tph
,
Tw Ts
(A.80)
where Tw , Tph , and Ts is the wall, equilibrium temperature and saturation temperature
respectively. The nucleate part is also calculated using the original Chen [19] model for
the pure substance with mixture properties. It suppressed using the the suppression factor
given by equation A.79.
A.4.4 Palen [111] correlation
Palen [111] has extended the original Chen [19] correlation for pure component (equation
A.50) to mixture similar to the Bennett and Chen [8] correlation. However, only the
nucleate part is suppressed using the following suppression factor
Fd = exp(0.027Tbp ) ,
(A.81)
where Tbp is difference between the dew and bubble point temperature of the mixture.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
144
(A.82)
1
,
{[1 + (b2 + b3 )(1 + b4 )](1 + b5 )}2
1.01 xe1
b2 = (1 xe1 ) ln
1.01 ye1
xe1
+ xe1 ln
ye1
p
b4 = 152
pc,1
b5 = 0.92|ye1 xe1 |
!0.66
e
x1
=1
e
y1
(A.84)
x1 0.01
b3 =
0.1
e
x1
and
(A.83)
0.001
p
pc,1
(A.85)
!0.66
(A.86)
xe1 and ye1 is the liquid and vapor mole fraction of the more volatile component respectively. p and pc,1 is system pressure and critical pressure of the more volatile component
respectively.
145
B
B.1
Pressure drop
Single phase
The pressure drop due to friction exists because of the shear stress between the fluid and
the tube wall. Estimation of the friction pressure drop is somewhat more complex and
various approaches have been taken, for example the frictional pressure gradient is given
as
!
4o
4f m
2
dp
=
=
,
(B.1)
dz f
d
2d
where m
is the mass flux in kg/m2 s and f is the friction factor calculated using a Blasiustype model as
0.3164
Re0.25 Re 2320
f=
64
Re < 2320 .
Re
Integration of equation B.1 yields
p =
B.2
4f m
2L
,
2 d
(B.2)
Two phase
In flow boiling, the temperature drops in the direction of flow as a result of the pressure
drop. This results in a change in the driving force (temperature difference) for the heat
transfer along the flow path. Thus beside the heat transfer coefficient, knowledge of the
pressure drop is of paramount importance in the design of the evaporator. In the present
work the pressure drop is measured simultaneously with the heat transfer coefficient along
the test section.
The momentum balance implies that the two phase pressure gradient is composed of three
components as
!
!
!
dp
dp
dp
dp
=
+
+
,
(B.3)
dz
dz f
dz a
dz h
where dp/dz, (dp/dz)f , (dp/dz)a and (dp/dz)h is the total, friction, acceleration and
hydrostatic pressure gradient respectively. For a horizontal tube the hydrostatic pressure
gradient diminishes. The acceleration pressure drop is caused by the change in momentum
in both the liquid and vapor phases. The change in the momentum stems from the change
in the velocity of the two phases, which is brought about by the added (or withdrawn)
heat to/from the test section. For the case of adiabatic flow the acceleration pressure drop
diminishes for pa /ps 0 (Baehr and Stephan [3]), where ps is the saturation pressure.
There exist in the literature a number of approaches for modelling the change in the static
pressure drop due to acceleration. The most widely accepted models include homogenous
or separated flow models. The separated flow model is also widely known as the heterogenous model. In the homogenous model the static pressure drop due to acceleration
is
"
!
#
!
1
1
1
dp
2 d
=m
+
.
(B.4)
dz a
dz
L G
L
The energy balance in a small unit length dz along the test tube yields
4q
dx
=
.
dz
mh
vd
(B.5)
146
B Pressure drop
Substitution of equation B.5 into equation B.4 yields the pressure drop due to acceleration
as
!
4qm
G
pa =
1
L .
(B.6)
dhv G
L
In the separated flow model the static pressure drop due to acceleration can be derived
from the momentum balance as
dp
dz
"
d x 2
(1 x)
2
=m
+
dz G (1 )L
2
(B.7)
Integration of equation B.7 between the inlet i and outlet o of the test section yields
"
pa = (po pi )a = m
(1 x o )2
x 2i
(1 x i )2
x 22
+
(B.8)
The void fraction may be obtained using the Rauhani [117] model which is given as:
(
1/4
x
x
1 x
1.18(1 x)[g(
L G )]
=
(1 + 0.12(1 x))
+
+
1/2
G
G
L
m
L
)1
(B.9)
where L and G is the liquid and vapor density respectively, which are calculated from the
fundamental equation of state of Tillner-Roth and Baehr [152] for R134a. g is acceleration
due to gravity, is the surface tension, m
is the mass flux and x is the quality. The surface
tension is calculated using the method of Lucus [92] given in VDI-Warmeatlas [157].
The pressure drop due to friction exists because of the shear stress between the fluid and
the tube wall. Estimation of the friction pressure drop is somewhat more complex and
various approaches have been taken, for example in homogenous or separated flow models.
In the homogenous model the frictional pressure gradient is given as
dp
dz
=
f
2 m
2
4o
=
,
d
dH
(B.10)
0.3164
Re0.25
64
Re
Re
2320
Re < 2320 .
(B.11)
md
,
T P
(B.12)
1 x
x
+
,
L
G
(B.13)
147
!
!
dP
dp
=
G/L ,
(B.14)
dz f
dz f,L/G
where is the two phase multiplier. There exist a number of correlations for the prediction
of . These include Friedel [42], Chishlom [22] and Lockhart and the Martinelli [91] model.
These models are presented in Appendix B. There exists a number of correlations for the
prediction of the two phase multiplier of the separated flow model. These models are
presented in the following subsections.
B.2.1
3.24F H
F r0.045 W e0.035
(B.15)
where
E = (1 x)
2 + x 2
L fG0
,
G fL0
(B.16)
F = x 0.78 (1 x)
0.24 ,
H=
L
G
!0.91
G
L
Fr =
!0.19
G
1
L
(B.17)
!0.7
m
2
,
gd2H
(B.18)
(B.19)
m
2d
,
(B.20)
H
d is tube diameter, is the surface tension and %H is the homogenous density given by
equation B.11. fG0 and fL0 are the friction factors defined by a Blasius-type model as
We =
fL0/G0 =
0.079
,
Re0.25
L0/G0
(B.21)
where Re = md/.
The range of the validity of the Friedel [42] model is L /G < 1000
B.2.2 Lockhart and Martinelli [91] model
In the Lockhart and Martinelli [91] model the two phase friction multiplier is
C
1
+ 2 ,
X X
(B.22)
2
G
= 1 + C.X + X 2 ,
(B.23)
L2 = 1 +
where X is the Martinelli parameter and the value of the coefficient C is given in Table B.1.
The range of the applicability of the Lockhart and Martinelli [91] correlation is L /G >1000
and m
<100 kg/m2 s.
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
148
B Pressure drop
Table B.1. Value of C for the Lockhart and Martinelli [91] correlation.
Liquid
Gas
Subscript
Turbulent
Viscous
Turbulent
Viscous
Turbulent
Turbulent
Viscous
Viscous
tt
vt
tv
vv
20
12
10
05
L0 = 1 + (Y 2 1) B x (2/n1) (1 x)
(2/n1) + x 1n ,
where
Y2 =
(dpf /dz)G0
,
(dpf /dz)L0
(B.24)
(B.25)
55
m
1/2
(B.26)
520
9.5 < Y < 28 ,
(B.27)
Ym
1/2
15000
B = 2 1/2 28 < Y .
(B.28)
Y m
The range of the validity of the Chisholm [22] correlation is L /G > 1000 and m
> 100
kg/m2 s.
B=
149
Physical properties
The fluid physical properties required for heat exchanger design are divided in thermodynamic and trasport properties. The transport properties include viscosity, thermal
conductivity, surface tension and diffusion coefficient are generally calculated from the
existing correlations (Pery and Coulson). The thermodynamic properties include demsity, specific heat temperature, pressure (vapor), enthalpy, latent heat of evaporation.
Beside the fluid properties the thermal conductivity of the material is necessary for the
evaluation of heat transfer coefficient. The thermodynamic properties are evaluated using
critical tables.
C.1
(C.1)
AN T B
T + AN T C
(C.2)
where T is in K and ANTA, ANTB,ANTC are Anonie equation constant. These constant
are given in Appendix D for organic and inorganic compounds.
C.1.3 Liquid viscosity
The liquid viscosity is given as:
1
1
log = V ISA
T
V ISB
(C.3)
where VISA, VISB are constants in the liquid viscosity equation. These constant are
given in Appendix D for organic and inorganic compounds.
C.1.4 Vapor dynamic viscosity VDI-W
armeatlas [157]
Lucas and Luckas [92] in VDI-Warmeatlas [157] have recommended the following procedure for the calculation of the vapor viscosity.
= ()r Fp FQ
1
,
(C.4)
with
(C.5)
(C.6)
150
C Physical properties
"
ApE
r
() = ( ) 1 +
1
BpFr + (1 + CpD
r )
r
(C.7)
F = f1 exp(f2 Tr ) .
(C.15)
The coefficients a, b, c, d, e, and f are given in Table C.1
Table C.1. Coefficients of the correlation used for the prediction of the vapor dynamic viscosity.
a1
b1
f1
1.245.103
1.6553
0.9425
a2
b2
f2
5.1726
1.2723
0.1853
c1
d1
Fp = 1 +
(Fpo
0.4489 c2
1.7368 d2
0.4489
"
and
"
()r
1)
o
#1
3.0578
2.2310
-7.6351
-0.3286
-37.7332
#3
,
"
(C.16)
!#4
()r
()r
FQ = 1 +
1)
0.007
ln
,
(C.17)
o
o
where Fpo and FQo is low-pressure polarity and quantum factors respectively. These factors
are
Fpo = 1 , 0 r < 0.022 ,
(C.18)
(FQo
(C.19)
2 pc
,
(kTc )2
(C.21)
where the dipole moment for the gases is given in VDI-Warmeatlas [157]
Dr. Ali A. Rabah, Dept of Chemeng, U of K, Email : rabahss@hotamil.com
151
f T )1/2
0.021357 (M
o (T ) = 100
,
0.29572 exp()
(C.23)
kT
(T ) = C(1) + C(2) log
"
4
X
kT
+
C(n) log
n=3
!#n )
(C.24)
where /k=386 K and the value of the coefficient C is given in table C.2.
Table C.2. Coefficients for the Collision integral (equation C.24).
C(1)
4.9931822
C(2) -0.61122364
C(3) 0.18535124
C(4) -0.1116094
The second term of equation C.22 represents the contribution of the moderately dense
fluid
1 (T ) = Fv (T )o (T ) ,
where
13
X
i=2
Fv (T ) = C A(1) +
"
A(i) log
(C.25)
!# (i1)
2
kT
(C.26)
where C=0.6022137/0.29573 and the value of the coefficient A is given in table C.3
Table C.3. Coefficients of equation C.26.
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
-0.17999496101
-0.53460794103
-0.13019164105
-0.58711743105
-0.59834012105
-0.12027350105
-0.120807957103
2
4
6
8
10
12
0.466692621102
0.33604074104
0.33414230105
0.71426686105
0.33652741105
0.24348205104
The third term in the viscosity equation C.22 is the contribution of the dense gas
2 (, T ) =
3
X
F (i, T )i+1 ,
(C.27)
i=1
152
C Physical properties
where
2
4
1
0.219664285
0.83651107
10
kT
kT
2
2
2
0.17366936
10
0.83651107
10
kT
F (i, T ) =
2
3
3
3
3
0.167668649
10
0.149710093
10
+
kT
kT
0.77012274 104 kT
The Fenghour et al. [40] correlation for the vapor viscosity of ammonia has an uncertainty
of 2% in the temperature range of T < Tc .
C.1.6 Surface tension
Lucas and Luckas [92] in VDI-Warmeatlas [157] have recommended the following correlation for the calculation of the surface tension
m
2/3 1/3 1 Tr
= pc Tc
b,
(C.28)
a
where the reduced pressure and temperature are defined as
pr =
p
T
, Tr = , ,
pc
Tc
(C.29)
respectively.
For a polar fluid like R134a the following quantities are valid
a
b
m
X
=
=
=
=
1,
0.1574 + 0.359 1.769X 13.69X 2 0.510 2 + 1.298X ,
1.210 + 0.5385 14.61X 32.07X 2 1.656 2 + 22, 03X ,
lgpsr (Tr = 0.6) + 1.70 + 1.552 .
(C.30)
(C.31)
(C.32)
(C.33)
where is the acentric factor and it is given by Pitzer in VDI-Warmeatlas [157] as The
surface tension given by equation C.28 is in 105 N/cm. Its level of uncertainty as given
by Reid et al. [118] is 1.2 % in the range of the reduced temperature of 0.56 Tr 0.63.
C.1.7
1/3
k = 3.65 10 Cp
.
(C.34)
M
where k thermal conductivity W/moC, M is the molecular mass, Cp speific heat capacity
3
(kJ/kg oC), density (kg/m )
5
C.1.8
10.4
.
(C.35)
M
where k thermal conductivity W/m o C, M is the molecular mass, Cp specific heat capacity
(kJ/kg o C), viscosity in (mNs/m2 )
k = Cp +
153
(C.36)
z=
and
A=
aP
h = ho + RT +
C.2
,B =
R2 T 2.5
(C.37)
bp
.
RT
Z v "
0
dP
T 2 2.5
R T dT
(C.38)
p dv .
(C.39)
n
X
(C.40)
i=1
where xei is the mole fraction of the component i, L,i is the viscosity of the component i
in kg/ms and G12 is an adjustable parameter normally obtained from experimental data.
For a polar-nonpolar mixture G12 = -0.22. The Reid et al. [118] model give the thermal
conductivity with a mean error of less then 5%.
C.2.2 Vapor dynamic viscosity of mixtures
The viscosity of a gas mixture can be approximated by using the principle of the kinetic
theory (Reid et al. [118]) as
o
m = m
+ ,
(C.41)
o
where m
is the mixture gas viscosity at a low pressure and is a correction factor for
the high pressure viscosity
n
X
yei G,i
o
,
(C.42)
m
=
Pn
ei ij
j=1 y
i=1
where yei is the mole fraction of the component i and i is the viscosity of the pure
component i. ij is a parameter which may be estimated as
h
ij =
f /M
f )0.25
1 + (G,i /G,j )0.5 (M
j
i
f /M
f )]0.5
[8(1 + M
i
j
ji =
f
G,j M
j
.
f ij
G,i M
i
i2
(C.43)
(C.44)
154
C Physical properties
2/3
f 0.5 pc,m
Tc,m M
m
f,
yej M
j
c,m =
j=1
f /1000
M
m
,
c,m
r,m =
m
,
c,m
pc,m =
(C.45)
(C.46)
RTc,m Zec,m
, (C.47)
c,m
2
X
f 0.72X X
f
X
i L,i
1 2 |L,2 L,1 | ,
(C.48)
i=1
f and X
f is the weight fraction of the component 1 and 2 respectively and and
where X
1
2
1
2 is the thermal conductivity of the component 1 and 2 in W/mK respectively.
n
X
yei G,i
,
Pn
ei Aij
j=1 y
i=1
(C.49)
where G,m is the low-pressure gas mixture thermal conductivity, G,i is the low-pressure
thermal conductivity of the pure component i. For a binary mixture of two non-polar
gases or a non-polar and a polar gas, Aij may be calculated by the model given by Perry
and Green [112] as
h
i
c /M
f )0.25 2
1 + (tr,i /tr,j )0.5 (M
j
i
Aij =
,
(C.50)
f /M
f )]0.5
[8(1 + M
i
j
with
j exp(0.0464Tr,i ) exp(0.2412Tr,i )
tr,i
=
,
(C.51)
tr,j
i exp(0.0464Tr,j ) exp(0.2412Tr,j )
f is the molecular weight and is defined as
where M
"
f3
Tc,i M
i
i = 210
Pci4
#(1/6)
(C.52)
155
m =
where
2/3 1/3
pc,m
Tc,m
1 tr,m
am
nm
bm ,
(C.53)
"
X
Ts,ri ln(pc,m /1.01325)
, bm =
xei bi ,
bi = 0.1196. 1 +
1 Ts,ri
am = 1, nm = 11/9, Tc,m =
j=1
Zem =
X
j
xj c,j , Zec,j =
xej Zec,j ,
pc,m =
RTc,m Zec,m
,
c,m
(C.54)
pc,j c,j
,
RTc,j
Ts,ri =
(C.55)
Tb,i
, (C.56)
Tc,i
where Tb,i =T (p=1.01325 bar) is the normal boiling point temperature of the pure component i. T is in K, p is in bar and is in N/m. The Lucas and Luckas correlation yields
an error of <5%.
C.3
Software packages
There exists a number of software packages for the prediction of thermodynamic and
transport properties. These include:
1. ASPEN Plus (
2. CHEMCAD
3. SUPERPRO
4. REFPROP