Shmeiseic Paradsewn Pragmatikc Anlushc

(Trth kdosh)

2011
1

Perieqmena

1
1.1 Peano . .
1.2 . . .
1.3 N . . . . .
1.4 N . . . . .
1.5
1.6 N .

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11
12
13
14
15
19
20

2
2.1 Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Z Q . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
2.5 Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 N2 . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 N2 . . . . . .
2.6 Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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23
23
26
28
29
30
31
31
31
33

3
3.1 . . . .
3.2 R . .
3.3 R . . . . .
3.3.1 Inmum R . .
3.3.2
3.4 R . . . . . . . .

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35
35
38
39
41
41
43

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4
45
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 . . . . . . . 46
3

5
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 . . . . . .
5.1.3 (X, ) . . .
5.1.4 (Rk , 2 ) .
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 .
5.2.2
5.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . .

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6 .
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5
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6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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55
55
55
56
56
57
59
60
60
62
65
65
67
68
69
71
74
77

7
83
7.1 . Zorn. . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.2 . . . . . 85
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8
91
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.2 Baire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9
103
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
10
117
10.1 . . . . . . . . 117
10.2 . . . . . . . 119
4

11 C[a, b]
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 C[a, b] . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Arzela. . . . . . .

123
. 123
. 126
. 128

12
135
12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.3 Cantor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Prlogoc

2001-2002 (.....) ...

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( ...)
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7

 29 2002

...

Prlogoc deterhc kdoshc

. ,
, Cantor.
15 2003

...

10

Keflaio 1
Oi fusiko arijmo

. N , Z , Q R . , N

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. .
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.
N
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.
. m
m + 1 .


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N + ,
< .
.
N N
;
1850 , ,
Peano Peano !
,
11

 . .

.

1.1

Ta aximata tou

Peano

1.1. (Peano). N (N, s)

s s : N N :
(i.) 1 N.
(ii.) n N, s(n) = 1.
(iii.) s (1-1).
(iv.) U N 1 U n U , s(n) U , U = N. (
).
N,
.
s ( )
n s(n) n + 1.
N. ,
s ,
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.
.
. :
1.2. P (n) n N.
:
(i.) P (1) .
(ii.) P (n) P (s(n)).
n N P (n). {n N :
P (n) } N.
(iv.),
{n N : P (n) } (iv.)
N.
12

 .
(
). (iv.) 1.2 .
. 1.2
(iv.) . (iv.)
N.
1.3. n N n = 1 m N s(m) = n.
. .
U = {n N : m N s(m) = n}
U {1} = N.
1 U {1}. n U {1} m = n N s(n) =
s(m) s(n) U . s(n) U {1}.
U {1} = N. n N n = 1 n U ,
U , m N n = s(m).
Peano (N, s)
. (N , s )
Peano : N N 1-1 s ((n)) = (s(n)).
(N, s) (N , s )
(N, s) .
.
1.4. (N, s) Peano.
.. (N, s) (N , s )
Peano. 1 N 1 N . . (1) =
1 (n) , (s(n)) = s ((n)).
{n N : (n) }
N 1-1 . n N,
(s(n)) = s ((n)).

1.2

Anadromiko orismo

, , ,
.

: (N, s) (N , s ). ( )
13


. .
:
1.5 (). A , h : A A a A.
: N A
(i) (1) = a.
(ii) n N, (s(n)) = h((n)).

. .
.
1.4
(N, s) .
A = N , h = s a = 1 .

1.3

Oi praxeic sto

A
: A A A (a, b) = a b.
N, + .

. .
1.6. () + : N N N,
, :
i. n N, n + 1 = s(n).
ii. (n, m) N N, n + s(m) = s(n + m).
(n, m) N N
n + m,
.
1.7. () : N N N,
, :
i. n N, n 1 = n.
ii. (n, m) N N, n s(m) = n m + n.
14

 1.8. n, m, k N,
.

i. n + (m + k) = (n + m) + k ( ).
ii. n + m = m + n ( ).
iii. n + m = n + k, m = k ( ).

i. n(mk) = (nm)k ( ).
ii. nm = mn ( ).
iii. nm = nk, m = k ( ).

. (n + m)k = nk + mk (
).
. .i. U k N
n + (m + k) = (n + m) + k
n, m N. 1.6
n + (m + 1) = n + s(m) = s(n + m) = (m + n) + 1
1 U . k U , 1.6
n + (m + s(k)) = n + s(m + k) = s(n + (m + k)) = s((n + m) + k) = (n + m) + s(k)
s(k) U 1.1 (iv.) U = N, .

.

1.4

H ditaxh sto

.
,
.
.
1.17.
1.9. () X. X
X, R X X, :
(i.) x X (x, x) R. ()
(ii.) x, y X (x, y) R (y, x) R, x = y. ()
15

(iii.) x, y, z X (x, y) R (y, z) R (x, z) R.

()
(x, y) x y
x y. (X, )
. x y x = y, x < y.
(X, )
, x, y X, ,
x y y x. , , Y ,
X = P(Y ) Y ,
Y X, A B A B. x, y Y
x = y A = {x}, B = {y}, A, B .
1.10. (X, )
X .
x, y X x y y x.
N .
1.11. n, m N. .
(a) n = m.
(b) k N n = m + k.
(c) k N m = n + k.
. n N n = {m N : (a) n = m (b) k
N n = m + k (c) k N m = n + k}
U = {n N : n = N}.
U = N.
1 U . , n N n = 1,
n 1 ( (a)), n = 1. 1.3 k N
n = s(k) = 1 + k 1 ( (b)).
n U , n = N. s(n) = N,
s(n) U . , m N m n .
(a) n = m. s(n) = s(m) = m + 1 m s(n) ( (b)).
(b) k N n = m + k. s(n) = s(m + k) = m + (k + 1).
m s(n) ( (b)).
(c) k N m = n + k.
(c ) k = 1 m = n + 1 = s(n) m s(n) ( (a)).
16

(c ) k = 1, 1.3 l N s(l) = k. m =
n + k = n + s(l) = n + l + 1 = (n + 1) + l = s(n) + l. m s(n)
( (c)).
m N m s(n) . s(n) = N s(n) U .
U = N.
. n, k N n + k = n.
n + k + 1 = n + 1 k + 1 = s(k) = 1
Peano.
1.12. ( N). n, m N k N n+k = m,
m n ( n m)
m > n ( n < m). n m n = m n < m.

N 1.11 .

. .
1.13. n, m N.
i. n < m, n + k < m + k, k N.
ii. n < m, nk < mk, k N.
1.14. (X, ) , A X a A.
(i.) a (minimum) A b A a b.
(ii.) X
.
.
(X, ) x, y X, S = {x, y}
X . ,
.
1.15. N .
. M N
, M = . B = {n N : k
n k M }. B = N
M = .
1 M , M
17

 M . 1 B.
n B k n k M . s(n) M ,
M , .
B = N.
N
. ,
.
N.
1.16. M N.
: N M , . , M = {mn }nN
mn = (n) n N.
. . (1) = min M M1 =
M \ {min M }. M M1 . . . Mk . . . Mn
1 < k n, Mk = Mk1 \ {min Mk1 } (k) = min Mk1 .
(n + 1) = min Mn Mn+1 = Mn \ {min Mn }. ,
n N. .
. , m0 M
m0 = (n) n N. M = {m M : m = (n) n N}
k = min M . , (1) = min M < k n N
(n) < k (n + 1) < k. , {n N : (n) < k} = N.
{l N : l < k} 1 1 (
).
1.1. : {1, . . . , k + 1} {1, . . . , k}
k N 1 1.
1.17. (N, ) , 1 = min N
s : N N :
(i.) s 1-1.
(ii.) n N n = 1 m N n = s(m).
(iii.) n N n < s(n).
(N, ) Peano
.
. n N , 1 n < s(n) s(n) = 1.
. U N
18

 1 U n U s(n) U . U = N .
. , ,
V = N \ U = n = min V . 1 U n = 1 m N
s(m) = n. m < s(m) = n n V
m V m U . U n = s(m) U ,
.

1.5

O Eukledioc Algrijmoc

(...)
.
.

. .
. ... .
. m, n
n < m. m = np1 + v1 p1 , v1
v1 < n. v1 = 0 . n = p2 v1 + v2 p2 , v2
v2 < v1 . v2 = 0 .
v1 = p3 v2 + v3 .
n > v1 > v2 > ... > vk vk
vk = 0. vk = 0 ... m n
vk1 . ... m, n.
.
. p N q N {0} p|q
p q ( p N 0). m, n N (m, n) =
{p N : p|n p|m}.
1.18. n, m N n < m m = np + v p, v N.
(m, n) = (n, v).
. (n, v) (m, n) . l (n, v).
l|n l|v. l|np + v. l|m. l (m, n), l|m l|n.
l|m np. l|v, v = m np.
vk (vk = 0) . (m, n) = (n, v1 ) = (v1 , v2 ) = ... = (vk2 , vk1 ). vk1 |vk2
vk1 = max (vk2 , vk1 ) = max (m, n). vk1 ... m, n.
19

.
N.
.
, N .
F. Maurolicos
(. ) (1494-1575) Pascal (1623-1662).
.

1.6

'Uparxh montlou tou

N s : N N Peano.
.

.
.

.

. N
.
N
.
N
s : N N . .
;
!
. , ( ) (
)
.

.
Peano N
N s : N N
Peano.

20

 (N, s) Peano.

21

22

Keflaio 2
Akraioi kai Rhto
, -
. .
. .
, .

.
.

2.1

To snolo

twn Akerawn

Z N
N = {n : n N}
N
. Z
Z = N {0} N
0 . N
Z N Z,
+ , < .
N
. +N , N , <N
N
Z.

23

(i) m Z, m + 0 = m.
(ii) m, n N, n + m = n +N m.
(iii) m, n N, (n) + (m) = (n +N m)
(iv) m N n N m + (n)
:
) n = m, m + (n) = 0.
) m >N n,
k N m = n +N k m + (n) = k.
) m <N n, k N n = m +N k
m + (n) = k.

(i) m Z, m 1 = m.
(ii) m Z, m 0 = 0.
(iii) m, n N, m n = m N n.
(iv) m, n N, (m) (n) = m N n.
(v) m N n N, m (n) = (m N n).

(i) m, n N, n < m n <N m.

(ii) m, n N, (m) < (n) n <N m.
(iii) m N n N, n < m.
(iv) 1 < 0 < 1.

.

1 0 Z,
m Z, m + 0 = 0 + m = m.
2 m Z m m + (m) = 0. (
m N, m . m N m = n, m = n.)
3 m, n Z, n + m = m + n ().
24

4 m, n, k Z, n + (n + k) = (n + m) + k ().

1 1 Z,
m Z, m 1 = 1 m = m.
2 m, n Z, n m = m n ().
3 m, n, k Z, n (n k) = (n m) k ().

m, n, k Z, k (n + m) = k m + k m ().

1 < Z .
1 m, n Z, n < m k N m = n + k.
2 m, n, k Z, n < m n + k < m + k.
3 m, n Z k N, n < m n k < m k.
4 m, n Z k N, n < m n k > m k.
2.1. (X, ) A X. y X
( ) A x A x y
( x y). y A ( ) A
x A x y ( x y).
2.2. N .
. A N . B
A. A B
N B n0 . n0
A n0 A. n0 A.
n A, n <N n0 . n A, n N n0 1.
n0 1 B n0 1 <N n0 n0 B.
2.3. A Z A = {n : n A}
min(A) = max(A).
. n0 A. n0 A.
n0 A. , l = k A k A
k n0 . l = k n0 . .
25

 2.4. , ( )
Z ( ).
. A Z . A N = , A N
N, 0.5 ,
A. A N = A N {0}. 0 A
A. A N A
N. N A 2.3 A
.

2.2

To snolo

twn Rhtn

.
Q . Q :
{p
}
Q=
: p Z q N
q
pq
. Q .
. Q
.
.
. (. 12 42 .)
Q pq p, q Z q = 0.

. Q
, :

p1
p2
=
p1 q2 = p2 q1
q1
q2

p1
p2
<
p1 q2 < p2 q1
q1
q2

p1
p2
p1 q2 + p2 q1
+
=
q1
q2
q1 q2

p1 p2
p1 p2

=
q1 q2
q1 q2
2.1. r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 Q r1 = r3 r2 = r4 ,
. r1 + r2 = r3 + r4 .
26

. r1 r2 = r3 r4 .
. r1 < r2 r3 < r4 .

Q.

(1) r, s Q, r + s = s + r.
(2) r, s, t Q, r + (s + t) = (r + s) + t.
(3) 0 Q r Q, 0 + r = r. ( 0
0q q N)
(4) r Q r Q r + (r) = 0.

(5) r, s Q, r s = s r.
(6) r, s, t Q, r (s t) = (r s) t.
(7) 1 Q r Q, 1 r = r.
(8) r Q r = 0 r1 Q r r1 = 1.

(9) r, s, t Q, r (s + t) = r s + r t.

(10) < Q . r, s Q, r = s r < s
r > s.
(11) r, s, t Q, r < s r + t < s + t.
(12) r, s, t Q, r < s t > 0 r t < s t.
.
(i) r Q r1 . r =
1

p
q

r = 0
sgn(p)q
,
|p|

p = 0. ( q 0 q N). r =

sgn(p) = 1 p > 0 sgn(p) = 1 |p| = p p > 0 |p| = p.

27

(ii) Q N Z.
r, s Q r < s t Q r < t < s.
t = r+s
.
2
r s.
Q . .. A = {r Q : r < 0}
.
Q.
(iii) Z Q.
{
}

N pq : pq = p1 p N Z
{
}

pq : pq = p1 p Z . N, Z Q
p, m, k, . . .
2.2. r < s , {t Q : r < t < s}
.
2.3. {r Q : r < 1}
.
2.5. :
) N Q.
) r, t Q r > 0 k N k r > t.
. ) r
n r < n. r = pq Q, p Z q N.
p N {0} p 1 = p < 1 q Q
r < 1. p N, p 1 = p < p + 1 (p + 1)q. Q
r < p + 1.
) . , , r, t Q r > 0
k N k r < t.
Q k N k < t r1 ,
) N .

2.3

Enallaktiko Orismo twn

kai

Z Q
Q.

.
. .
28

2.3.1

Sqseic Isodunamac

2.6. X . X
:
(i) x X, x x.
(ii) x, y X, x y y x.
(iii) x, y, z X, x y y z x z.
. (i)
X X, x = x x x.

.
, . a b
a, b .

.
2.7. X
x X. x [x] :
[x] = {y X : x y}
2.8. X X.
x, y X
[x] = [y]
[x] [y] = .
X {[x] : x X}
X .
. x, y X. z [x] [y]. [x] = [y].
w [x] w [y] .
w [x]. x w z [x] z x.
(iii) z w.
z [y] w y w [y].
w [y] w [x] .
2.9. X sin ,
/
/
X = {[x] : x X}. [x] X
y [x] [x].
29

. m N. N m .
k, l N, k m l v N {0} 0 v < m p1 , p2 N {0}
k = p1 m + v l = p2 m + v. m
N.
/
{
}
N m = [0], [1], . . . , [m 1]
[1] = {1, m + 1, 2m + 1, 3m + 1, . . .} j = 1, . . . , m
{
}
[j] = j + m l : l N {0}
[1] = [m + 1] = [2m + 1] = . . .
j = 1, . . . , m n [j] [j] = [n].

2.4

H sumbatthta prxewn kai ditaxhc me sqsh

isodunamac

2.10. X .
(i) X
. x, x , y, y X x x y y x y x y .
(ii) < X <
:
x, x , y, y X x x y y x < y x < y .
2.11. X
.
/
X .
. X : [x] [y] = [x y].
.
/
X
[x], [y]
. , x [x] y [y].
x y x y [x y] = [x y ].
.
2.12. <
/
, < X .
/
. [x], [y] X [x] < [y] x < y.
.
30

2.5

Enallaktikc orismc tou

N, Z N .
N2 = N N N N = {(n, m) : n, m N}
. (n, m)
(n, m) = (n , m ) n = n m = m . N N ,
. N.
.
/
Z N2 .
.
2.5.1

Orismo prxewn kai ditaxhc sto

N2

:
(m, n) + (k, l) = (m + k, n + l)
:
(m, n) (k, l) = (mk + nl, ml + nk)
:
(m, n) < (k, l) m + l < n + k
.
(m, n)
m n.
.
2.5.2

Orismc thc sqshc isodunamac sto

N2

N2 (m, n) (k, l) m + l = n + k.
/
N2 . N2 .
N2 .
2.13. +, N2 <
.
.
.
.
/
Z N2
N2 .
31

(1, 4)

(2, 4)

(3, 4)

(4, 4)

(5, 4)

(1, 3)

(2, 3)

(3, 3)

(4, 3)

(5, 3)

(1, 2)

(2, 2)

(3, 2)

(4, 2)

(5, 2)

(1, 1)

(2, 1)
+1

(3, 1)
+2

(4, 1)
+3

(5, 1)
+4

3
2

1
0

:
.
() Z = {[(m, n)] : m, n N}
.
, ,
.
2.14. m, n N, :
(i) (m, n) (1, 1).
(ii) k N (m, n) (k, 1).
(iii) k N (m, n) (1, k).
Z :
{
} {
} {
}
Z = [(1, k)] : k N k > 1 [(1, 1)] [(k, 1)] : k N k > 1
N, [(1, 1)] 0
N. 1
[(2, 1)] 1 [(1, 2)].
()
N2 .
,
,
. [(m, 1)] [(1, m)]
[(1, 1)] (m, 1), (1, m), (1, 1)
.
, m > 1, (1, m) + (m, 1) = (m + 1, m + 1) (1, 1).
32

2.6

Enallaktikc orismc tou

.
. , ,

. , ,
.
{
}
Z N = (p, q) : p Z q N
.
(p1 , q1 ) (p2 , q2 ) p1 q2 = p2 q1
Z N
Q. .
2.15. +, Z N <
.
/
Q Z N
Z N.
: Z,
Q, Z N, Z N.
Q
, .

33

34

Keflaio 3
Oi pragmatiko arijmo
N,
Z Q. , ,
, .
, N Z
Z Q.
, R,
.
.

(. 2
, ), e,
.

.
R.

Q .

3.1

Orismc twn pragmatikn arijmn

R , +,
< , .

(i) , R, + = , . ()
(ii) , , R, + ( + ) = ( + ) + . ()
35

(iii) 0, R, + 0 = 0 + = .
(iv) , R
R + = 0 .
(i) (iv) .
.
3.1. :
() 0 x R + x = R.
() R .
() x + = x = + () = .
() , , R + = + = .

(v) , R, = . ()
(vi) , , R, () = (). ()
(vii) 1, 1 = 0, R, 1 =
1 = .
(viii) ,
R = 0 R = 1 1 .
,
.
3.2. :
() 1 R 1 = R.
() R, = 0, .
() x = = 0 x = ()1 =

() , , R = 0, = = .

.
(ix) , , R, ( + ) = + .
36

 3.3. :
() R, 0 = 0.
() 0 .
() , R = 0, = 0 = 0.
() () + () = ( + ) , R.
() () = ( ) , R.
( ) () () = , R.
.

( 1,
1.9). , :
(x) (),
, R < = > .
(xi) , , R < + < + .
(xii) , , R < , > 0 < .
(x) (xii)
.

. .
3.4. :
() , , , R > , > + > + .
() > 0 < 0 R.
() > > 0 , R.
() , R < 0 < 0, > 0.
() 1 > 0 + 1 > R.
37

3.2

Oi fusiko arijmo san upodom tou

() , .
, ,
R.
N.
3.5. A R
.
(1) 1 A.
(2) A + 1 A.

(Ai )iI .
I . (An )nN N.
(Ai )iI : I U , U
. , Ai = (i)
i I. , I = N.


. ,
. (Ix )xR , x R Ix = [x, ).
(Ix )xR .
3.6. (Ai )iI R,
iI Ai .
. iI Ai R
(Ai )iI . , 1 iI Ai . x iI Ai , x Ai
i I Ai x + 1 Ai
i I, x + 1 iI Ai . , iI Ai
.
.
3.7. . , A0
R .
. A0 = {A : A }. A0
A.
38

. A = {x R : 1 x} .
A0 1 . , A0 ,
x A0 x + 1 A0 .
3.8. s : A0 A0 s(x) = x + 1.
3.9. (A0 , s) Peano
.
. , s 1 1 1 = s(x) x A0 .
, (A0 , s) , V
A0
A0 A0 V .
. s A0
A0 R. s A0 A0 . , A0
R
N.
.
3.10. (i) N {0} N R
R Z.
(ii) { pq : p Z, q N} Q.
R.
,
Q
. ,

2. R
.

3.3

H idithta thc plhrthtac tou

R ,
.
3.11. A R x R. x A
y A y x.
. A R x R x A. x > x
A, < .
39

 3.12 (Supremum ( ) A). = A R s R.

s supremum A (sup) :
(i) s A.
(ii) s A s s .
.
3.13. A R. sup A .
. supremum (. =[0, 1],
sup A = 1 1 A). sup maximum
(max). , sup, , . ,
A = (0, 1) sup= s, s .
(0, 1) (0, 1).
R
(xiii) R supremum.
supremum
R.
3.14. A R.
.
1. s supremum .
2. () s .
() > 0 x A s < x s.
. 1 2
supremum, s = sup A, s
2() . , s > 0,
s x A s < x. 2()
x s 2() .
21
2() s 2() s < s
, s , s = sup A.
. R
. , , R. ,
.
40

3.3.1

To

Infimum

uposunlwn tou

3.15 (Inmum ( ) A). A R s R.

s inmum A (inf A) :
(i) s A.
(ii) s A s s.
inmum 3.14
.
3.16. A R.
.
1. s infimum .
2. () s .
() > 0 x A s x < s + .
3.17. R. A =
{x : x A}. , A inf A = sup(A).
. s , s
A. , A A
s = sup(A). s
A 2() 3.16.
2(). > 0. s = sup(A) x A s < x s.
s x < s + . , s 2 3.16
s = inf A.
inmum
supremum.
3.18. R infimum.
3.3.2

Sunpeiec thc plhrthtac sth dom tou

R .
.
( (i)-(xii) )
. , A = { n1 : n N}.
, A inf A = 0.
, 0 , > 0
41

 n N n1 < .
! , n1 0.
N R.

. , x R,
x > n n N, x1 < n1 n N
.
,
.
N R .
3.19. N R.
. N . R
s R supremum N. n0 N s 21 < n0 s.
s < s + 21 < n0 + 1, n0 + 1 N s
N.
3.20. A = { n1 : n N} inf A = 0.
. 0 . 0
inf A > 0, n N n1 < .
> 0, n N 1 < n
.
3.21 ( -). a > 0 b R.
n N b < na.
. b 0 n = 1.
b > 0, n N b < na ab < n. 3.19
N n N ab < n, ab
N.
3.22 ( R). a, b R a < b.
q Q a < q < b.
. a > 0, a 0. d =
b a > 0. N , 3.19, n N n > d1
n1 < d. S = {k N |a < nk }. N
S , k0 . kn0 Q k0 S a < kn0 .
kn0 < b. k0 = 1 k0n1 = 0 < a. k0 = 1 k0 = min S
k0 1 S k0n1 = 0 a. k0n1 = 0 a.
n1 < d2 kn0 = k0n1 + n1 < k0n1 + d a + d = b.
42

 3.23 ( ). (In )nN

R

In =
nN

. n N In = [an , bn ]. A = {an |n N}
B = {bn |n N}.
A B. , B
A. sup A ( A)
B. sup A B. ,
sup A inf B.

In [sup A, inf B]
nN

x [sup A, inf B] n N, an sup A x

inf B bn . x In n N. x nN In .

3.4

H uperarijmhsimthta tou

G. Cantor (18451918) .
Cantor
. Cantor
, .
R N.
Cantor .
3.24. : N A
.
. (1)
.
(2) .
(3) .
(4) 7, Z Q
.
3.25. .
, Russel
. .
43

 3.26. P(N) = {A : A N} .
. P(N) , : N P(N)
. . , A N
, n N.
P(N). A = {n N : n
/ (n)}. , A N
( A = )! n A (n) = A.
n A n
/ A. n A, n
/ (n) = A, . n
/ A, n
/ (n)
n A, .
R .
. , : N R
x0 R n N.
. x0 ,
R. ,
R .
.
3.27. [, ] R < . {x1 , . . . , xn }
R. , < < < [, ] {x1 , . . . , xn } = .
. , x1 < x2 < . . . < xn .
I = {1 k n : xk (, )}. I = , < < <
[, ] . I = , k0 = min I
< < < xk0 . [, ] {x1 , . . . , xn } = .
3.28. R .
. R . : N R . xn = (n)
I0 = [0, 1]. (In )nN I1 I0
I1 {x1 } = . , n 1 In+1 In In+1 {x1 , . . . , xn+1 } = .
I0 I1 . . . In In+1 x0
n=1 In .
: x0 = xn n N.
, n N xn
/ In x0 In x0 = xn .
.
. (1). , Q . ,
B A , A\B .
R. ,
.
(2). . (
, e)
R.
44

Keflaio 4
Metriko qroi kai
paradegmata

4.1

Orismc metriko qrou

4.1. (X, ) X
: X X R :
(i) (x, y) 0 x, y X (x, y) = 0 x = y.
(ii) (x, y) = (y, x) x, y X ( ).
(iii) (x, z) (x, y) + (y, z) x, y, z X ( ).
, X ,
(x, y) x y.

X X.

1. R
(x, y) = |x y|
x, y R.
2. 2 Rk k : x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ), y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yk )
Rk
k
(
) 12
2 (x, y ) =
(xi yi )2 .
i=1

45

3. X :
x, y X
{
1 x = y
(x, y) =
0 x = y.
4. (X, ) A X,
A AA A : AA R A (x, y) = (x, y)
A.
A .
.

4.2

Metrikc se dianusmatikoc qrouc pou or'izontai ap nrmec

.
.
4.2. ( )
(V, +, ) V , + : V V V
() : R V V ( )
:
(i) (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) x, y, z V .
(ii) x + y = y + x x, y V .
(iii) 0 V ( ) x + 0 = 0 + x = x
xV.
(iv) x V x V x + (x) = (x) + x = 0.
(v) (x + y) = x + y x, y V R.
(vi) ( + )x = x + x x V , R. ( +
).
(vii) (x) = ()x x V , R (
).
(viii) 1x = x x V .
46

 .
( R C
.)
V B V
x V x = 0 k N, b1 , b2 , . . . , bk
B 1 , 2 , . . . , k x = 1 b1 + 2 b2 + + k bk .

() Rk :
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yk ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xk + yk )
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ).
(standard) Rk e1 , e2 , . . . , ek
ej = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) ( j-).
() c00 (N)
x = (x1 , x2 , . . .)
i0 N xi = 0 i i0 .

(x1 , x2 , . . .) + (y1 , y2 , . . .) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . .)
(x1 , x2 , . . .) = (x1 , x2 , . . .).


c00 (N).
c00 (N) Rk , k = 1, 2, . . .
(standard) c00 (N) e1 , e2 , . . . ej = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . .)
j = 1, 2, . . . ( j-).
() P .
() Pn n
.
() X f : X R
. F(X) f :
X R ,
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
(f )(x) = f (x)
.
() C[a, b]
[a, b].
.
47

 4.3. (V, +, ) .
: V R :
(i) x 0 x V x = 0 x = 0.
(ii) x = || x x V R.
(iii) x + y x + y x, y V ( ).
(V, ) .
(V, ) = : V V R (x, y) =
x y V .
(x, y) = x y 0 x, y V , (x, y) = 0, x y = 0
x y = 0 x = y.
(x, y) = x y = (1)(y x) = | 1| y x = (y, x) x, y V .
x, y, z V (x, z) = xz= (xy)+(yz) xy+yz=
(x, y) + (y, z).

V.
.
1. 2 Rk : x Rk
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk )
k
(
) 12
x2 =
x2i .
i=1

2 R 2 .
2. Rk 1 x Rk
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) :
k

x1 =

|xi |

i=1

x = max{|xi | : i = 1, 2, . . . , k}.
1 Rk
.
3. Rk p 1 < p < : x =
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) Rk
xp =

k
(
i=1

48

|xi |p

) p1

 p
.
Minkowski Holder.
:
p > 1 q > 1
ab

1 1
+ = 1 a, b 0
p q
ap
bq
+ .
p
q

(1)

.. a = 0 b = 0 (1) . a > 0
b > 0. log : (0, +) R log (x) =
1
2 < 0 x (0, +) . x, y (0, +)
x
0 < < 1 log x + (1 ) log y log(x + (1 )y). x = ap , y = bq
1
1
1
1
1
1
( 1 = ) log ap + log bq log( ap + bq )
=
p
q
p
q
p
q
bq
ap
log(ab) log( + ) (1).
p
q
1 1
+ = 1
p q
q p ( p
q). p > 1 p
p
1
1
q=
+ = 1
p1
p
q
p + q = pq.
: p, q > 1

H
older: p, q ( p > 1
a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , b1 , b2 , . . . , bk 2k
k

i=1

|ai bi |

k
(

|ai |p

1
1
+ = 1)
p
q

k
) p1 (
) q1

|bi |q .

i=1

(2)

i=1

p = q = 2 Cauchy-Scwartz.
..

|ai |p = 0 a1 = a2 = = ak = 0

i=1

(2) .
k
k
k

|bi |q = 0.
|ai |p > 0
|bi |q > 0.
i=1

i=1

i=1

i=1

|ai |p =

|bi |q = 1.

i=1

|ai bi | 1. i = 1, 2, . . . , k (1)

i=1

49

 |ai | |bi |
|ai bi |

|ai |p
|bi |q
+
.
p
q

k
k
k
k
) 1(
) 1 1

|bi |q
1(
|ai |p
p
+
)=
|ai | +
|bi |q = + = 1.
|ai bi |
(
p
q
p i=1
q i=1
p q
i=1
i=1

, Ai = ( k

ai
|ai |

) p1 Bi = (
k
p

i=1

bi
|bi

|q

) q1 i =

i=1

1, 2, . . . , k A1 ,A2 ,. . . , Ak ,B1 ,B2 ,. . . ,Bk

k
k
k

|Ai |p =
|Bi |q = 1.
|Ai Bi | 1
i=1
k

i=1

i=1

(
k

|ai |

|ai |p

) p1 (
k

i=1

i=1

|bi |
|bi |q

) q1 1.

i=1
k

|ai bi |

k
(

i=1

|ai |p

k
) p1 (
) q1

|bi |q .

i=1

i=1

Minkowski: p 1 x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , y1 , y2 , . . . , yk 2k
k
(

|xi + yi |p

i=1

) p1

k
(

|xi |p

) p1

i=1

k
(

|yi |p

) p1

(3)

i=1

.. p = 1 p > 1.
k

1
A = ( |xi + yi |p ) p
i=1

Ap

i=1

|xi + yi |p =

|xi + yi | |xi + yi |p1

i=1

(|xi | + |yi |) |xi + yi |p1

i=1

|xi | |xi + yi |

p1

i=1

i=1

50

|yi | |xi + yi |p1 .

(4)

p
.
p1
i = 1, 2, . . . , k

q p q =
Holder ai = |xi |, bi = |xi + yi |p1
k

|xi | |xi + yi |p1

k
(

i=1

|xi |p

k
) p1 (
) q1

|xi + yi |(p1)q .

i=1

(p 1)q = pq q = p A = (

i=1

|xi + yi |p ) p

i=1
k

|xi | |xi + yi |p1

k
(

i=1

|xi |p

) p1

(Ap ) q .

(5)

i=1

Holder ai = |yi |, bi = |xi + yi |p1

i = 1, 2, . . . , k
k

|yi | |xi + yi |p1

k
(

i=1

|yi |p

) p1

(Ap ) q .

(6)

i=1

(4),(5),(6)
p

k
(

|xi |

) p1

1
q

(A ) +
p

k
(

i=1

((
k

|xi |p

(Ap )1 q

k
(

|yi |p

k
(

|xi |p

) p1

) p1 )

k
(

i=1

(Ap ) q
1

(Ap ) q

i=1

) p1

i=1
1
p

i=1

|yi |p

k
(

|xi |p

|yi |p

) p1

i=1

) p1

k
(

i=1

|yi |p

) p1

i=1

Minkowski (3).
Minkowski x, y Rk x + y p xp + y p
(Rk , p ). (Rk , p )
p Rk :
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yk ) Rk
p (x, y ) =

k
(
i=1

51

|xi yi |p

) p1

 p = 2 p p
.
4. c00 (N) p 1 p < : x = (x1 , x2 , . . .) c00 (N)

x = sup{|xi | : i N}
xp =

|xi |p

) p1

i=1

p c00 (N)
Rk .
5. (C[a, b], ) [a, b] supremum
f = sup{|f (x)| : x [a, b]}.
C[a, b].

[a, b] .
f 0 f C[a, b] f = 0 sup{|f (x)| :
x [a, b]} = 0 |f (x)| = 0 x [a, b] f = 0.
f C[a, b] R
f = sup{|f (x)| : x [a, b]} = || sup{|f (x)| : x [a, b]} = ||f
f, g C[a, b] x [a, b]
|(f + g)(x)| = |f (x) + g(x)| |f (x)| + |g(x)| f + g
sup{|(f + g)(x)| : x [a, b]} f + g f + g f +
g .
C[a, b] .

(f, g) = sup{|f (x) g(x)| : x [a, b]}.
6. C[a, b] p 1 p < + . f C[a, b]

)1
( b
|f (t)|p dt p
f p =
a

52

 (i) g :
[a, b] R g(t) 0 t [a, b] g = 0.
(ii)
Minkowski .
H
older .
H
older : p, q ( p > 1
1 1
+ = 1) f, g : [a, b] R
p q

|f (t)g(t)|dt

) p1 (
|f (t)| dt

|g(t)|q dt

) q1

(7)

p = q = 2 Cauchy-Scwartz .
.. (1)
Holder k
.
Minkowski : p 1 f, g : [a, b] R

(

|f (t) + g(t)|p dt

) p1

|f (t)|p dt

) p1

|g(t)|p dt

) p1

(8)

.. p = 1 p > 1
H
older
Minkowski k .
Minkowski f, g C[a, b] f +
gp f p +gp
(C[a, b], p ). p p C[a, b]

( b
) p1
p (f, g) =
|f (t) g(t)|p dt .
a

1. (X, ) . x, y, z, w X :
(i) |(x, y) (x, z)| (y, z).
(ii) |(x, y) (z, w)| (x, z) + (y, w).
2. X f : X R 1-1 .
: X X R (x, y) = |f (x) f (y)| X.
53

3. X = 1 , 2 X 1 + 2 X.
4. (X, ), (Y, d) p > 1.
(
)
1
: (X Y ) (X Y ) R p (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) = |(x1 , x2 )p + d(y1 , y2 )p | p
X Y
(:
Minkowski.)
,
k .

5. (X, ) 1 = , 2 = 2 .
(: i , i = 1, 2 ( ).
(X, ) x, y, z X i .)

54

Keflaio 5
Akoloujec kai sunartseic

5.1

5.1.1

Akoloujec

Geniko orismo

X . X
f : N X. f (n) = xn , n N, f
(xn ) x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . f , xn X
.
X
(.. xn = x0 n N , x0
X).
(xn ) k1 < k2 < k3 < < kn <
(xkn ) xk1 , xk2 , xk3 , . . . (xn ).
.
. (xn ) (x2n ) (x2n1 )
(xn ). (x2n ) x2 , x4 , x6 , . . . (xn )
(x2n1 ) x1 , x3 , x5 , . . . (xn ).
(xkn ) (xn ) n N
kn n. k1 1 k1 N. n N, kn n
kn+1 > kn kn+1 > n kn+1 N kn+1 n + 1.
n N, kn n.
,
(X, ),
Rk 2 .
R.
55

5.1.2

Akoloujec pragmatikn arijmn

(xn ) R x0 R. x0 (xn )
> 0 n0 = n0 () n n0 , |xn x0 | < . (xn )
x0 (xn ) x0 xn x0 .
R
R. :
() ( ) .
lim xn .
n
xn x0 lim xn = x0 .
n

() (xn ) R , M > 0
|xn | < M n N.
() .
R
Bolzano-Weierstrass: R
.
5.1.3

Akoloujec se na metrik qro

(X, )

5.1. (X, ) , (xn ) (X, ) x0 X.

x0 (xn ) > 0 n0 = n0 () N
n n0 , (xn , x0 ) < .
(xn ) x0 X (xn ) x0 xn x0 . (xn ) (X, )
x0 X xn x0 .

R ((x, y) =
|x y|).
(xn ) x0
: xn x0 > 0 n0 N xn S (x0 , )
n n0 , S (x0 , ) = {x X : (x, x0 ) < }
x0 .
:
5.2. (X, ) , (xn ) X x0 X.
:
(i) xn x0 .
(ii) ((xn , x0 )) .
.
56

 5.3 ( ). (xn )
(X, ). (xn ) .
.. , , x0 , x0 X
x0 = x0 xn x0 xn x0 . x0 = x0 (x0 , x0 ) = > 0.

xn x0 =
n0 N n n0 , (xn , x0 ) < .
2
2

, xn x0 n0 N n n0 , (xn , x0 ) < . ,
2
n0 = max{n0 , n0 }
= (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , xn0 ) + (xn0 , x0 ) = (xn0 , x0 ) + (xn0 , x0 ) <

+ =
2 2

< .
lim xn
n

(xn ). xn x0
lim xn = x0 .
n

5.4.
.
.. (X, ) , (xn ) X, x0 X xn x0 . (xkn ) (xn ). xkn x0 .
> 0. xn x0 n0 N (xn , x0 ) < n n0 .
n n0 kn n kn n0 . n n0 ,
(xkn , x0 ) < . > 0 n0 N (xkn , x0 ) <
n n0 , xkn x0 .
: 5.3 5.4
R
. ,
,
(X, ) . (),(),()
R .
Bolzano-Weierstrass .
(Rk , 2 ) , .
5.1.4

Akoloujec ston eukledeio qro

(Rk , 2 )

Rk , k 2 Rk
(xn ). n N,
xn = (x1n , x2n , . . . , xkn ) x1n , x2n , . . . , xkn xn .
(xn ) Rk k (x1n ), (x2n ), . . . , (xkn ) R.
(Rk , 2 ).
57

 5.5. (xn ) (Rk , 2 ) x0 Rk .

:
(i) xn x0 .
(ii) xin xi0 R i = 1, 2, . . . , k xn = (x1n , x2n , . . . , xkn ), n N
x0 = (x10 , x20 , . . . , xk0 ).
.. (i) = (ii) xn x0 i0 {1, 2, . . . , k}. xin0 xi00 .
> 0. n0 N 2 (xn , x0 ) < n n0 . |xin0 xi00 |
(
) 21
k
|xin xi0 |2
= 2 (xn , x0 ) n N, n n0 , |xin0 xi00 | < .
i=1

xin0 xi00 .
(ii) = (i) xin xi0 i = 1, 2, . . . , k. xn x0 .
> 0. xin xi0 , i = 1, 2, . . . , k ni N n ni ,

|xin xi0 | < . n0 = max{ni : i = 1, 2, . . . , k}. n n0

k

k
k
(
) 12
(
) 12
2 1
2 (xn , x0 ) =
|xin xi0 |2
<
( )2
= (k ) 2 = .
k
k
i=1
i=1
xn x0 .
5.6 ( Bolzano-Weierstrass Rk ).
Rk . ( (xn ) Rk
M > 0 n N, xn 2 M ).
.. k = 1 .
k = 2. (xn ) R2 , xn = (x1n , x2n ) n = 1, 2, . . ..
|x1n | xn 2 (x1n ) R
(x1n ) (x1kn ). |x2kn | xkn 2 n,
(x2kn ) R
(x2kln ). (x1kln ) (x1kn )
. (x1kln ), (x2kln ) (x1kn ) (x2kn )
R. (xkln )
R2 . (xkln ) (xn ).

. (yn )
Y (yn )nN (ykn ) (yn )nN
(yn )nM M = {k1 , k2 , k3 , . . .}.
(xn )nN Rk , xn = (x1n , x2n , . . . , xkn ), n N.
i = 1, 2, . . . , k |xin | xn 2 n N (xin )nN
R. (x1n )nN R M1 N
(x1n )nM1 . (x2n )nM1
58

R M2 M1 N (x2n )nM2 .
(x3n )nM2 M3 M2 M1 N
(x3n )nM3 .
( k) N, M1 M2 M3
Mk i = 1, 2, . . . , k (xin )nMi R.
M = Mk . i = 1, 2, . . . , k (xin )nM
(xin )nMi , .
M N (xin )nM (xin )nN i = 1, 2, . . . , k. 5.5 (xn )nM
(xn )nN .
5.7. (Rk , 2 ) .
.. (xn ) Rk x0 Rk xn x0 .
= 1 n0 N n n0 , 2 (xn , x0 ) < 1. 2 (xn , x0 ) =
xn x0 2 2 n n0
xn 2 = (xn x0 ) + x0 2 xn x0 2 + x0 2 < 1 + x0 2 .
M = max{x1 2 , . . . , xn0 1 2 , 1 + x0 2 } xn M
n N. (xn ) .

5.2

Suneqec sunartseic

f : (X, )
(Y, d) (X, ), (Y, d) . f : X R X R.
f : X R, X R x0 X
f x0 X > 0 > 0
x X |x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| < . f x0 X
f X.
x0 . f : X R, X R x0 X
. f
x0 x0
f (x0 ), (xn ) X xn x0
f (xn ) f (x0 ).
.
f x0 f (x) f (x0 ) x
x0 .


R.
59

5.2.1

Suneqec sunartseic se metrikoc qrouc

5.8. (X, ), (Y, d) , f : (X, ) (Y, d)

x0 X. f x0 > 0 > 0
x X (x, x0 ) < d(f (x), f (x0 )) < .
f x0 X f .

f : X R.
x0 . f : (X, ) (Y, d)
f (x) = y0 x X, y0 Y .
(X, ) , I : (X, ) (X, )
I(x) = x x X, .

.
5.9. (X, ), (Y, d) , f : (X, ) (Y, d)
x0 X. f x0 > 0 > 0
(
)
f S (x0 , ) Sd (f (x0 ), ).

Lipschitz . f : (X, ) (Y, d) Lipschitz
C > 0 x, y X
d(f (x), f (y)) C(x, y).
5.10. f : (X, ) (Y, d) Lipschitz
.
.. f Lipschitz C. x0 X

> 0. = , x X (x, x0 ) < =

C
C
d(f (x), f (x0 )) C(x, y) < .
f .
:
f : (X, ) (Y, d) x0 X f x0 > 0 > 0 x X (x , x0 ) < d(f (x ), f (x0 )) .
5.2.2

Arq metaforc sugklinousn akoloujin

5.11. (X, ), (Y, d) , f : (X, ) (Y, d)

x0 X. :
60

1. f x0 .
2. (xn ) X xn x0 f (xn ) f (x0 ).
f x0 (X, )
x0 (Y, d) f (x0 ).
.. (i) = (ii) f x0 . (xn )
(X, ) xn x0 . (f (xn )) (Y, d)
f (x0 ). > 0. f x0 , > 0
x X (x, x0 ) < d(f (x), f (x0 )) < . xn x0
n0 N n n0 , (xn , x0 ) < . n n0 , d(f (xn ), f (x0 )) < .
> 0 n0 N d(f (xn ), f (x0 )) < n n0 ,
(f (xn )) (Y, d) f (x0 ).
(ii) = (i) (xn ) (X, ) xn x0
f (xn ) f (x0 ). f x0 . , ,
f x0 . (
) > 0 > 0
1
x X (x , x0 ) < d(f (x ), f (x0 )) . n N =

n
1
1
xn X (xn , x0 ) <
d(f (xn ), f (x0 )) . 0 (xn , x0 ) <

n
n
n N (xn , x0 ) 0 xn x0 ( (5.2.
d(f (xn ), f (x0 )) n N (f (xn )) f (x0 ) (,
f (xn ) f (x0 ) n0 N n n0 , d(f (xn ), f (x0 )) < ).
. f
x0 .

. f : X Y , g : Y Z
f g g f : X Z (g f )(x) = g(f (x))
x X.
5.12. (X, ), (Y, d), (Z, ) , f : (X, ) (Y, d),
g : (Y, d) (Z, ) x0 X f x0 g
f (x0 ). g f : (X, ) (Z, ) x0 .
.. . (xn ) X
xn x0 . ((f g)(xn )) (Z, ) (f
g)(x0 ) Z. , f x0 xn x0
f : (X, ) (Y, d) f (xn ) f (x0 ).
g : (Y, d) (Z, ), g f (x0 ),
g(f (xn )) g(f (x0 )) (g f )(xn ) (g f )(x0 ).
61

5.2.3

Pragmatikc sunartseic

f : X R, X
, .
f, g : X R f + g : X R (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
x X R
f : X R f : X R (f )(x) = f (x) x X.
f, g : X R
f g : X R (f g)(x) = f (x) g(x) x X. g(x) = 0
f
f
f (x)
x X f g
: X R ( )(x) =

g
g
g(x)
x X.
X f g
f + g, f g, f ( R)
. :
5.13. (X, ) , f, g : (X, ) R , R x0 X. f g x0
(i) f + g f g x0 .
(ii) f g f g x0 .
(iii) f x0 .
(iv) g(x) = 0 x X

f
x0 .
g

..
.
(i) (xn ) X xn x0 . (f +g)(xn ) (f +g)(x0 ).
f, g x0 f (xn ) f (x0 ) g(xn ) g(x0 ).
f (xn ) + g(xn ) f (x0 ) + g(x0 ) (f + g)(xn ) (f + g)(x0 ).
(ii) xn x0 f (xn ) f (x0 ) g(xn ) g(x0 ) f (xn )g(xn )
f (x0 )g(x0 ) (f g)(xn ) (f g)(x0 ).
(iii),(iv) .
5.14. (X, ) x0 X.
f : (X, ) R f (x) = (x, x0 )
Lipschitz C = 1.
.. |f (x) f (y)| (x, y) x, y X. ,
x, y X. (x, x0 ) (x, y) + (y, x0 ) f (x) (x, y) + f (y)
f (x) f (y) (x, y)
62

(1)

 (y, x0 ) (y, x) + (x, x0 ) f (y) (x, y) + f (x)

f (y) f (x) (x, y)

(2)

(1) (2) |f (x) f (y)| (x, y).

. (X, ) , A X
x X x A (x, A) = inf{(x, z) : z A}.
x X A X (x, A)
x A, (x, A) = 0.
5.15. (X, ) =
A X.
f : (X, ) R f (x) = (x, A) Lipschitz C = 1
.
.. |f (x) f (y)|
(x, y) x, y X. x, y X.
z A f (x) = (x, A) (x, z) (x, y) + (y, z). f (x)
(x, y) (y, z) z A, , (y, A) = inf{(y, z) : z A},
f (x) (x, y) (y, A) f (x) (x, y) f (y).
f (x) f (y) (x, y).

(3)

, x y ,
f (y) f (x) (x, y)

(4)

(3) (4) |f (x) f (y)| (x, y).

1. (X, ) (xn ), (yn ) X x, y X xn x

yn y. (xn , yn ) (x, y).
2. (xn )nN , (yn )nN (X, )
x X xn x (xn , yn ) 0 yn x.
3. (X, ) X. :
(i) (xn ) X .
(ii) (Y, d) , f : X Y .
4. (xn )nN (X, ) x X
(xn )nN x.
5. X , n N, fi : X R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n
x, y X x = y i {1, 2, . . . , n} fi (x) = fi (y). :
63

(i) (x, y) =

|fi (x) fi (y)| X.

i=1

(ii) i = 1, 2, . . . , n fi : (X, ) R .
6. f : (X, ) (Y, d) x X. f x
(xn )nN X xn x (f (xn ))nN
(Y, d).

64

Keflaio 6
Anoikt kai kleist
uposnola metrikn qrwn.

6.1

Oriak shmea

6.1. A X (X, ) . x X
A > 0
S(x, ) A = .
. x A A.
A x X
x A x A.
(0, 1) R 0, 1
(0, 1).
6.2. A,
(X, ) A :
A = {x X : x A}.
.
1. x A
A A A.
2. A 7 A P(X)
.
3. (X, ) . X. X = X, . =
x X > 0 S(x, ) = x .
65

4. A A
. ,
A = (0, 1) (X, ) = (R, | |) A = [0, 1] (X, ) = ((0, ), | |)
A = (0, 1] (X, ) = ((0, 1), | |) A = (0, 1).
6.1.
1. (X, ) X,
A X A = A.
2. A A
() A = (a, b) R .
() A = Q, R.
() A = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 < 1} R2 .
3. A X A = A.
6.3. :
1. A B A B.
2. A = A ( A
A).
. A B x A. x B
> 0, S(x, ) B = . > 0. x A S(x, ) A = ,
A B S(x, ) B = . x B.
A A (1) A A. A A
x0 A (. x0 A) x0
A (. x0 A).
> 0. x0 A, S(x0 , ) A = ,
y0 S(x0 , ) A. y0 A
(x0 , y0 ) < .
1 = (x0 , y0 ) > 0

S(y0 , 1 ) S(x0 , ).

(1)

y0 A
S(y0 , 1 ) A = .
(1) (2)
= S(y0 , 1 ) A S(x0 , ) A.
66

(2)

 x0 A (. x0 A) > 0
S(x0 , ) A =
x0 A. A A A = A

6.2

Shmea sussreushc

6.4. x X
A X > 0,
A (S(x, ) \ {x}) = .
. S(x, )\{x} S(x, )
x. x0 y0
> 0
x A S(y0 , ) x = y0 .
.
6.5. A (X, ) x0 X.
:
1. x0 A.
2. > 0 A S(x0 , ) .
3. (xn )n A xn = x0 , n N, xn x0 .
. ,
S(x0 , ) A x = x0 . (2) S(x0 , ) A
A. x S(x0 , ) A x = x0 ,
> 0
.
. (1)(2). . > 0 A S(x0 , ) .
A (S(x0 , ) \ {x0 }) = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }
n .
0 = min{(x0 , x1 ), (x0 , x2 ), . . . , (x0 , xn )}.
67

 xi = x0 {xi : i = 1, . . . , n}
0 > 0.
A (S(x0 , 0 ) \ {x0 }) =
.
A S(x0 , ) (2) .
(2)(3). n N xn A S(x0 , n1 ) xn = x0 .
A S(x0 , n1 ) . xn x0
xn = x0 .
(3)(1). > 0. A (S(xo , ) \ {xo }) .
(3) (xn )n A, xn x0 , xn = x0 n N.
(xn )n x0 , > 0 n0 () n > n0 (),
(xn , x0 ) < xn S(x0 , ), xn A S(x0 , ) xn = x0 ,
xn A (S(x0 , ) \ {x0 }),
A (S(x0 , ) \ {x0 }) = .

x A \ A
6.6. A X. x A\A
A.
. x A.
6.2. x A (x, A) = 0.

6.3

Anoikt uposnola

6.7. U (X, )
: x U > 0 S(x, ) U.

.
.
6.8. .
. S(x0 , ) (X, ) x S(x0 , ). 1 =
(x0 , x) .
S(x, 1 ) S(x0 , )
68

 S(x0 , ) .
y S(x, 1 ). (x, y) < 1 = (x0 , x)
(x0 , y) (x0 , x) + (x, y) <
y S(x0 , ).
6.9 ( ). (X, ) .

1. , X .
2. {Ui }ni=1 X
ni=1 Ui .
3. {Ui }iI , iI Ui
.
. (1). X x X
> 0 S(x, ) X. ,
. , A
x0 A > 0 S(x0 , ) A.
x0 .
(2). U1 , U2 , . . . , Un X. ni=1 Ui = (1)
. x0 ni=1 Ui . 0 > 0 S(x0 , 0 ) ni=1 Ui
S(x0 , 0 ) Ui i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
, x0 ni=1 Ui x0 U i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
i = 1, 2, . . . , n i > 0 S(x0 , i ) Ui . 0 = min{i }ni=1 > 0.

S(x0 , 0 ) S(x0 , i ) Ui
i = 1, 2, . . . , n S(x0 , 0 ) ni=1 Ui ni=1 Ui
.
(3). {Ui }iI X, x0 iI Ui .
i0 I x0 Ui0 . Ui0 ,
0 > 0 S(x0 , 0 ) Ui0 . Ui0 iI Ui S(x0 , 0 ) iI Ui
iI Ui .
6.3.1

Anoikt uposnola tou

6.10. U R R
x, y U z R x < z < y z U .
R (, ) , (, ] , [, ) , [, ]
= .
69

 6.11. V R x V
> 0 (x , x + ) V .
6.12. = (, ) R.
. 0 < . < 0 < < 0
. x (, ). = 12 min{x , x}.
(x , x + ) (, ). x < z < x +
x > x + < z (, ). , ,
x
x
2
2 . , > x > x
< x < z < x + < .
. U (X, ). ,
x U x > 0 S(x, x ) U. U = xU S(x, x ).
U .
X .

. ,
R.
6.13. V R.
{(i , i )}iI V = iI (i , i ).
. V x, y V , x y x < y
[x, y] V y < x [y, x] V .
V V = xV [x]. 2.8
{[x]}xV R
x V , [x] R.
x V . [x] R. ,
, [x] z R < z < . .
1. < z < x x < z < , , [x],
[z, x] [, x] V [x, z] [x, ] V . ,
z x z [x].
2. x < z < < z < x ,
[z, x] V [x, z] V z [x].
[x] (, ) = , 6.12
. [x] [, )
= , V V > 0
(, +) V . , < y < , [y, x] (, +)[x] V
y [x]. y < = min[x].
[x] (, ] = .
70

6.4

Kleist uposnola

.
De Morgan :
{Ai }iI X.
iI (X \ Ai ) iI Aci
iI (X \ Ai ) iI Aci
.
6.14. {Ai }iI X.
:
1. iI (X \ Ai ) = X \ (iI Ai )
2. iI (X \ AI ) = X \ (iI Ai )
. A, B
A B B A . A B
x A x B.
(1) (2). (1).
1 iI (X \ Ai ) X \ (iI Ai ).
,
x iI (X \ Ai ) i0 I : x X \ Ai0
x Ai0
x iI Ai
x X \ iI Ai .
2 X \ (iI Ai ) iI (X \ Ai ).
,
x X \ iI Ai x iI Ai
i0 I : x Ai0
x X \ Ai0
x iI (X \ Ai )
(1) .
(2) .
71

 6.15. F (X, ) ,
X \ F ( F c ) X.
. (1). {x} x X . , X \ {x}
, y X \ {x} y = x = (x, y) > 0
S(y, ) x X \ {x}.
(2).
S[x, ] = {y : (x, y) }
. z X \ S[x, ]. (x, z) > 1 = (x, z) > 0.

S(z, 1 ) S[x, ] =
S(z, 1 ) X \ S[s, ].
X \ S[x, ] S[x, ] .
6.16 ( ). (X, ) .
:
1. X .
2. {Fi }ni=1 ni=1 Fi .
3. {Fi }iI , iI Fi .
. (1). , X
X \ = X, X \X = , , X
.
(2) {Fi }ni=1 , {X \ Fi }ni=1 ni=1 (X \ Fi )
. ni=1 (X \ Fi ) = X \ ni=1 Fi
ni=1 Fi .
(3). . {X \ Fi }iI , iI (X \ Fi ) , X \ iI (X \ Fi ) = iI Fi
.
. (1).

.
(2).
. . .
. . R ,
72

 R2 .
, .
, R \ (0, 1) {x}, x R
R.
.
(3). (X, )
.
X
. R Rn , X
.
,
. X
A X ( ).
A X
, .
6.17. F (X, ). :
1. F .
2. F = F .
. (1)(2). F X.
X \ F , x F > 0 S(x, ) X \ F
S(x, ) F = x F. X \ F X \ F
F F . F F F = F .
(2)(1). X \ F . , x X \ F,
x F x F x F .
> 0 S(x, ) F = S(x, ) X \ F
X \ F F .
6.18. A (X, ).
A = {F : A F, F }.
A A.
. A A A.
{F : A F, F } A.
F A F
A F = F A F .
A {F : A F, F }
73

 .
. A
A,
. .

.

6.5

Qarakthrismo thc sunqeiac sunartsewn me

qrsh anoiktn kleistn sunlwn.

X, Y f : X Y . A Y A
f f 1 (A)
f 1 (A) = {x X : f (x) A}.
f 1 ,
1/f .
f 1 .
6.19. f : X Y, A, B Y. :
f 1 (A B) = f 1 (A) f 1 (B)

(1)

f 1 (A B) = f 1 (A) f 1 (B)

(2)

f 1 (Y \ A) = X \ f 1 (A).

(3)

.
. f 1
, . f
.
f (A B) f (A) f (B)

.
.
6.20. (X, ), (Y, d) f : X Y .
:
74

1. f .
2. U Y f 1 (U ) X.
3. F Y f 1 (F ) X.
. (1)(2). f x0 X > 0
= (x0 , ) > 0
f [S (x0 , )] Sd (f (x0 ), ).
U Y . U = f 1 (U ) = . U =
x f 1 (U ) > 0 S (x, ) f 1 (U ). , U
f (x) U > 0 Sd (f (x), ) U. f
x > 0
f [S (x, )] Sd (x, ) U
S (x, ) f 1 (U ) f 1 (U )
X.
(2)(1). x0 X > 0. f 1 (Sd (f (x0 ), ))
x0 > 0 S (x0 , ) f 1 (Sd (f (x0 ), ))

f [S (x0 , )] Sd (f (x0 ), )
f x0 .
(2)(3). f 1 .
, F Y . f 1 (F )
X \ f 1 (F ) . X \ f 1 (F ) = f 1 (Y \ F ) Y \ F ,
(2), f 1 (Y \ F ) , f 1 (F ) .
(3)(2).
.
.
6.21. (xn )n , x (X, ).
:
1. (xn )n x.
2. U X x U n0 N
n > n0 xn U.
75

. (1)(2). U x U.
> 0 S(x, ) U.
n0 () n > n0 , xn S(x, ).
n0 n > n0 , xn U.
(2)(1). > 0. U = S(x, ) , n0
n > n0 xn S(x, ) xn x.
:
.

.

f
Y X .
,
.
,
.
6.22. X T P(X)
X. T , :
1. X T .
2. {Ui }ni=1 T ni=1 Ui T .
3. {Ui }iI T iI Ui T .
6.23. T T
(X, T ) .
6.24. (X, T ) . F X
X \ F T ( X \ F ).
6.25. (X, T ) .
:
1. X .
2. {Fi }n=1 ni=1 Fi .
3. {Fi }iI iI Fi .

.
76

. (1). T

. T
, , .
.
(2). T = {X, }.
X ()
X T .
.
(3).

. .
6.26. (X, T ), (Y, S) . f : X Y
U Y (. U S) f 1 (U ) X
(. f 1 (U ) T .


.
.
6.27. (xn )n , x (X, T ). (xn )n
x U x U n0 N n n0 , xn U.
. ,
.

6.6

Isodnamec metrikc

, X .
Rk p-, 1 p .
.
I : X X X
, I(x) = x x X.
77

 6.28. X 1 2 .
1 , 2 ,
I : (X, 1 ) (X, 2 )
( I : (X, 1 ) (X, 2 ) I : (X, 2 ) (X, 1 )
).
,
R .
. || R
d . {t}, t R
d , A R d-.
I : (R, d) (R, || ).
I , U R || -, U = I 1 (U ) d-.
,
I : (R, || ) (R, d)
. {t} d-, || -.
.
6.29 (1 ). (X, 1 ), (X, 2 )
, X. :
1. 1 , 2 .
2. T1 , T2 , T1 = T2 .
(, U X 1 - 2 -).
3. F X 1 -, 2 -.

( I : (X, 1 ) (X, 2 ) )
.
. U 1 - 2 1 - 2 -
.

.
6.30 (2 ). (X, 1 ), (X, 2 )
X.
78

1. 1 2 .
2. x X > 0 1 > 0, 2 > 0 S1 (x, 1 ) S2 (x, )
S2 (x, 2 ) S1 (x, ).
1

3. (xn )n , x X, xn x xn x.
(2), I : (X, 1 ) (X, 2 )
, (3)
.

.
Rk p- 1 p
p- p .
6.31. x = (x1 , . . . , xk ), y = (y1 , . . . , yk ) Rk 1
p <
(x, y ) p (x, y ) k (x, y ).
.
(x, y ) = x y = max {|xi yi |}
1ik

p (x, y ) = x y p =

k
(

|xi yi |p

i=1

x y =

i=1 (xi

yi )ei

x y p =

(xi yi )ei p

i=1

(xi yi )ei p

i=1

|xi yi |.

i=1

79

)1/p


(x, y ) = max {|xi yi |}
1ik

(
|xi yi |p )1/p
i=1

= p (x, y )

|xi yi |

i=1

k max {|xi yi |}
1ik

= k (x, y )

6.32. 1 , 2 .
, 1 , 2 , 3 X 1 , 2 ,
2 , 3 , 1 , 3 .
I

. I : (X, 1 ) (X, 3 ) (X, 1 ) (X, 2 ) (X, 3 )

I
. I : (X, 3 ) (X, 1 ) (X, 3 )
I
(X, 2 ) (X, 1 ) , I : (X, 1 ) (X, 3 )
.
6.33. k N 1 p < q . (Rk , p ), (Rk , q )

. 1 p < p Rk .
, p ,
q 1 p < q . ,

I : (Rk , p ) (Rk , )
I : (Rk , ) (Rk , p )
.
6.31, 1-Lipschitz
k-Lipschitz, . I : (Rk , p ) (Rk , ) , p , .
. (1).
p , 1 p +, Rk
80

 . Rk .
(2). p
c00 (N) ,
. , 1 p < q p q
(c00 (N).
6.34. (1). (X, ) A X .
A diam(A)
diam(A) = sup{(x, y) : x, y A}.
diam(A) . diam() = 0.
(2). A X diam(A) < .
(3). , diam(X) < .
6.35. A X, diam(A) = diam(A).
. A = A = diam(A) = 0 = diam(A).
A B diam(A) diam(B). diam(A) = diam(A) =
.
A = diam(A) < .
diam(A) diam(A). diam(A) diam(A).
> 0, diam(A) diam(A) + . > 0 x, y A.

A x , y A x S(x, ) A
2

y S(y, ) A.
2
(x, y) (x , y ) +

+
2 2

(x , y ) diam(A) (x, y) diam(A) + .

x, y A
diam(A) = sup{(x, y) : x, y A} diam(A) + .

6.36. (X, ) .
1 (x, y) = min{(x, y), 1}.
1 X .
. .
81

 X
1 .
6.37. (X, ) 1
. , 1 .
. .

1. (X, ), x1 , x2 X 0 < r1 < r2

S(x2 , r2 ) S(x1 , r1 ).
2. (X, ) , A X U X.
U A = U A = .
3. (X, ) , A X x X. x A
(x, A) = 0.
4. x1 , x2 , . . . , xn (X, ).
U1 , U2 , . . . , Un X xi Ui
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
5. (xn )nN
.
6. (X, ) x X. int{x} = (
int A, A X 5) x X.
7. 6.36.
8. X . X
.
9. F, G (X, ).
(x, F )
f (x) =
x X.
(x, F ) + (x, G)
:
(i) f , f (x) = 0 x F f (x) = 1 x G.
(ii) U, V X U V = F U G V .
10. A, B (X, )
A B
(A, B) = inf{(x, y) : x A, y B}.
(A, B) = (A, B) X.

82

Keflaio 7
Pukn snola kai
Diaqwrsimoi Metriko Qroi

7.1

Arijmsima
lmma

kai

uperarijmsima

snola.

To

Zorn.

. N = {1, 2, . . .} A
f : N A --
. .

.
.
7.1. A . :
(i) A .
(ii) f : N A .
(iii) g : A N --.
.
7.2. .
. B A A . A ,
g : A N -- . g|B
g B g|B : B N -- (iii)(i)
B .
7.3. N N .
83

. g : N N N g(n, m) = 2n 3m . g
--. 7.1 N N .
7.4. Q+ , Q .
n
. Q+ = { m
: (n, m) N N n, m }.
+
n
g : Q N g( m ) = 2n 3m -- Q+ . Q .

7.5. .
. I {An }nI . I = An = n I. An
fn : N An . g : N I .

h : NN
An g(n, m) = fg(n) (m)
nI

. 7.3 7.1

nI An .
7.6. Q Z .
. Q Z Q . Q = Q {0}
Q+ 7.4 7.5.
7.7. .
. A B
. A = B = A B = . A, B
. h : N A g : N B . f : N N A B
f (n, m) = (h(n), g(m)) , N N
A B. .
7.8. n N Qn .
. {0, 1}N = {(xn ) : xn = 0 xn = 1} . R
P(N) = {A : A N} N.
Zorn (
) .
. X .
X X (x x,
84

 x X), ( x, y, z X x y y z x z)
( x, y X x y y x x = y).
X (X, ) ( X)
. C (X, ) X
C , x, y C x y
y x. A X, M X
A a A a M . m
X X ,
x X m x m = x.
ZORN. (X, ) . X X .

7.2

Pukn uposnola metrikn qrwn kai diaqwrsimoi metriko qroi.

7.9. (X, ) D X. D X D = X.
X.
7.10. (X, ) D X. :
(i) D X.
(ii) > 0 x X y D (x, y) < .
(iii) x X (yn ) D yn x.
(iv) S(x, ) X, D S(x, ) = .
(v) U X, U D = .
. (i)(ii). x X. D X
X = D. x D, D. > 0
y D y S(x, ).
(ii)(iii) x X. = n1 , n = 1, 2, . . . yn D
(x, yn ) < n1 . (x, yn ) 0 yn x.
(iii)(iv) > 0, x X (yn ) D yn x.
n0 N n n0 , (x, yn ) < yn S(x, ).
(iv)(v) U . x U > 0 S(x, ) U.
D S(x, ) = D U =
.
(v)(i) x X > 0. S(x, )
X S(x, ) D = . x D.
x X X D. D X, D = X.
85

. (i) Q R.
R > 0 (x, x+)
.
(ii) k N Qk Rk
2 .
, x = (x1 , . . . , xk ) Rk > 0. Q
R q1 ,. . . , qk i = 1, . . . , k, |xi qi | < k .
q = (q1 , . . . , qk ) Qk
2 (x, q) =

k
(

|xi qi |2

) 12

< .

i=1

7.11. (X, ) .
. k = 1, 2, . . . (Rk , 2 ) .
Qk (Rk , 2 ).
7.12. (X, ) > 0. A X
- x, y A x =
y, (x, y) .
A X > 0
x, y A x = y (x, y) < .
X > 0
X.
7.13. (X, ) > 0. X
( A X, B
X A B A = B).
. = {A X : A }.
, , .
( , ) Zorn. C
( , ). C C.

(i) C .
, x, y C. A, B C x A y B.
C , A B B A. A B x, y B B ,
(x, y) . B A. C (X, ).
(ii) C C.
, A C. A C.
( , ) .
Zorn ( , ) .
86

 7.14. (X, ) An X, n = 1, 2, . . .,
n N An n1 X. nN An
X.
. x X > 0. y nN An (x, y) <
. n0 N n10 < . x An0 y = x. x An0 , An0
n10 X, B = An0 {x}
n10 . B
n10 . An0 n10 -,
x y An0 .
y An0 (x, y) < n10 < .
x X > 0 y nN An (x, y) < .
X nN An
X.

(X, ) .
7.15. (X, ) , > 0, A X
X D X. --
: A D.
. D X, A, S(, 4 )
D = . A y D S(, 4 ). :
A D () = y , A. --. , , A.

A , (, ) S(, 4 )S( , 4 ) =
. y = y () = ( ).
7.13-7.15 .
7.16. (X, ) . .
(i) (X, ) .
(ii) > 0 X .
. (i)(ii). D X, > 0 A
X. 7.15 : A D
--. D A .
(ii)(i). 7.13 n N n1
X, An . 7.14 nN An
X. An . nN An . X
.
87

 7.17. (X, ) A X. (A, )

.
. , > 0, D A
- . > 0 D A -.
D X - A X .
7.16, X , D .

7.3

Bseic perioqn

7.18. (X, ) B
X. B X
X B.
(X, )
( . 3) X {S(x, r) : x
X, r > 0} X.
7.19. (X, ) D X.
B = {S(y, q) : y D q } X.
. U X. x U
yx D qx x S(yx , qx ) U. ,
x U, S(yx , qx ) B U = xX S(yx , qx ).
x U. U > 0 x S(x, ) U.
, ,
. D yx D S(x, 3 ). x S(yx , 3 )

3 , S(yx , 3 ) B. S(yx , 3 ) U. z S(yx , 3 )

(x, z) (x, yx ) + (yx , z) <

+ < ,
3 3

S(yx , 3 ) S(x, ) U.
. R
{(q1 , q2 ) : q1 < q2 } R.
7.20. (X, ) . :
(i) (X, ) .
(ii) (X, ) .
. (i)(ii). , D
X, B = {S(y, q) : y D, q } X.
: D Q+ B Q+ = {q Q : q > 0} (y, q) = S(y, q)
88

(y, q) D Q+ . B. D Q+
. B (
7.1(ii)) 7.1).
(ii)(i). (X, ) B. U B
yU U. D = {yU : U B}. D (
f : B D f (U) = yU , U B )
X. , x X > 0. S(x, )
B. y D S(x, ).
7.21. (X, ) B
X. :
(i) B X.
(ii) x X U X x U, Gx B
x Gx U.
. (i)(ii). x X U x. B
U B,
x.
(ii)(i). , U = xU Gx .

1. f, g : (X, ) (Y, d) D X .
f|D = g|D f = g.
2. f : (X, ) (Y, d) D X.
f (D) (f (X), d). f X
;
3. (X, ) x X, int{x} = .
D X D \ {x} x D. ( int A A X
5).
4. x0 (X, )
: D X, x0 D. {x0 }
X.

89

90

Keflaio 8
Plreic metriko qroi

8.1

Plhrthta

8.1. (xn ) (X, )

Cauchy > 0 n0 N n, m N n, m n0
(xn , xm ) < .
. (i) xn x (xn ) . ,
> 0 n0 N n n0 , (xn , x) < 2 .
n, m n0
(xn , xm ) (xn , x) + (x, xm ) <

+ = .
2 2

(ii)
.


.
8.2 ( ). (xn ) (xkn ) x X.
(xn ) x.
. > 0. n0 N n n0 , (xn , x) <
. > 0 n1 N n n1 , (xkn , x) < 2 (
(xkn ) x). n2 N m, n
n2 , (xn , xm ) < 2 . n0 = max{n1 , n2 } n n0 ,
(xn , x) < .
91

, kn0 n0 , n n0
(xn , x) (xn , xkn0 ) + (xkn0 , x) <

+ = .
2 2

xn x.
8.3. (xn )n . {xn : n N}
.
. A diam(A) = sup{(x, y) :
x, y A} < .
sup{(xn , xm ) : n, m N} < .
= 1 n0 N n, m n0 , (xn , xm ) < 1.
M 1
max{(xn , xn0 ) : n = 1, . . . , n0 } < M .
n, m N
(xn , xm ) (xn , xn0 ) + (xm , xn0 ) < 2M ,
diam{xn : n N} 2M .
8.4. (xn ) R
x R.
. (xn ) , .
Bolzano-Weierstrass (xn ) (xkn )
x R, (xn ) x.
8.5. (xn ) Rk
.
. (xn ) Rk , xn = (xn1 , xn2 , . . . , xnk ).
i = 1, 2, . . . , k (xni )nN
. , |xni xm
xn xm > 0 n0 N xn xm <
i |
n, m n0 , i = 1, 2, . . . , k n, m n0 , |xin xim | < .
(xni )n xi i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
Rk xn x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ).
8.6. (X, )
(X, ) .
92

. (i) R
Rk , , .
(ii) Rk p , 1 p .
(Rk , 2 ) .
(iii) 1 , 2 X (X, 1 )
(X, 2 ) .
X = (0, 1] 2 (x, y) = | x1 y1 | ( (0, 1], 2 ) , 2
(0, 1] ( (0, 1], | |) .
8.7. (X, ) K X (K, )
. K X.
. . K = K, x K \ K.
x K (xn )
K xn x. (xn ) K
(K, ) , .
8.8. (X, ) . f : X X
0 < C < 1 (f (x), f (y)) C(x, y)
x, y X.
8.9 ( Banach). (X, )
. f : X X ,
x0 X f (x0 ) = x0 .
.. 0 < C < 1 (f (x), f (y)) C(x, y) x, y X.
n = 1, 2, . . . f n : X X f n = f f f . ( (f n )
|
{z
}
n
: f 1 = f , f n+1 = f f n n = 1, 2, . . ..)
x X.
(f n (x))nN Cauchy.
(f n (x), f n+1 (x)) C n (x, f (x))
n = 1, 2, . . .. m, n m > n
(f n (x), f m (x)) (f n (x), f n+1 (x)) + (f n+1 (x), f n+2 (x)) + + (f m1 (x), f m (x))
C n (x, f (x)) + C n+1 (x, f (x)) + + C m1 (x, f (x))
(x, f (x))C n (1 + C + + C mn+1 )
1
(x, f (x))C n
1C

( 0 < C < 1
C k
k=0

1
). > 0
1C

C n0
< m > n n0
1C
(f n (x), f m (x)) < . (f n (x))nN Cauchy.
n0 N (x, f (x))

93

 X (f n (x))nN x0 X.
f Lipschitz C .
(f (f n (x)))nN (f n+1 (x))nN
f (x0 ). (f n+1 (x))nN (f n (x))nN
, x0 .
f (x0 ) = x0 x0 f .
.
y0 X x0 = y0 f (y0 ) = y0 . (x0 , y0 ) = (f (x0 ), f (y0 )) C(x0 , y0 )
(x0 , y0 ) > 0 ( x0 = y0 ) 1 C, .
. (1). f : X X
(f (x), f (y)) (x, y). R
f : R R f (x) = x + 1 |f (x) f (y)| = |x y| f
.
(2). 1
. , g : (0, 1) (0, 1) g(x) = x
2
1
C = .
2
8.10 ( Cantor ). (X, )
. :
(i) (X, ) .
(ii) (Fn )n X
diam(Fn ) 0
n=1 Fn = .
. (i)(ii). (Fn )n (. F1 F2 . . . Fn . . .)
X diam(Fn ) 0.

n=1 Fn = n=1 Fn = {x}. ,

x, y n=1 Fn x = y. (x, y) = > 0. diam(Fn ) 0 n0 N

diam(Fn0 ) < x, y Fn0 . = (x, y)
diam(Fn0 ) < .

n=1 Fn = . xn Fn
(xn ) . > 0. n0 n n0 , diam(Fn ) <
. n0 n < m xm , xn Fn (xn , xm )
diam(Fn ) < . (X, ) (xn ) , x X
xn x. x Fn n N, x
n=1 Fn . ,
k N, (xn )nk Fk . x Fk , Fk
x Fk .
(ii)(i) (xn ) . Fn =
{xk : k n} (Fn )
diam(Fn ) 0. diam({xk }kn ) 0 ( (xn )
94

 diam(Fn ) = diam({xk }kn ).

n=1 Fn = {x}.
xn x.

8.2

To jerhma kathgorac tou

Baire

D (X, )
D = X. S(x, )
S(x, ) D = . (X, )
D1 ,D2 D1 D2 = . D1 = Q,
, D2 = R \ Q
R . Baire

. . (X, )
U X . U,
S(x, ) S(x, ) U =
. S(x, ) U
y X > 0 S(y, ) S(x, ) U.
.
8.11. (X, ) {Ui }ni=1
X. ni=1 Ui .
. ni=1 Ui
. . x0 X 0 > 0.
ni=1 Ui S(x0 , 0 ) = . x1 , x2 , . . . , xn X,
{i }ni=1 :
S(x1 , 1 ) U1 S(x0 , 0 ) i 2, S(xi , i ) Ui S(xi1 , i1 ) .
.
S(xi , i ) ij=1 Uj S(x0 , 0 ), i = 1, 2, . . . , n .
i = n,
S(xn , n ) nj=1 Uj S(x0 , 0 ) ,
ni=1 Ui X.
. {Ui }ni=1
{Uk }
k=1 .

k=1 Uk (
, ).
.
95

. Q .
Q , Q = {qn : n N}. Uk = Q \{qk },

k=1 Uk = .
Baire (X, ) .
8.12 ( Baire). (X, )
(Un )nN X.

n=1 Un .
. x0 X 0 > 0.
n=1 Un S(x0 , 0 ) = .
(xn ) X, (n )
0 < n < n1
S(xn , n ) Un S(xn1 , n1
2 ).
(xn ) (n ) :
U1 x1 , 0 < 1 < 1 S(x1 , 1 ) U1
S(x0 , 20 ). S(x1 , 21 ) S(x1 , 1 ) diam(S(x1 , 21 )) 1 .
xn , n . xn1 , n1 xn , n 0 < n < n1
n
S(xn , n ) Un S(xn1 , n1
2 ). S(xn , 2 ) S(xn , n )
diam S(xn , 2n ) n < n1 .
S(x0 , 0 ) S(x1 , 1 ) S(x1 , 21 ) . . . S(xn , n ) S(xn , 2n ) . . .

S(xn , 2n ) S(xn , n ) Un .
{S(xn , 2n )}nN X diam(S(xn , 2n )) 0 X
n

n=1 S(xn , 2 ) = {x}. x S(x0 , 0 ) x Un n N.

n=1 Un S(x0 , 0 ) =
n=1 Un X.
8.13. (X, ) A X.
int A = {x X : > 0 S(x, ) A}
A.
, int A A, A X A = int A = .
8.14. A X, (X, ) . int A
X.
96

. int A = int A . int A = x int A.

> 0 S(x, ) A. S(x, ) int A. :
y S(x, ). S(x, ) X > 0
S(y, ) S(x, ) A. y int A y S(x, ) S(x, ) int A.
int A X
A.
8.15. A X V A V X.
V int A.
. V = x V. V , > 0 S(x, )
V S(x, ) A. x int A x V, V int A.
8.16. A X, int A = A.
. A , A A, A int A.
int A A A = int A.
A = int A A .
. (1). A = [0, 1] R , int A = (0, 1).
(2). x R A = {x} R A . ,
y int A > 0 (y , y + ) A = {x} .
(3). X A (X, ), int A = A.
, A X
int A = A.
8.17. F X . int F = X \ F
X.
. int F = . X \ F ( ).
X. , x X > 0. S(x, )(X \F ) =
S(x, ) F x int F, , int F = .
, X \ F X. F
( ) int F = . , int F =
int F X,
int F (X \ F ) = , int F F.
Baire :
8.18. (X, ) X =
n=1 Fn Fn
X n = 1, 2, . . . n0 N int Fn0 = .
. n N, int Fn = X \ Fn
X n N . Baire
n=1 (X \
Fn ) =
F
=

X,
.
n=1 n
97

 8.19. R .
. R R =
n=1 {xn }. R
. .

8.3

Omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic

8.20. (X, ), (Y, d) f (X, ) (Y, d). f

> 0 > 0
x, y X (x, y) < d(f (x), f (y)) < .
.
. ( .. f : R R f (x) = x2 ). 2
Lipschitz.
(

> 0, =
C Lipschitz).
C

Lipschitz. .. f : [0, 1] R f (x) = x

, R,
Lipschitz.
8.21. (X, ), (Y, d) f : (X, ) (Y, d) . f (X, )
(Y, d), (xn )nN (X, ) (f (xn ))nN
(Y, d).
. (xn )nN (X, ). (f (xn ))nN
(Y, d).
> 0. f > 0 x, y X
(x, y) < d(f (x), f (y)) < . (xn )nN
n0 N n, m n0 (xn , xm ) < .
n, m n0 d(f (xn ), f (xm )) < (f (xn ))nN
.
8.22. (X, ), (Y, d) f : (X, ) (Y, d)
(X, ) (Y, d) f
. (X, )
, f .
. x0 X
(xn )nN (X, ) x0 , (f (xn ))nN (Y, d)
f (x0 ).
(xn )nN (X, ) x0 .
(x0 , x1 , x0 , x2 , . . .) (xn )nN xn = x0 n xn = xk
98

 n , n = 2k. x0
. (f (xn ))nN
(f (x0 ), f (x1 ), f (x0 ), f (x2 ), . . .) (Y, d)
(f (x2n1 ))nN f (x0 )
f (x0 ). , (f (xn ))nN
f (x0 ) f (x0 ). (f (x2n ))nN
(f (xn ))nN f (x0 ).
f .
(X, ) . , , f . > 0
> 0 x, y X (x, y) < d(f (x), f (y)) . 1
= , n = 1, 2, . . . (xn )nN (yn )nN
n
X (xn , yn ) 0 d(f (xn ), f (yn )) n = 1, 2, . . ..
(xn )nN (xkn )nN .
(xk1 , yk1 , xk2 , yk2 , . . .) (zn )nN zn = xkl n = 2l 1, l N
z = ykl n = 2l, l N , ,
(X, ). f (X, )
(Y, d), (f (zn ))nN (Y, d).
n d(f (z2n1 ), f (z2n )) < d(f (xkn ), f (ykn )) <
d(f (xn ), f (yn )) n = 1, 2, . . .. f
.
. f : (X, ) (Y, d) f .
f : R R f (x) = x2 .
8.23. (X, ) , (Y, d) , D
X f : D Y .
f X, f : X Y f|D = f .
f .
. (. .
2 . 4). f .
f .
f .
1 x X. x D f(x) = f (x). x X \ D
(xn )nN D xn x. (xn )nN
D , f : D Y , 8.21
(f (xn ))nN (Y, d). (Y, d)
(f (xn ))nN (Y, d). f(x) = lim f (xn ).
n
f(x)
99

 (xn )nN , (yn )nN D

yn x (f (xn ))nN (f (yn ))nN .
(xn )nN , (yn )nN (zn )nN zn = xk n = 2k 1,
k N zn = yk n = 2k, k N, (x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 , . . .)
x (X, ). , (f (zn ))nN
(Y, d). (f (z2n1 ))nN , (f (z2n ))nN

. (f (z2n1 ))nN = (f (xn ))nN (f (z2n ))nN = (f (yn ))nN
lim f (xn ) = lim f (yn ) f .
n
n
2 f . > 0. f : D Y > 0 x0 , y0 D

(x0 , y0 ) < d(f (x0 ), f (y0 )) < .

3
x, y X (x, y) < . f
(x, y)

x D (x , x) <
d(f (x ), f(x)) < . y D
2
3
(x, y)

(y , y) <
d(f (y ), f(y)) < . x , y D
2
3
(x , y )

d(f (x ), f (y )) <

(x , x) + (x, y) + (y, y )
(x, y)
(x, y)
<
+ (x, y) +
=
2
2

.
3

d(f(x), f(y)) d(f(x), f (x )) + d(f (x ), f (y )) + d(f (y ), f(y))

<
+ + =
3 3 3
f .
. f : D Y
f : D Y
f X.
1
X = Y = R, D = R \{0} f : D R f (x) =
f
x
X = R.

1. X d X. (X, d) .
2. (xn )nN {xn :
n N} . x X xn x.
3. (Fn )nN R

F1 F2 F3
Fn = .
n=1

100

4. (Fn )nN

Q diam Fn 0
Fn = .
n=1

5. I . :
(i) I R.
(ii) (Vn )nN R (

n=1

I = .
(: Baire.)

101

Vn )

102

Keflaio 9
Sumpagec metriko qroi
9.1. (X, ) A X. {Gi }iI
Gi . i I
X A A
iI

Gi , {Gi }iI
I {Gi }iI . J I

Gi {Gi }iJ {Gi }iI ( A).

A
iJ

9.2. (X, ) K X. K
K ,

Gi n N i1 , i2 , . . . , in I
{Gi }iI X K
K
.

iI

Gik . K = X X

k=1

(i) X . (
.)
(ii) X X, (xn ) X x X xn x
K = {xn : n N} {x} X. , {Gi }iI

X K
Gi . i0 I x Gi0
iI

, Gi0 , n0 N n n0 , xn Gi0 .
n0
1
k = 1, 2, . . . , n0 1 ik I xk Gik . K
Gik .
k=0

(iii) X X
(X, ) . , {{x}}xX
X .
103

(iv) R . ,
{(n, n)}nN R .
(v) (0, 1) R. ,
1
{( , 1) : n = 2, 3, . . .} (0, 1) n
. [0, 1) (0, 1] . ( ..
1
1
1
{(1, 1 )}nN , {( , 1+ )}nN [0, 1) (0, 1] ).
n
n
n
(vi) [a, b] , ,
R.
9.3. {Vi }iI R [0, 1]
iI Vi . F I, [0, 1] iF Vi
[0, 1] .
. A = {0 t 1 : Ft I [0, t]
iFt Vi }. A = . 0 A. , A t0 = sup A.
t0 A t0 = 1. .
t0 A, i0 I t0 Vi0 . Vi0 ,
0 > 0 (t0 0 , t0 + 0 ) Vi0 . supremum 0 ,
t A t0 0 < t < t0 t A
[0, t0 ] = [0, t] [t, t0 ] iFt Vi (t0 0 , t0 + 0 ) iFt {i0 } Vi .
Ft0 = Ft {i0 } Ft0 I, t0 A.
t0 = 1. t0 < 1.
R, t0 < q < min{1, t0 + 0 } q Q. ,
[0, q0 ] = [0, t0 ] [t0 , q] iFt0 Vi (t0 0 , t0 + 0 ) iFt0 Vi .
, q < 1 q A t0 = sup A
t0 < q.
.
9.4. R .

9.1

Idithtec sumpagn qrwn

9.5. (X, ) K X.
K X.
104

.. K . X \ K
x X \ K > 0 S(x, ) X \ K.
x X \ K. y K, y = x (x, y) > 0. y K,
(x, y)
y =
S(x, y ) S(y, y ) = y K.
2
K
S(y, y ) K y1 , y2 , . . . , yn K
yK

S(yi , yi ). = min{yi : i = 1, 2, . . . , n}. S(x, ) S(yi , yi )

i=1

S(x, yi ) S(yi , yi ) = i = 1, 2, . . . , n. S(x, )

K

S(yi , yi ) =

i=1

S(yi , yi ) S(x, ) K = S(x, ) X \ K.

i=1

K . , x

X. X =
S(x, n) K
S(x, n). , K ,
n=1

n1 , n2 , . . . , nk K

n=1

S(x, ni ). n0 = max{n1 , n2 , . . . , nk } K S(x, n0 )

i=1

( S(x, ni ) S(x, n0 ) i = 1, 2, . . . , k). diam K 2n0 < .

9.6. (X, ) .
X .
. F X {Gi }iI
Gi . F , X \ F
X F
iI

Gi = (X \ F ) Gi i I, {Gi }iI

Gi
X. X = F (X \ F ) ( Gi ) (X \ F )
iI

iI

{Gi }iI X. X n
n

(Gik ) (X \ F )
Gik =
n N i1 , i2 , . . . , in I X =
F

k=1

k=1

Gik . F

k=1

F X.
9.7. R .
. , F R
F [min F, max F ]. , F
( 9.4) .
9.8. .
1
):
n
x X} X Dn

1
X X =
S(x, ). D =
Dn .
n
n=1
xDn
. X . n N {S(x,

105

 D . D
1
X. , x X > 0. n N
<
n

1
1
X=
S(x, ) y Dn x S(y, ). y D
n
n
xDn
1
(x, y) < < .
n
D X X .
9.9. X . (Fi )iI X
n = 1, 2, . . . i1 , i2 , . . . , in I,
n

Fik = .
k=1

.
9.10. (X, ) . X
(Fi )iI X

Fi = .

iI

. X (Fi )iI

(X \ Fi ) =
Fi = .
X .
iI

iI

X ( De Morgan 3). {X \ Fi }iI

X X , n N
n
n

i1 , i2 , . . . , in I X =
(X \ Fik ).
Fik = ,
k=1
k=1

Fi = .
(Fi )iI .
iI

, (Fi )iI X

Fi = . X
iI

. , {Gi }iI X n
n

. n N ii , i2 , . . . , in I,
Gik = X
(X \ Gik ) = .
k=1

k=1

Fi = X \ Gi i I. {Fi }iI X .

Fi = .
(X \ Fi ) = X
Gi = X .
iI

iI

iI

:
9.11. .
. Cantor
.
106

 9.12. K X.
K K.
. A K. A
K. x K x > 0 A (S(x, x ) \

{x}) = . K
S(x, x ) K n N
xK

x1 , x2 , . . . , xn X K

S(xi , xi ) , A K, A

i=1

S(xi , xi ).

i=1

A (S(xi , xi ) \ {xi }) = i = 1, 2, . . . , n A {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }

A , .
9.13. K (X, ).
K K.
. (xn ) K. A = {xn : n N}. A
{k1 < k2 < } N x K
xkn = x n N xkn x.
A 9.12 x K x
A. (xkn ) (xn ) xkn x
: k1 N (xk1 , x) < 1. n N
1
k1 < k2 < < kn (xki , x) <
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
i
1
M = {m N : m > kn (xm , x) <
}. M .
n+1
1
, M = S(x,
) A {x1 , x2 , . . . , xkn }, > 0
n+1
S(x, ) A ( 3). kn+1 = min M kn+1 > kn
1
(xkn+1 , x) <
. (xkn ) (xn ) xkn x.
n+1
9.13.
-
. A (X, ) x, y A x = y (x, y) .
9.14. (X, ) K X K . > 0, -
K .
. > 0 A -
K. (xn ) A xn = xm n = m. (xn )
.
Cauchy n = m (xn , xm ) < . , xn = xm
A -.
107

 9.15. (X, ) X
. X .
.. - X
. 7.16.
:
9.16. K X K
K. D
K K D.
. 7.16.
.
Zorn > 0 ( ) =
{A : A K A -} . , An

An K D. (
n1 , n N D =
n=1

7.13 7.14.) D ,
( 9.14 An ).
9.17. K X 9.16. K
.
. K = X. 9.15 X
7.20 X , B = {Vn : n N}.
{Gi }iI X. x X ix I
nx N x Vnx Gix . M = {nx : x X}. M N
M . m M , im I Vm Gim (
m M x X m = nx x Vnx Gix ).

Vm
Gim . {Gim }mM
X =
mM

mM

{Gi }iI X.
K X. 9.16 D K K D. B = {S(y, q) : y D, q Q+ }.
7.19 x K G X x G,
S(y, q) B x S(y, q) G. B
B = {Vn : n N} K = X.
: (X, T )
Lindel
of X .
9.17 Lindelof
Lindelof.
108

 9.18. K X 9.16.
K .
. {Gi }iN K. {Gi }iN
n

. n N, K\ Gi = .
n N, xn K \

i=1

Gi . K (xn )

i=1

(xkn ) x K. i0 N x Gi0
xkn x n0 N xkn Gi0 n n0 . , n i0
(xn ), xn Gi0 .

.
9.19. (X, ) K X. :
(i) K X.
(ii) K K.
. (i) = (ii) 9.13.
(ii) = (i) {Gi }iI K. 9.17, I I

Gi . 9.18 n N i1 , i2 , . . . , in I
K
I K

iI

Gik . K .

k=1

9.20 ( Heine-Borel ). [a, b] R

.
.. Bolzano-Weierstrass (xn ) [a, b] [a, b]. 9.19 [a, b]
.

(Rk , 2 ).
9.21. K Rk . :
(i) K .
(ii) K Rk .
. (i) = (ii) 9.5.
(ii) = (i) (xn ) K. K , (xn ) Rk Bolzano-Weierstrass
(xkn ). x = lim xkn x K, K .
9.19 K .
109

. . , , ( 3). (Rk , )
(.. (Rk , ) ). ,
(X, )
X .

9.2

Suneqec sunartseic se sumpagec metrikoc

qrouc

3, f : (X, ) (Y, d)
f 1 (U ) X U
Y , f 1 (F ) X F
Y .
.
9.22. (X, ) , (Y, d)
f : (X, ) (Y, d) . :
(i) f (X) Y f
Y .
(ii) F X , f (F ) Y .

Ui
.. (i) {Ui }iI f (X) (Y, d). f (X)
iI

f 1 (Ui ). f i I
X f 1 ( Ui ) =
iI

iI

f 1 (Ui ) X {f 1 (Ui )}iI X.

n

f 1 (Uik ),
X n N i1 , i2 , . . . , in I X
f (X)

k=1

Uik . f (X) Y . f

k=1

f (X) = Y Y .
(ii) F X . X , F
X ( 9.6). (i) f (F )
Y . 9.5 f (F ) Y .
:
9.23. (X, ) , (Y, d)
f : (X, ) (Y, d) , 1-1 . f 1 : (Y, d) (X, )
f .
110

.. F X . (f 1 )1 (F ) Y . (f 1 )1 = f (f 1 )1 (F ) = f (F ). 9.22(ii)
.
: (X, )
. .. R f : (R, )
(R, ) f (x) = x x R . f ,
1-1 . , (R, )
1
1
(R, ) .
0 (R, )
0 (R, ).
n
n
.
9.24. X , d X. (X, )
I : (X, ) (X, d) d
.
.. 9.23 I 1-1 .
9.25. (X, ) f : (X, ) R
. f .
.. f (X) R ( 9.22 (i) ). M = sup f (X) m = inf f (X). f (X)
( 9.5) m, M f (X).
9.26 ( Lebesgue ). X {Gi }iI
X. > 0 A X diam(A) < i I
A Gi .
.. x X ix I x > 0 S(x, x ) Gix .
x
{S(x, )}xX X X n N
2
n

1
x
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn X X =
S(xi , i ). = min{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }.
2
2
i=1
> 0 A X diam(A) < , A S(y, ) y A.
y X i I S(y, ) Gi . ,
n

x
x
y X. X =
S(xi , i ) k {1, 2, . . . , n} y S(xk , k )
2
2
i=1
S(y, ) S(xk , xk ) Gixk .
f : [a, b] R . (
.)
.
9.27. (X, ) , (Y, d)
f : (X, ) (Y, d) . f .
111

.. Lebesgue. > 0. f

{f 1 (S(y, ))}yY X. Lebesgue

2
> 0 x1 , x2 X (x1 , x2 ) < y Y x1 , x2

f 1 (S(y, )). f (x1 ), f (x2 ) S(y, ) d(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) d(f (x1 ), y)+d(y, f (x2 )) <
2
2
.
, , :
9.28. (K, ) T : (K, ) (K, ) . T .
. T . :
T [K] ( K
x0 K\T [K] K , 0 = (x0 , T [K]) >
0 T n N, T n
(T n (x0 ), T n+1 [K]) = 0 . m > n, T m (x0 ) = T n+1 (T mn1 (x0 ))
T n+1 [K], (T n (x0 ), T m (x0 )) 0 (T n (x0 ))nN
K.

9.3

Olik fragmna uposnola metrikn qrwn.

.
.
, (X, )
Cauchy .
(X, ) ,
Cauchy A (X, ) A
X, ( X ).
. ,
, ,
.
(X, ) :
9.29. (X, ) A X. A
> 0 F A A xF S(x, ). A = X
(X, ) . A = ,
A .
. 1. A X, , A . ,
> 0 A xA S(x, ) A
F A A xF S(x, ).
112

2. A X , A . . = 1
F A A xF S(x, 1). F ,
diam F = max{(x, y) : x, y F } < .
diam A diam F + 2 < .
3. . .. (R, ) ( (x, y) = 1 x = y
(x, y) = 0 x = y). (R, ) = 21 , S (x, 12 ) = {x} F R ,
xF S (x, 12 ) = F = R.
9.30. (xn )nN (X, )
Cauchy. > 0 M N , M M ,
diam{xm : m M } > .
. , .
> 0 M N M
M diam{xm : m M } . = 1 M = N
M1 M diam{xm : m M1 } 1. = 12 M = M1
M2 M1 diam{xm : m M2 } 21 .

N M1 M2 Mn . . .
N n N,
diam{xm : m Mn }

1
.
n

M = {m1 , m2 , . . . , mn , . . . } (Mn )nN m1 <

m2 < < mn < . . . mn Mn n N. n N, {mk : k n}
Mn ( mk Mk Mn k n) {xmk : k n} {xm : m Mn }.
n N,
diam{xmk : k n} diam{xm : m Mn }

1
.
n

(xm )mM Cauchy (xn )nN ,

.
9.31. (X, ) A X.
:
(1). A .
(2). A Cauchy .
113

. (1)(2). A .
, (xn )n xn A, n N (xn )n
Cauchy. > 0 M N
M M , diam{xm : m M } > . A ,
k N x1 , . . . , xk A A ki=1 S(xi , 2 ).
i = 1, . . . , k Mi = {m M : xm S(xi , 2 )}. M = M1
Mk M , M1 , . . . , Mk
. i0 {1, . . . , k} Mi0 M . {xm :
m Mi0 } S(xi0 , 2 )

diam{xm : m Mi0 } diam S(xi0 , ) ,

2
. A Cauchy .
, A X A Cauchy
. A . ,
A . > 0 k N
x1 , . . . , xk A, A ki=1 S(xi , ).
, (xn )n
A (xn , xm ) , n = m, :
x1 A. A S(x1 , ), x2 A (x1 , x2 ) . ,
A S(x1 , ) S(x2 , ) x3 A (x1 , x3 ) (x2 , x3 ) . ,
x1 , . . . , xk A (xi , xj ) i = j, 1 i, j k.
A ki=1 S(xi , ) xk+1 A (xk+1 , xi )
i = 1, . . . , k.
(xn )nN A Cauchy , . A .

.
9.32. (X, ) . :
(1). (X, )
(2). (X, ) .
. (1)(2). (X, ) . 9.11
(X, ) . . > 0.
X = xX S(x, ) x1 , . . . , xk X X = ki=1 S(xi , ). (X, )
.
(2)(1). (X, ) ,
Cauchy . (X, ) Cauchy X . X
X .
114

 A X
A A
X.
9.33. (X, ) A X .
(1). A .
(2). A, .
. (1). B A > 0. A
F A A xF S(x, 2 ) B xF S(x, 2 ).

F = {x F : S(x, ) B = }.
2
F F = {x1 , . . . , xk }. B ki=1 S(xi , 2 )
S(xi , 2 ) B = i = 1, . . . , k. yi S(xi , 2 ) B. S(xi , 2 )
S(yi , ), i = 1, . . . , k

B ki=1 S(xi , ) ki=1 S(yi , ).

2
B .
(2). A A > 0. A ,
k N x1 , . . . , xk A A ki=1 S(xi , 2 ).
A ki=1 S(xi , ). , xi A A
i = 1, . . . , k A . . y A.
x A (x, y) < 2 . A ki=1 S(xi , 2 )
i0 {1, . . . , k} x S(xi0 , 2 ).
(y, xi0 ) (y, x) + (x, xi0 ) <

+ = ,
2 2

, y S(xi0 , ) ki=1 S(xi , ). A ki=1 S(xi , ).

9.34. A X , B A .
. (2), , A
(1), .
9.35. K (X, ) .
. K K K
.
. Q [0, 1] .
115


, (X, )
(X, )
. (N, ) (N, ) (n, m) = |nm|
1
(n, m) = | n1 m
|. (N, ) ( )
(N, ) :
> 0. n0 = [ 1 ] + 1. N = nn0 S (n, ). ,
n N. n < n0 n S (n, ) n n0
(n, n0 ) = |

1
1
1
1
1

|=
<
<
n n0
n0
n
n0

n S (n0 , ).
, ,
.

1. (X, ) , K X F X F K = .
(K, F ) = inf{(x, y) : x K, y F } > 0. (:
f : (X, ) R f (x) = (x, F ) f (K)).
2. F1 , F2 R F1 F2 =
(F1 , F2 ) = 0.
3. K . diam K < +
x0 , y0 K diam K = (x0 , y0 ).
4. K1 , K2 (X, ) K1 K2 =
x1 K1 x2 K2 (x1 , x2 ) = (K1 , K2 ).
5. {Fi : i I}

Fi . V
(X, ) . F =
iI

X F V n N i1 , . . . , in I
n

Fik V . (: ,
k=1

X, {Fi : i I} {X \ V }
. .)

116

Keflaio 10
Akoloujec sunartsewn

10.1

Kat shmeo sgklish akoloujac pragmatikn

sunartsewn

10.1. (fn )nN X

R. (fn )nN x X
lim fn (x) . f : X R f (x) = lim fn (x)

(fn )nN .

(fn )nN .
10.2. fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . . (fn )nN
Cauchy x X
> 0 n0 N ( x)
n, m n0 |fn (x) fm (x)| < ( x X (fn (x))nN
Cauchy).
10.3. fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . . (fn )nN
Cauchy.
.. Cauchy.

(i) fn : [0, 1] R, n = 1, 2, . . . fn (x) = xn x [0, 1].

(fn )nN f : [0, 1] R
f (x) = 0 x [0, 1) f (1) = 1.
117

(ii) fn : [0, +) R
fn (x) =

x 0 x n
n x > n.

(fn )nN f : [0, +) R f (x) = x

x [0, +).
(iii) fn : R R fn (x) = (1)n x x R. (fn )nN
.
( Bolzano-Weierstrass).
; fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . . x X (fn (x))nN
, (fn )nN ;
, X .
, :
10.4. X fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . .
x X (fn (x))nN .
(fn )nN .
.. X , X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk }. (fn (x1 ))nN R , BolzanoWeierstrass, . N1 N
(fn (x1 ))nN1 R ( Bolzano-Weierstrass Rk ). (fn (x2 ))nN
(fn (x2 ))nN1 . N2 N1
(fn (x2 ))nN2 .
N N1 N2 Nk i = 1, 2, . . . , k (fn (xi ))nNi
R. i = 1, 2, . . . , k (fn (xi ))nNk
(fn (xi ))nNi . (fn )nNk
(fn )nN .
X X = {x1 , x2 , . . .}. N, N1 N2 Ni Ni+1 i = 1, 2, . . . (fn (xi ))nNi .
n1 < n2 < < ni < ni+1 < i N, ni Ni
M = {n1 , n2 , . . . , ni , . . .}.
(fn )nM (fn )nN .
, x X. i N x = xi . (fn (xi ))nM ,
i 1 , (fn (xi ))nNi
M N1 , N2 , . . . {ni , ni+1 , . . .} Ni .
(fn (xi ))nNi (fn (xi ))nM .
118

 (fn (x))nM x X, (fn )nM

(fn )nN .

10.2

Omoimorfh sgklish akoloujin pragmatikn

sunartsewn

10.5. fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . . f : X
R. (fn )nN f > 0 n0 N
n n0
|fn (x) f (x)| <
x X.
(fn )nN , fn : X R f : X R
.
(fn )nN f f .
: (fn )nN f
> 0 x X n0 x,
n n0 |fn (x) f (x)| < . (fn )nN
f > 0 n0 N
x.
10.6. fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . .. (fn )nN
Cauchy > 0 n0 N
n, m n0
|fn (x) fm (x)| <
x X.
( n0 x)
Cauchy .
10.7. fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . . (fn )nN
Cauchy.
.. (fn )nN f : X R > 0.

n0 N n n0 , |fn (x) f (x)| < x X.

2
n, m n0 ,
|fn (x) fm (x)| |fn (x) f (x)| + |f (x) fm (x)| <
x X. (fn )nN Cauchy.
119

+ =
2 2

, (fn )nN Cauchy.

Cauchy , f : X R
(fn )nN f lim fn (x) = f (x) x X.
n

> 0. (fn )nN Cauchy n0 n, m n0 ,

|fn (x) fm (x)| < x X. n

2
gen0
|fn (x) f (x)| = |fn (x) lim fm (x)| = lim |fn (x) fm (x)|
m

<
2

x X. (fn )nN .

:
10.8. fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . .
f : X R. Mn = sup |fn (x) f (x)| n = 1, 2 . . .
xX

(fn )nN f Mn 0.
( .)

sin x
(i) fn : R R, n = 1, 2, . . . fn (x) =
.
n
sin x
= 0 (fn )nN
, x R lim
n n
f = 0.
sin x
1
sup |fn (x) f (x)| = sup |
|=
n
n
xR
xR
(fn )nN f .
(ii) fn : R R
{
fn (x) =

0 x n
1 x > n

. , x R lim fn (x) = 0
n

( x R n0 x n0 fn (x) = 0
n n0 ) (fn )nN f = 0. sup |fn (x) f (x)| =
xR

1 0 (fn )nN .

X. X (fn )nN
.. .
:
120

 10.9. (X, ) fn : X R n = 1, 2, . . .
f . f
.
.. x0 X > 0. (fn )nN f

n0 N |fn0 (x) f (x)| < x X. fn0 x0

3

> 0 x X (x, x0 ) < |fn0 (x) fn0 (x0 )| < .

3
x X (x, x0 ) < :
|f (x) f (x0 )| |f (x) fn0 (x)| + |fn0 (x) fn0 (x0 )| + |fn0 (x0 ) f( x0 )| <

+ + =
3 3 3

f x0 . x0 X f
.
. ..
fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = xn f
x0 = 1. 10.9 :
10.10. (X, ) , fn : X R n = 1, 2, . . .
f : X R. f
(fn )nN f .

1.
:
1
sin(n2 x), n = 1, 2, . . .
n
nx
(ii) fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) =
, n = 1, 2, . . .
n+x
(i) fn : R R fn (x) =

(iii) fn : [0, +) R fn (x) =

nx
, n = 1, 2, . . .
n+x

(iv) fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = (1 x)n

(v) fn : (0, 1) R fn (x) =

nx
, n = 1, 2, . . .
nx + 1

1
, n = 1, 2, . . .
nx + 1

(vi) fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = n2 x(1 x)n , n = 1, 2, . . .

(vii) fn : R R fn (x) =

x2 + nx
, n = 1, 2, . . .
n

(viii) fn : R R fn (x) =

1 x4
e n , n = 1, 2, . . .
n
121

2. X fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . . . (fn )nN .
3. f, fn : (X, ) R, n = 1, 2, . . . (fn )nN
f fn Lipschitz M ( n). f
.
4. (X, ) , fn : X R, n = 1, 2, . . .
(fn )nN f : X R. (xn )nN
X x0 X xn x0 fn (xn ) f (x0 ).
5. (pn )nN pn : R R. (pn )nN
f : R R f . (: (pn )nN
Cauchy n0 N |pn (x)
pm (x)| < 1 n, m n0 x R.
R .)

122

Keflaio 11
Oi qroi

11.1

C[a, b]

Dianusmatiko qroi me nrma

1, .
. X x1 , x2 , . . . , xn X,
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn 1 x1 + + n xn = 0
1 , . . . , n R 1 = = n = 0. A X
X
.
B X ( Hamel) X
(i) B .
(ii) x X n N, x1 , . . . , xn B 1 , . . . , n R x =
1 x1 + + n xn .
B X X x X x = 0
n N, x1 , . . . , xn B
1 , . . . , n x = 1 x1 + + n xn . ,
X :
B X X B
X ( B X
B B B = B ).

Zorn :
123

 11.1 ( ).
X .
..
F = {A X : A X}.
F : A, B F, A B A B.
(F, )
. Zorn C F

F. , C = {Ai }iI F. A =
Ai .
iI

i I, Ai A , A F Ai A.
A F. , {x1 , . . . , xn } A
n . i1 , . . . , in I xk Aik k = 1, . . . , n. C
Ai1 , . . . , Ain C k0 {1, . . . , n} Aik Aik0
k = 1, . . . , n. xk Aik Aik0 k = 1, . . . , n {x1 , . . . , xn } Aik0
Aik0 F x1 , . . . , xn . A
X A F.
X . X
dim X. X
( ) .
(X, ) .
1 = X
(x, y) = x y x, y X.
(X, ).
11.2. (X, ) .
(i) () x X > 0 S(x, ) = x + S(0, ).
() > 0, > 0 S(0, ) = S(0, ).
(ii) X =

nS(0, ) > 0.

n=1

.. (i)() y S(x, ). z = y x. y = x + z (z, 0) =

z 0 = y x = (x, y) < . z S(0, ) y x + S(0, ).
S(x, ) x + S(0, ). , y x + S(0, ). y = x + z z S(0, )
z = z 0 = (z, 0) < . (y, x) = y x = z < y S(x, ).
x + S(0, ) S(x, ). S(x, ) = x + S(0, ).
1
1
() y S(0, ). z = y. (z, 0) = z 0 = z = y =

1
1
1
1
y = y 0 = (y, 0) < = z S(0, ). y = z

124

y S(0, ). , y S(0, ). z S(0, ) y = z.

(y, 0) = y 0 = y = z = z = z 0 = (z, 0) < , y S(0, ).
S(0, ) = S(0, ).
(ii) > 0. x X n N x < n (
). (x, 0) = x 0 = x < n x S(0, n). (i)()

x S(0, n). X =
nS(0, ).
n=1

11.3. (X, ) Y X y Y > 0 S(y, ) Y . Y = X.

.. S(y, ) = y + S(0, ) S(0, ) Y . (, z S(0, )
y + z y + S(0, ) = S(y, ) Y y Y y + z = y .
z = y y Y Y X).
> 0, S(0, ) Y ( Y

). X =
nS(0, ) Y .
n=1

(
).
11.4. (X, ) Y X . Y
(Y, ) X.
: dim Y = 1
(Y, ) (R, ), , .
, y0 Y y0 = 1 {y0 } Y y Y
R y = y0 . T : (R, ) (Y, )
T () = y0 T (R, ) , (Y, )
(;).
(X, ) Banach X
.
11.5. (X, ) Banach Hamel
X .
.. B Hamel X , ,
B , B = {x1 , x2 , . . .}. n = 1, 2, . . . Xn

x1 , . . . , xn . X =
Xn
n=1

11.4 n N Xn X (dim Xn = n). Baire n0 N

int(Xn0 ) = . Xn0 X,
11.3, X = Xn0 dim X = n0 , X .
125

 11.6. (X, ) Banach Y X

U Hamel . Y X.
.. , Y X (
X ) (Y, ) Banach. Y
, .
: c00 (N) Banach. ,
c00 (N) Hamel , e1 , e2 , . . . . ( 1.)

11.2

dianusmatikc

qroc

C[a, b]

me

th

nrma

1, C[a, b]
[a, b],
.
C[a, b] f C[a, b], f = sup{|f (x)| : x
[a, b]} ( 1 ). C[a, b]
(. (f, g) = f g ).
11.7. (fn )nN C[a, b] f C[a, b].
(i) (fn )nN f
(fn )nN f

fn f (fn )nN f
(ii) (fn )nN Cauchy (C[a, b], ) (fn )nN
Cauchy .
( 7).
11.8. (C[a, b], ) (C[a, b], )
Banach.
.. 7 Cauchy
( 10.9 10.7). 11.7 Cauchy (C[a, b], ) . (C[a, b], )
.
11.9. C[a, b] Hamel
C[a, b] .
126

.. A = {Pn : n = 0, 1, 2, . . .} P0 = 1
(. P0 (x) = 1 x [a, b]) Pn (x) = xn n = 1, 2, . . . x [a, b].
A C[a, b]. A . ,
n1 < < nk 1 , . . . , k R 1 Pn1 + + k Pnk = 0
1 xn1 + + k xnk = 0 x [a, b], 1 = = k = 0 (
m m ). A () C[a, b], C[a, b] .
11.8 (C[a, b], ) Banach 11.5
Hamel C[a, b] .
C[a, b] [a, b]
P [a, b]. P [a, b] .
11.10. (i) P [a, b]
C[a, b] Hamel .
(ii) P [a, b] C[a, b].
.. (i) ( 11.9)
{Pn : n = 0, 1, 2, . . .} Pn (x) = xn , n = 1, 2, . . . P0 (x) = 1 Hamel
P [a, b].
(ii) 11.6 P [a, b] Hamel.

.
11.11 ( Weierstrass). P [a, b] (C[a, b], ) (
f : [a, b] R (pn )nN C[a, b]

pn f ).
Weierstrass .
11.12. (C[a, b], ) .
:. PQ [a, b]
P [a, b] .
(i) PQ [a, b] .
(ii) p P [a, b] > 0 q PQ [a, b] p q < .
Weierstrass (ii) PQ [a, b]
(C[a, b], ). , f C[a, b] > 0 Weierstrass

p P [a, b] (f, p) < . (ii) q PQ [a, b] (p, q) < .

2
2
127


+ = . PQ [a, b] = C[a, b]
2 2
PQ [a, b] .

(f, q) <

(C[a, b], )
a < b (C[0, 1], ).
11.13. a, b R a < b. (C[a, b], )
(C[0, 1], ).
.. : [0, 1] [a, b] (t) = (1 t)a + tb t [0, 1].
[0, 1] [a, b]. T : (C[a, b], ) (C[0, 1], )
T (f ) = f f C[a, b]. T (C[0, 1], ).
f, g (C[a, b], ) (T f, T g) = T f T g = sup{|f ((t))g((t))| :
t [0, 1]} = sup{|f (x) g(x)| : x [a, b]} = f g = (f, g) T
g C[0, 1] f = g1 C[a, b] T (f ) = g1 = g.
: T
T (f + g) = T (f ) + T (g) f, g C[a, b] , R.

11.3

Isosuneqec oikogneiec sunartsewn kai to

Jerhma

Arzela.

11.14. (X, ), (Y, d) , F

(X, ) (Y, d) x0 X. F x0
> 0 > 0 x X (x, x0 ) < f F
d(f (x), f (x0 )) < .
F x X F
X.
. F x0 X,
f F x0 . F
x0 F x0 ,
f F. ( .)
. X = Y = R R F
.
.
F = {fn : [0, 2] R : fn (x) = sin nx, n = 1, 2, . . . }
F
x [0, 2]. , x0 [0, 2] = 12 . F
128

x0 > 0 x [0, 2] |x x0 | <

|fn (x0 ) fn (x)| < 21 n = 1, 2, . . . . n0 N 2
n0 < .
2
n n0 . fn n <
[0, 2] = nk=1

[ (k 1)2 k 2 ]
,
.
n
n

k {1, . . . , n} x0 [ (k1)2
, k2
n
n ] x1 , x2
(k1)2 k2
[ n , n ] fn (x1 ) = 1, fn (x2 ) = 1.
|x1 x0 | <

2
<
n

|x2 x0 | <

2
< .
n

2 = |fn (x1 ) fn (x2 )|
|fn (x1 ) fn (x0 )| + |fn (x2 ) fn (x0 )|
1 1
< + = 1,
2 2
.
11.15. (X, ), (Y, d) F
X Y. F > 0
> 0 x1 , x2 X (x1 , x2 ) < f F
d(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) < .
. ,
X.
x0 .
. F , f F
.
11.16. (X, ), (Y, d) F
X Y.
1. F , F .
2. F , F
.
129

. F = {f1 , . . . , fn }. (1), x0 Q > 0.

k = 1, . . . , n k > 0 x X (x, x0 ) < k
d(fk (x), fk (x0 )) < . = min{k : k = 1, . . . , n}. > 0
k = 1, . . . , n x Q (x, x0 ) < d(fk (x), fk (x0 )) < .
x0 X > 0 F .
(2), , .
11.17. (X, ), (Y, d) , F
X Y. (X, ) , F
.
. > 0. F , x X x > 0
y X (y, x) < x f F d(f (y), f (x)) < 2 .

X = xX S (x, x )
X , Lebesgue (
), > 0 A X diam A <
A S (x, x ) x X. , x1 , x2 X (x1 , x2 ) <
x X x1 , x2 S (x, x ), (x1 , x) < x (x2 , x) < x
d(f (x1 ), f (x)) < /2, d(f (x2 ), f (x)) < /2 f F. x1 , x2 X
(x1 , x2 ) < f F
d(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) d(f (x1 ), f (x)) + d(f (x2 ), f (x)) <

+ = .
2 2

. f : (X, )
(Y, d) (X, ) . f (X, )
, f . (
.)

[a, b] R R.
11.18. F C[a, b] . F (C[a, b], )
.
. x0 [a, b] > 0. F , > 0
x [a, b] |x x0 | < f F,
|f (x) f (x0 )| < /3.
g F f F f S (g, /3)
f g = sup{|f (x) g(x)| : x [a, b]} < /3.
130

 x X |x x0 | <
|g(x) g(x0 )| |g(x) f (x)| + |f (x) f (x0 )| + |f (x0 ) g(x0 )|

< + + = .
3 3 3
g F x [a, b] |x x0 | < |g(x)
g(x0 )| < . F F (C[a, b], )
.
11.19. K (C[a, b], ) , K .
. x0 [a, b] > 0.
K f K S (f, /3)
f1 , . . . , fn K
K ni=1 S (fi , /3).
{f1 , . . . , fn } C[a, b] 11.16,
{f1 , . . . , fn } > 0 i = 1, . . . , n
x [a, b] |x x0 | < |fi (x) fi (x0 )| < /3. f K
x [a, b] (x, x0 ) < |f (x) f (x0 )| < K .
. f K. i {1, . . . , n} f S (fi , /3). ,
x [a, b] |x x0 |, <
|f (x) f (x0 )| |f (x) fi (x)| + |fi (x) fi (x0 )| + |fi (x0 ) f (x0 )|
< /3 + /3 + /3 = .

11.20. (fn )n (C[a, b], )

q Q[a, b] (fn (q))n R, (fn )n
(C[a, b], ).
. > 0. n0 N n, m n0 .
fn fm = sup{|fn (y) fm (y)| : y [a, b]} <

(1)

(fn )n , x [a, b] x > 0

y [a, b] |y x| < x n = 1, 2, . . . ,
|fn (y) fn (x)| < /6.
131

(2)

 [a, b] x[a,b] (x x , x + x ) [a, b] ,

N N x1 , . . . , xN [a, b]
[a, b] N
i=1 (xi xi , xi + xi ).

(3)

R, q1 , . . . , qN Q
i = 1, . . . , N qi (xi xi , xi + xi ). i = 1, . . . , N (fn (qi ))n
Cauchy R ni N n, m ni ,
|fn (qi ) fm (qi )| < /6.

(4)

n0 = max{ni : i = 1, . . . , N }. n0 (1).
. n, m n0 y [a, b]. i {1, . . . , N } |y xi | < xi
( (3).)
|fn (y) fm (y)| |fn (y) fn (xi )| + |fn (xi ) fn (qi )|
+ |fn (qi ) fm (qi )| + |fm (qi ) fm (xi )|
+ |fm (xi ) fm (y)|
</6 + /6 + /6 + /6 + /6
<5/6
( (2), (4) n0 . )
n, m n0 ,
fn fm = sup{|fn (y) fm (y)| : y [a, b]} 5/6 < .

11.21 (Arzela). K (C[a, b], ). :

1. K .
2. K , .
. (1)(2). K ,
. ( .)
11.19 .
(2)(1). K
K. , (fn )n K. K M > 0
fn M n N . D = Q [a, b]. D
10.4 (fn |D)n .
(fkn )n (fn )n (fkn |D)n .
(fkn (q))n q Q [a, b]. (fkn )
( ) 11.20 (fkn )
(C[a, b], ). (C[a, b], ) f C[a, b]

fkn f. , K f K.
132

. 1.
C[a, b] .
2. Arzela (C(X), ) (X, )

C(X) = {f : X R : f }.

1. LipM = {f : (X, ) (Y, d) : f M Lipschitz}

, M > 0.
2.
F = {F C[a, b] : f C[a, b] f 1
x
F (x) =
f (t)dt x (a, b]}
a

3. fn , f C[a, b], n = 1, 2, . . . fn f. {fn : n

N} {f }, {fn : n N} .
4. (X, ) , Y X.
x X R
(x, Y ) = || (x, Y ).

133

134

Keflaio 12
Ginmena metrikn qrwn
A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak .
k

Ai Rk .
i=1
k

Ai = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) : ai Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , k }

i=1

. . (Ai )iN

Ai = {(ai )iN : ai Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . }

iN

Ai (ai )iN

iN

ai Ai .
(Ai )iI

Ai = {(ai )iI : ai Ai i I }.

iI

Ai = A i I

Ai AI .

iI

RN .
.
135

12.1

Peperasmna ginmena metrikn qrwn

12.1. (Xi , i )ki=1 .

k

X =
Xi
i=1

(xn )nN X, xn = (x1n , x2n , . . . , xkn ) x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

X :

() xn x
i

() xin xi i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
(xn )nN x
.
. (1). Rk =

Ri Ri = R

i=1

.
(2).
k

X =
Xi X
i=1

.
(X1 , 1 ), (X2 , 2 ), . . . , (Xk , k )
(X1 , 1 ), (X2 , 2 ), . . . , (Xk , k ) i Xi i i =
1, 2, . . . , k.

Ai (Ai )iI A =
iI

i0 I i0

i 0 :
Ai Ai0
iI

i0 ((ai )iI ) = ai0 . i0

Ai i0 -

iI

12.2. (Xi , i )ki=1 , X =

X.

Xi

i=1

(1) i : X Xi i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
(2) (Y, d) f : Y X , :
() f .
() i f : Y Xi i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
136

.. (1) (xn )nN X x X xn x.

xin xi i = 1, 2, . . . , k xin , xi
i xn x . i (xn ) = xin i (x) = xi
i
i (xn ) i (x), i
i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
(2) ()() (1) .
()() f : (Y, d) (X, ) i f : Y Xi
d

i = 1, 2, . . . , k. (yn )nN Y y Y yn y.

f (yn ) f (y) . , f (yn )(i) i f (yn ) f (y)(i) i

f (y) f (yn )(i) = i f (yn ) f (y)(i) = i f (y). ,
i
i f : Y Xi i = 1, 2, . . . , k i f (yn ) i f (y),
i
f (yn )(i) f (y)(i) i = 1, 2, . . . , k.

f (yn ) f (y), f .
12.3 ( ). (Xi , i )ki=1
k

. x, y X =
Xi
i=1

1 (x, y ) =

i (x(i), y (i)).

i=1

1 .
.. 1
.
. (1). X
1 . () p , 1 < p <
(x, y ) = max i (x(i), y (i))
1ik

(x, y ) =

(
k

i (x(i), y (i))

) p1
.

i=1

(2). x X, > 0 S (x, )

k

S (x, ) =
Si (x(i), ).
i=1

i = 1, 2, . . . , k i . (
f : (X, ) (Y, d) V X f [V ]
137

 Y .)
.
(3). S (x, )
k

Vi Vi Xi
i=1

.
12.4. (Xi , i )ki=1
k

X =
Xi . (X, ) .
i=1

..
( 9.19). (xn )nN X
. (xn )nN X, xn = (xn (1), . . . , xn (k)).
1
M1 N x(1) X1 (xn (1))nM1 x(1).
M1 M2 Mk N x(i) Xi , i = 1, 2, . . . , k
i
i
(xn (i))nMi x(i). (xn (i))nMk x(i) i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
x = (x(1), x(2), . . . , x(k))

(xn )nMk x.

12.2

'Apeira

arijmsima

ginmena

metrikn

qr-

wn

(Ai )iI x
x(i) ai i x.

Ai , x = (ai )iI

iI

12.5. (Xi , i )iN .

Xi

iN

( (Xi , i )iN ) (xn )nN

X x X :

() xn x
i

() xn (i) x(i) i = 1, 2, . . ..

( 12.1) .
12.6. (Xi , i )iN , di
Xi i i N (Xi , di )iN
(Xi , i )iN .
..
.
138

 12.7. (Xi , i )iN

X =
Xi .
iN

.. i N Xi di i
di (x, y) 1 x, y Xi (.. di (x, y) = min{i (x, y), 1}, x, y Xi (.
6.36 6.37). : X X R

1
(x, y ) =
d (x(i), y (i)).
i i
2
i=1

X ().
(Xi , di )iN , , (Xi , i )iN .
(xn )nN X, x X ()

() 12.5. ()() xn x
d

i
xn (i)
x(i) i = 1, 2, . . .. i N.
i
di (xn (i), yn (i)) 2 (xn , yn ) n (xn , x) 0 di (xn (i), x(i))

i
0 xn (i)
x(i).

i
, ()() xn (i)
x(i)

i = 1, 2, . . . xn x. > 0. k N
1

< . di (xn (i), x(i)) 0 i = 1, 2, . . . , k n0 N

2k
2

di (xn (i), x(i)) < n n0 i = 1, 2, . . . , k. n n0

2

(xn , x)

1
1
d
((
x
(i),

x
(i))
+
di ((xn (i), x(i))
i
n
i
2
2i
i=1
i=k+1

i=1

<

1
+
2i 2

i=k+1

1
2i

1
+
< .
2 2k

xn x.
. (1). (Xi , i ) = (R, ) i N
R
RN .
(2). (Xi , i )iN

Xi . i N Ai Xi di = i |Ai Ai
X=
iN

Ai
( di Ai i ). A =
iN

139

d = |AA ( A )
(Ai , di )iN .
(3). (1),(2) RN
[0, 1]N RN {0, 1}N
.
12.2
.

12.8. (Xi , i )iN , X =

Xi
iN

X.
(1) i : X Xi i = 1, 2, . . ..

(2) (Y, d) f : Y X , :
() f .
() i f : Y Xi i = 1, 2, . . ..
.. 12.2 .
12.9. (Xi , i )iN
k

X =
Xi (X, ) .
i=1

.. (X, ) ( 9.19). (xn )nN X. (xn (1))nN (X1 , 1 ) M1 1

N x(1) X1 (xn (1))nM1 x(1).
(X2 , 2 ) (xn (2))nM1 X2 2
M2 M1 x(2) X2 (xn (2))nM2
x(2). M1 M2 M3 Mi Mi+1
i
x(i) Xi , i = 1, 2, . . . (xn (i))nMi x(i) i N.
M (Mi )iN M =
{m1 < m2 < m3 < } mi Mi i = 1, 2, . . .. i N
(xn (i))nM , i 1 (xn (i))nMi
i
(xn (i))nM x(i). , x = (x(i))iN X,

(xn )nM (xn )nN (xn )nM x.

(X, ) .
12.10. (X, ) D = {xi : i N}
X. i N fi : X R
fi (x) = (x, xi ). (yn )nN X.
140

(1) yn y
(2) fi (yn ) fi (y) i = 1, 2, . . ..
.. (1)(2) fi , i = 1, 2, . . .
( 5.14) .
(2)(1) fi (yn ) fi (y) i = 1, 2, . . .

yn y. > 0. D X

n
i0 N (y, xi0 ) < fi0 (y) < . fi0 (yn ) fi0 (y) n0 N
3
3

|fi0 (yn ) fi0 (y)| < n n0 . n n0

3

(yn , y) (yn , xi0 ) + (xi0 , y) < fi0 (yn ) +

3

fi0 (y) + |fi0 (yn ) fi0 (y)| +

3

+ + .
<
3 3 3

yn y.
12.11. (X, ), (Y, d) f : (X, ) (Y, d) 11, ( f f 1 ).
.

.
(X, ) d X (X, )
(X, d) ( ).
[0, 1]N .
12.12. (X, ) [0, 1]N ( ).
.. , , (x, y) 1 x, y X. D = {xi : i N}
X fi : X [0, 1] fi (y) = (y, xi ), y X i = 1, 2, . . ..
F : X [0, 1]N F (y) = (fi (y))iN . F 11. x, y X x = y = (x, y) > 0.

fi0 (y) >

> fi0 (x)
i0 N (x, xi0 ) < . (y, yi0 ) >
2
2
2
fi0 (y) = fi0 (x), F (x) = F (y) F 11.
F : X F [X]( [0, 1]N ) .
i F = fi i N, i i .

(yn )nN X. yn y fi (yn ) fi (y)

141

 i N ( 12.10), i F (yn ) i F (y)

i N, F (yn ) F (y)
[0, 1]N . F : X F [X] .

12.3

To snolo

Cantor

{0, 1}N
{0, 1}N = {(i )iN : i = 0 i = 1, i N}
0 1.
. (1) {0, 1}N P(N) . ,
F : P(N)

{0, 1}N

F (A)

() 11 ( A
A, A : N {0, 1} A (n) = 1
n A A (n) = 0 n N \A).
(2) {0, 1}N
. 0 1
(i )iN {0, 1}N

.
(3) {0, 1}N
RN Cantor .
12.13. {0, 1}N

0
x = y
d(x, y ) =
1

x =
y i0 = min{i : x(i) = y (i)}.
i0

(1) d {0, 1}N .

(2) (xn )nN {0, 1}N x {0, 1}N :
d

() xn x.
() k N n0 N n n0 xn (i) = x(i)
i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
142

.. .
s = (1 , . . . , k ) i {0, 1} i = 1, . . . , k
|s| , |s| = k. s, t 0
1, s = (1 , . . . , |s| ), t = (1 , . . . , |t| ), s t s
t, |s| |t| i = i i = 1, . . . , |s|. s = (1 , . . . , k )
0 1 k+1 {0, 1} sa k+1
s = (1 , . . . , k , k+1 ).
Cantor s
0 1 Ks [0, 1].

2
K(1) = [ , 1]
3

1
K(0) = [0, ],
3

C1 = K(0) K(1) .

1
K(00) = [0, ],
9

1 1
K(01) = [ , ],
9 3

2 7
K(10) = [ , ],
3 9

8
K(11) = [ , 1]
9

C2 = K(00) K(01) K(10) K(11) .

2 0 1.
Ks 0 1
|s| k
() Ks [0, 1]

1
.
3|s|

() s1 s2 Ks2 Ks1 .
() |s1 | = |s2 | s1 = s2 Ks1 Ks2 =

Cj =
Ks j = 1, . . . , k
|s|=j

Kt t 0 1 k + 1. t
sa 0 sa 1 s |s| = k. , Ks = [a, b]
1
Ksa 0 = [a, a + (b a)],
3

2
Ksa 1 = [a + (b a), b].
3

Kt t |t| k + 1
(),(),().

Ck+1 =
Kt .
|t|=k+1

143

 Cantor
C=

Ck .

k=1

Cantor
(1) Cantor C [0, 1]. ,
0 Ck k 0 C C = . Ck

[0, 1] C =
Ck [0, 1]
k=1

C [0, 1].
(2) C . ,

1
(a, b). k N k < b a. Ck =
Ks (Ks )|s|=k
3
|s|=k
[0, 1] (a, b)
1
. Ks k
3
(a, b) b a. C
.
(3) s = (i )iN {0, 1}N k
sk = (1 , . . . , k ). (Ksk )kN

diam Ksk 0 [0, 1].

Ksk
,

k=1

Ksk = {xs }.

k=1

(4) x C s = (i )iN {0, 1}N

{x} =

Ksk (

k=1

sk = (1 , . . . , k ) k). , x C. k N, x Ck
sk k ( 0 1) x Ksk . (),()
k1 k2 sk1 sk2 (sk )kN

s {0, 1}N . x = xs =
K sk .
k=1

12.14. {0, 1}N C . (

{0, 1}N Cantor).
..
: {0, 1}N

(s)

C
=

xs

xs (3) . () Cantor
11, (4) .
. {0, 1}N
( 9.23). (sn )nN
144

{0, 1}N s {0, 1}N sn s (sn ) (s). >

1
0. k N k < . n0 N n n0
3
sn (i) = s(i) i = 1, 2, . . . , k ( 12.13). n n0
1
(sn ) = xsn (s) = xs K(s(1),...,s(k) k
3
1
|(sn ) (s)| k < . (sn ) (s) .
3
12.15. C N C.
.. C {0, 1}N C N ,
)N
(
N
{0, 1}
= {0, 1}N N , {0, 1}N (
11 N N
N), C.
C N C.
,
Cantor, .
12.16. (X, )
() Cantor.
Cantor .
12.17.
Cantor.

145