144 Developments in Dos? refuted—o long 26 the author abides by the rales of she gam, Of course In the world of planning and wicked problems no such immunity is tolerated. Here the aim isnotto find the ruth, but toimprove some characteristics ofthe world where people live. Planners are lable for the consequences of the actions they generate; the effects can matter a great deal ro those people that re touched by those actions ‘We ae thus led to conclude thatthe problems that planners suet deal with ae wicked and incorrigible ones, for they defy forts to delineate their boundaries and to identi” their causes, and thus to expose their problematic nature. | 2.4 The Structure of Il-structured Problems Herbert A. Simon 1. INTRODUCTION Certain concepts at defined mainly 25 esidals—in terms of wha they are nt. Thus s UFO isan aerial phenomenon oe Explains intern of known lesan oes nl Ba Communicsion between perons, wot evidence of the Tranission of signa of soy hand In jst che same way, tsuracored problem’ (SP) tesidua concegt. AnISP is usually defined asa problem whose Structure lacks defntion in some respect. A problem an SP ies nox a WSP (welsrvtred problen Residual etgorie arenas extemal iu, or ven impossible, wo prove that they are empty The scope a residual egory eon be nrtowed pogresely By esplning previous unexplained phenomens it eannot be extinguished 3 long 3 sige phenemenen remains unexplained In ths paper wth ods therein beeen SPs and \WSPs withthe sim of asking whether probes regarded os i-sructuredaeinaceable othe problem sling sptenso arifcal intligence in 'ways that chose tegarded 5 well structured ae aot My aim wil not be to testi the eas of problems we regard at ISP fact | shal argue tht many Kinds of problems ofen weed as wellsructred ae beter regarded silrucoed nen wily oso: there isn rel boundary buswcen WSPs ad ISPs, and no eto think tht new andbitherc unknown typerl problem saving Pra phn tf lg 497%) 18-28. Reprodprocesses are needed to enable artificial incligence system folve problems that ae ill-structured ‘Some yeas ago, Walter Reitman (1968, 1965) provide the fist extensive discussion af ISPs (which he alle "fined problems) More recently the topic has heen developed in 2 Somewhat different vein by Allen Newell (1969), who empha sSned the relation between problem structure and problem salving methods. Newell characterized the domain of ISPs 35 the domain in which only weak problem-solving methods were sill, TInthis account, I continue the discussion begun by Reitman land on which Teatier made some preliminary remarks in Simon (1972), Section 5, pp. 274-6). shall ery togiveaposiive Characterization of some problem domains that have usually been regarded 2s illstructured, rexeing them from sheie residual stator; andthen I shall ak whether hemethods usd in ‘contemporary artificial ineligence systems are adequate for attacking problems in these domains, I shall aot preivdge ‘whether the methods appliableo these problems are weak or ‘Srongy but shall lave that to be decided after the fact, “The fret section sets forth set of trong requirements that it is somtimes asserted ask must meet in order to qualify as 2 ‘WSP. Each of these requirements is examined, in order to characterize the kinds of ISPs thac fal to satis" ic "The meaning fof the requirements, and their relation *> the power of the avilable problem-selviog systems, i then exploved further by considering some specihe examples ot WSPs and of ISPs Finally, thi exploration provides the basis for 3 description af problem-solving systems that are adapted to anacking prob- lems in the domains usally regarded as ill-seuctured 2. WELL-STRUCTURED PROBLEMS For reasons that will become dear at we proceed, it ie impossible to constructs formal defniion of wellstroctared problem’ Instead, we mast be content simply to secforth lis ‘of requirements thathave ben propo: Jat one timer another as citeria 4 problem must satisfy in order to be regarded as well-structured. A further element of indefniteness and ee- Inv rises rom the fact that the criteria ate no absolute, but generally expres a relation between characterises of 3 prob- lemdomain, on theone hand, and the charactersis and power fan implicit or explicit problem-solving mechanism, onthe other With these caveats, we will say that a problem may be regarded as well-structured to the enten that thas some oral sLthe following characteristics: {H) There is a definite criterion for testing any. proposed solution, and a mechanizable process for applying the Developments in Design Methodology (eof ltstructured Problems 7 2) There is at fea one problem space in which can be represented the intl problem state, the goa sat, ad al other states that may he reached 27 considered in the fours of aeempting a soltion tw the peter, AAuainahlestate changes (ysl moves) can be represented in 2 problem space, a transtions from given sates to the states directly atainable from them. But considerable moves, whether legal or no, ean als be repesented—that is, all transitions from one considerable sae to another, (8) Any koowledge thatthe problem-solver can acquire about the problem can be represented in one or more problem spaces ) IF the actual problem involses acting upon she extemal workl. then the definition of sate changes and of thefts ‘upon the sate of applying any operator rallt with ‘complete aceuracy in ene or more problem spaces the Lis (laws of nature) that govern the external world (6) Allof these conditions holdin the stong sense tha the basic processes postulated require only practicable amounts of computation, and the information postulated llectvely available tothe processes—ie. sealable withthe help of ‘only practicable amounts of search 0° ‘As U have warned, these criteria are not emiely definite, Moreover, phrases like ‘practicable anounts of computation’ are defined only relatively to the eorapatational power (and Patience) ofa problem-solving system, But thi vagueness and Thay singly ef soley woshoneicconta ae degrees of Ueboeness berecen He wa GS TET AT ‘Hructured ends ofthe problem specium, andthe Sta oltenss una the power ofthe problem-solving rechnt gues tha are available 21. ‘The general problemsolver 1a problem has been formulated in such a way thai can be given toa program like she General Problem Solver (GPS) can ‘we say that itis 2 WSP? Before GPS ean go 10 work on problem, i requizes: (0) a description ofthe soltion sae, ora est determine if that state has been reached (2) a set of terms for describing and characterizing the ink Ste, goal state und inermedine states; (9) ase operators to change one stat no another together ‘with conditions forthe appliabily of thse operator (4 tact of dilferences and ests to dees the presence these dilferences beewern pairs of sates ©) suf onmcria mitig whch dle oe that difference, i i| “The fist thee requirement for putting 2 problem in a form ‘citable for GPSenrrespordl loslsto dhe frst hee character inics of a WSP, The fourth and Kish reqitement for putting 2 problem in a form suitable for GPS correspon closely tthe Fourth characteriic of 2 WSP. Since GPS aperates on the formally presented problem, and not onan external real world the th requirement for a WSP appears ieeclevant to GPS. Tn our description of the conditions for GPS's applicability itis implicit thatthe sixth requirement for WSPs is also Satisfied, forthe operators and tests mentioned above ean all presumably be ececuted with reasonable amounts of computa fiom. This does mot imply, of course, that any” problem presented to GPS within the defined domain cane solved with Daly reasonable amounts computation. Many problems ar fat be solvable a ll. Of those that ae solvable in principe many may require immense numbers of applications of op: tors and tess for their solution, 20 thst the total amount of computation required may be impractical ‘Thus, i would appear a: fest blush that all problems chat can ‘be putin proper form for GPS can be regarded as WP. But what problem domain satisfy these. or similar, requirements? Lee us examine a couple of posible examples. 22, Istheorem-provinga WSP? Consider what would appear to be an extreme exarmpl of 2 WSP: discovering the proof of + theorem in formal logic Condition I fora WSP willbe satisfied if we haves mechs] proof-checker. Condition 2 might be regarded as satished by denifying the problem space with she space of objects that can bbe described in terms of wil, Howexer, we shold note that Timitng the psoblens-solver in tis wae excludes i from ever considering expressions that are not wil "The same reservation must be made with respect co Condi tion 3: definitions ofthe axioms, the rales of inference, and the processes for applying the later determine the legal maves and iitainable state changes; but the problem-solver may’ wish to Consider inferences without determining in advance thst they meet all the conditions of ‘legalty’—e.g., working backwards fromunproved wifs. Hence he set of considerable movesis not determined uniquely by the set of legal moves Sutsying Condition is even more problematic. Theres no Aifcuity 35 long as we restrict ourselves tothe object language of the logic under considerstion. But we have no reason 10 exclude metlingustic knowledge, knowledge expressed in a sodel spac, or even analogical or metaphorial knowledge. A hhuman theorem-prover, using 2 metalanguage, may prove a theorem that ienot provable inthe object language; or may use truth table ae 2 model for solsing 2 problem in the propositional calculus; or may use the proof of one theorem 38 The Structue of Istructuted Problems 149 an analogical guide vo the proof of another that seems, in some respect, to be similar to the Fst ‘OF course theres ohn, mail herein the problem solver being lhumas. Mechanial system can be, snd have been, given the same hinds of capabilities, (Foran example of the use of metalinguisie rechniques in theorer-proving, se Picrat, 1966; forthe we of analogies, see Kling 1971,) What one Rotioay of weittracTTednen Faqure, However, that these capabilites be dened in advance, and that we do not allow the problemsolver to introduce new resources that, “occur” to him in the course of his solution efor. If this condition is imposed, a problem that admits cestructuning through the introduction of soch new resources would be 39 ilstractared problem, ‘A problem that not salable with reasonable amounts of computation when al knowkede mst be expressed in te of the original problem space may be exslysovableif the solvers, allowed to (or has the wits to) use knowledge in another spice Ie follows thas, under a lieral inerpeeation of Coadivion 4, problems of discovering proofs in format loge are not, fr all Problem-sovers, well stuctured.* ‘Condition § is always satisfied in theorem posing since there is no external teal world’ to be concemed shout Condition is usual estisfed, as far ae the bie processes are concerned. Nevertheless, beezus ofthe enormous space to be searched, contemporary mechanical theorem-provers, con- fronted with dificult theorems, usualy fit ind proofs. Iris ometimes ssi that they could onl suceed if endowed with ingenuity; bot ingenuity, whatever iti, generally requires ‘violating Condition 4~moving out into the broader world of Isp 23. Ischessplayings WSP? Neato theorem: proving, the wor of games would sppesrto offer the best examples of wellstucturedness. All of the reservations, howerer, that applied tothe well-structuredcss ‘of theorens-proving apply to gaine-playingas well In addition, new resersstons arise with respect to Condition the solution criterion and Condition 5—the corfespondence be tween the inner world of ehought and the outer world of action on real chess boards. Letus consider these wo matersin more detail. > In both cases the difficulty stems from the immense gap between computabiliy in principle and practical computability Se oe eng he 1 forma ni Sur concern Ueengho swab che ev pele ‘Sisley ong sensu a comporn, Probl ey be and {er oe pe seen mo ee150 Developments in Design Methodology in problem spaces as large a thote of games like chess. In principle, the concept of “best move’ is well defined but in practi this concept las to be replaced br say anim ome apjwosimateevaation function, Wha a chess-plging program hss found (if i does che move that manimiees this Function, ican sil be fr from finding the move that will win the game of ehess—as the modes ability ofthe best contempor sy programs tess é Interns of Condition 8, tc not hard to define the WSP of, playing an approximate kind ol'ches, where ‘winning’ meane ‘maximizing the postelted esahation function. But the values of moves calculated by the approximate evaluation function aresimpis «cans for predicting sheactal consequences ofthe ‘moves in the real yame ‘ouisle’, Feedback in terns a the capected or unexpected moses of the opponent andthe expected or unexpected board situations arising frara those ‘moves cal for new calculations by the peoblem-solver to make tse of the new information that emerges, ‘Theill-seructuredness, bythe usual criteria, of chess playing bocome fully evident when we consider the ply of an entre tame, and do not confine our view ta just a single move. The moce in the reat game is distinguished from moves in dynamic analysis by is ierevocabilyit has real consequences that cannot be undone, and that are fequently different from the consequences that were anticipated. Playing 2 game of chess iewing this activity a" solving a single problem—involves continually redefining what the problem i. Even if we regard chess playing a5 a WSP in che small. during the course of considering single move), by most criteria irmustbe regarded asan ISP in the large (ue. o¥er the course of the game). 24. Summary:the eusivencss ofstructure Asour two xatzples show, definiteness of problem structures largely anillusion that arises when we systematically confound the idealized problem that is presented to an idealized (and unlimitedy powerful problem-solver withthe actual pro. em thats tobe attacked by a problem-slver with imited (ecen if large) computational capacities. I formal completeness and component fashion, "The sige of designing the hesng sytem may lea the architec o consider various face and Saou Gubwion apseme. Again he towne of thee fenrtors‘of ahersves i to be found in his longer SSemory and relrence ie inching bisects ope ins for helping design sme ofthe component syste). “Phe le ig sen begins to segue srscturBy being decompotd into varios problems of component design snd Sy evoking athe design progresses kinds of requirements CC pid in esting te desig of components Doing Developments in Design Methodology ‘Tho Suctue of tructuted Problems 185 any ven short period of me she achits il id msl Joie “an s-preblam which perhaps besaning. 2 7 Tro memory e's welbauctred probe. We ean make he theing smear Remade sbow pasing a ches ame theproble is walturctred ashe smal, ba-rucwred hel Gut md} | Semall dvd mS ye | AGE pie, Grebe Conk purstdu tary) ‘saructirod site, so0n_conversitsll Coordination of te design: [Now some obs ious dificulies can aris rom solsng problems in this manner. Interrelations sisong. the sanous well: euctored subs problems are Tikely to be neglected or under tmp, Solutions to paricuarsabeproblemeare apt sabe ATsturbed or wodeme at a ater stage when new aspects ate Aiended 10, and the considerations fad Solutions forgorten or not nice. a fact, soch unwanted side tffects accompany al design processes that areas complex 5, the architectural one we are considering. Asa result, while the final product may satsy all the requeements that are evoked when tht final produc i ested, tt may violate some ofthe Feqtirements that were imposed (and temporariy satisfied) a hn earlier stage of the design. The architect may or may not be wate of the violation, Some other appropriate design erteria~ ‘ay simply remain dormant, never having been evoked ding the design process “The danger of inconsistencies and lacunae ofthese hinds is mitigated ro some extent by that pac ofthe architets kill that is embedded in the overall organization of his programme for Gesign. Tart of his profesional taining and subsequent learning is directed to organizing the proces in such away that, themajor interactions among components willbe taken care (Certs way’ of dividing the whole ask into pars will do ess violence vo those interactions than other ways dividing it—a {good procedure will dide the task into components that ae 35 10 the original Gy teary “sellconained” as possible (Alexander, 1964) Early Stages of the design canals escablish global parameters which then become sonetraint operating on each of the components to which they are relevant, Thus general decisions about ssl" ‘an impose consrainson the styistc dagsions abot pari lie portions of the house “Boch of the coordination of the various welstractured “~design sob-tasks is implicbuil ino the organization ofthe ‘whole process. To the extent that thi s $0, the lea design tivities are guaranteed 10 mesh into 2 reasonable overall SNevetur Tis means tha the final product may be vere much finlluenes2 by: high the design steps are aken wp ‘Re reule, differences in style Between diferent designs can result readily fom the organization ofthe design process. as {rom explicit decisions of dhe architect to specify one style oranother. I the process calls for designing the agade before the process ails fr seeing che room arrangements before the {ge (Sion, 1971), ‘ The over-all design proces Th din process sched above ean be compoed (2 Clutinnrel sGP5 hich sans gen nomen fins sell “hngsne sented pba asi cua caruustecaen urea ‘roking from long-term memory new consirain, new sub | Pape ale ede deri nn (cane ini cr prblen pared cura nemo (Calnouiied tareeveuteneia aces fein kes lean naman fem memory ch fans Semoun lee ammeter aan faery ite problem pus) The ed spn, ee ptr padded aotay peti ba eat pe iby fen ey ih aneety thee eri shows in Fig Synene de ete ORY Sean: f vt: “ete with alteration beewen problem-solving in 2 (locally) well= space through retrieval of new information from long-term “The answer revolves around the basically ser processes are capable, eypically, tnpatsand prodecing » small nimber of symbol svetres 36, ‘outputs. There is no way in which a large amount of\— information can be brought to bear upon these processes locally—tha is, over a short period of procesing. If 3 large One might ask why the systems organized this fashion Fire Sonic igramefs sem for suracured problem space snd modification ofthe problem H-smucwredproblons. shows preblemaoker working ons NStsrucred problems anda tem. The problem-solving. Meagnsonsysem contol thing few armen =| mowing ovoblem space ly Aegan tiles a desea eae dan the ES Vela Se i Developments in Design Methodology 2 The Stuetut of i'stuctuted Problems long-term memory is assisted with 2 serial processor ofthis [Kindy then most of the contents of longterm memory wll be any brit interval of processing native of bringing al of the potential irrelevant di ie felevant information in ong-tem memory together once ana forall atthe outset, co provide a well-structured problem space that does no change during the course ofthe problem-solving effors. One must ah bringing ttogeer where? Presumably it could all be assembled in some designated par of longterm ‘memory. But to what purpose? Retival processes would stil be necessary for the serial problem-solsing processes 10 discover the inputs they needed atthe time ts» seeded them. To the outside observer the continuing shift n attention Foes fone part of the assembled tak information ta another would Silllook like a series transformatioas of the problem space Inthe arganiation deseribod in Figure Isher ismo nced for ‘his initial definition of the problem space and task srvctre Al of the necessary definitory information is potenclly available, but distibuted through long-term memory. I is feirieved shrough imo mechanisms: rst, the normal sub routine structure, which enables processes ocallsub- processes fd pace mput and outpes information Irom one to another: Second, the evoking mechanitm, which recognizes when Certain information has become velevant, and proceeds 10° fetrieve that information from long-term memory 3.3, Design asan organizational process this description of how an ill-steutured problem of design canbe handled seems tall fanciful, is realism canbe supported by comparing it with the description of complex design procestes that take place in organizations. Let me quote st ath the process described by Sir Oxwyn Muresy some fifty years ago, of designing and producing a new batleship (Murray, 1923, pp. 216-17) ‘We saw the Fiat Sea Low ahi Aso Chi Nal tal Tayi down in general scm the festres that thee dese se ible inthe new design the sped, the radios of acon, che ‘Hlesive qualics the armour protection THereupon the Directors SF Naval Construction, acting uoder and in consult with the Contole,ormalatcs provisional schemes oulning then of hip ‘Sores togeterbvith forces ofthe eve and cow volved y the ‘Seremarrangemens. To dothis he sedhisficers must havea good fencral hpowedgein cl nl aatinable by close vlations ith tein charge there maissol the ext developments and eat inrepndio pen rangeol wabjecis—unney torpedo, engines ir, fie sontroly asgation, sigalg, sccommodaon, 20 0 ‘trcin order tobe restonaly sure ha the provi snluded in is ‘SGhemes i likely co ais the exper ial these subjects when the tine for atve cooperation arr i‘Wid hese schemes fre hem, the Ses Lend age on hoger free hence shp wh dons the seul pepsin thetetel detest The danenson nd shape hep re dies oat sfyrarinacly bp the ane Gcarecon Thee the gnc tie and hs Deparment eld iso are onthe tings of the propeling machin. the postion of Sai opr, bonkers ntl ete and i ane ine the cope Borer he Diner of Nea Ordnance seqred to sete the Psion of she guns withthe barbens, and magcines and shall Fons tnd the mean of sppsingsmunion io the guns acer "amend tne ema Spare cy fre progres este made, The cooprnion of the Director of {orpedec tn the Director of Elia Engineering sw cd to nate te rangement for torpedo amen cece gen Imachncry cect Big, ce So the dex progress Sibel fern dee Lower prions wpearda an pes he Bec of Nl Camano coe es ‘ial Eguipment a 10 the proposed rangement i eed to te Ses and vonage othe moter boats, steamboats. rowing 3nd aig erp oncha tephra te Decor {hetignl Deparment an tone wucaslgeaphy rangement: ihe Tectar of Nviuton ss tothe rangers foraging she sp Salvo on ln te wae the echeme pose groning ene annrs fv progres aluays being dependent on te efcenc of fee at ily a mer comple wh Srrved ain the shape of Graings and speciation provisional nboyg al the apresmonc, Ths rel the moxe dil and ‘ees sage, tr gsc i becoee oppure sti nie chat eguomantscrep, an hat he bes posite cannot be achieved n tepid ta mbes Hi points niin the mit srt he “ontsctrs. $i deuterated up by disceon a roundble contr eect e Sipe areed upon aed the compleed Selgn ‘thew Gnaly {ted Tor she board’ sppreal, Some fourecn departments encerned in the element ofthe nl dead rangement, “he man prt in which this acount differs froin ovr destin ofthe achitecoralprocessisin the more elaborte prosion, inthe ship design proces for coordinating the umerouscterao desig thatare evoked dering the proces, Ind preceming teria, once evoked, rom being overlooked in deer ages ofthe proces. nthe ship dev, proces 100 the ‘evoking thes on an ongzieatonl fori ivuies consulting he leva specs. The long-term erry here ileal dstnbuted memory, dvided among the rrious troupe of experts who are involved atone or another sage of the design process. ‘What i king abo Sir Osu account is ow well serecured cach pars of the design process spears. We ean Siualine each group of expert provided eh the overall {pecifcron sting Gown with he speci sab probiem of ‘Posgnings pacar sytem, and finding shat sb problem 0 ber ieaiely well sacred task Of course the more Cemplox sub: prbles may themachcs bein mumerous wars ‘tfutacred unl fercersubtivded mo componens (the ‘Tho Structure of ti-stwsciured Problerns 159 descriptions of the role ofthe Engincer-in-Chiel and of the Director of Naval Ordnance), "Wherever complex designs are produced by organization and where, 362 somiequence, the design process must be parially esternalized and formalized, we find description of that process not unlike thi description of ship design. An init stage of laving down general (and tentative) specifica tions is followed by stages in which experts ate called up {Cevoked’) to introduce new design criteria and component dlesigns to satisfy them, Ata ster stage there is acetion 0 Inconsistencies of the component designs, and a search for sodifcaions that wll continue to meet most ofthe eiteia oF ecisons 4 sacrifice certain criteria in fvour of oxhers. Each small phase of the atvity appests to be quite well trtured, but the overall prosess moet none af se criteria we set down for WSDs, 3 Anintelligent robot Adiferen aspect of structure comes tothe forefront when we ‘onsder the design ofan intligent eobor capable of locomot ing and solving problems in teal external environment. ‘The robot's planning and problem-solsing must be carried out in terms of some internal representation of the exiernal environ ‘ment But this internal representation wile inexact for at east tivo reasons frat emt abstract from much (or most af the ‘eal of the actual physical environment. (It surely cannot represent the individual molecules and thee inerstions, and it fnust almost always ignore deals that are mach grosser and ‘more important than thoseat the molecular level.) Second, the Jmernal representation includes a representation ofthe changes that willbe produced inthe external envionment by vatious actions upon it. But for this prediction of the effects of ‘operators to be exact would require an exact knowledge ofthe Tasso nature that gover the effect of rel actions upon areal “The robot, therefore, will continually be confronted with ‘new information from the environment: features ofthe ew ‘ironment which have become relevant tojts behaviour but are Omitted from, or distorted in, ts intnnal presentation of that ‘environment; and changesin he environment asa consequence ofits behaviout that ar different from the changes that were predicted by the planting and problem-solving proceses. ‘But this external information can be used by the robot in ‘exactly the way that information evoked from long-term memory was used by the architect. The problem representation Can be revised continually to take ecountof theinlormation— ‘ofthe rea situation —so thatthe prabler-solveris faced ac cachmoment with well-structured problem, but one that changes from momnent «9 momen Hehe continaing aeration of the problem representation i shorttcrn and reveroble, we generals a “eedbach i the alteration fe more or lest permanent (© resin the laws of mature, we rer oes earning Ths the robot mous its problem represctation temporarily by EHtending intr to selected features of the envionme 1 anodes more permanent by changing conceptions of the structure of the external environment of the les that 35. Chessplayingisan ISP ‘We can now raurn (© the tsk environment of chess, and reinterpret our earir comyments—that in some respect chess appears to resemble an ISP rather than a WSP. To make the point sil sharper, we consider 2 (over-simpliied) chess program that hae theee principal component ) a set of productions: (@) an evalostors (3) an updating proces. “The set of productions serves as a move generator. Fach production consists of a condition part and a atin, part: the Condition par tess forthe presence of some conf uration of pieces or other features in'2 chess postion: the action part tvokes a move that should be considered when the condition, with which tis associated is preset, Such aset of productions an also be siewed 35 an indeved memory, of discrimination and recognition net. When the presence of a condition is ecognized by the net, the corresponding action is accessed in long-term memory. By the operatiza of this system of productions. each chess position evokes 4 set of maves that, Should be considered in that positon “The second component of the chess program i sn evaluator that takes 4 move and a positon as input and (cecursively) makes a dynamic evaluation of that move. We will assume— svithout specifying exact mechanisms—that the dynamic eva lation converges. The evaluator produces 2 search tee that, Robow tha opera on sunheszed words eprctertedinsde the computer liethe sab know tse oT Winograd, ae otras fetleseie in wich] among the germbere:forthey do oe fce he hue tha bs cic to's robes when dekng with a tal exersal tenn’ she asi of contin rvsing internal represent Son el he ton rion aio oh Ff ew fs the formation given PLANNER, the probl song compo tet of Winoyeals yen ib. comple sed secure chasers Som af th tor world Hcks atthe msm manipeltes. The Sturge ef she information guarantee intr that any theorem Froved by PLANNER wil be rue ofthe Nock world The Structure oft structured Problems 161 constitutes its prediction ofthe consequences that might follow ‘The ain canmponsn of the ches program is the updating has een made ant he epee as replied. he uplater brings the position on the board up to date by recor control aver again tothe discrimination net ‘Consider now a problem space consisting of the set of features recognizable by the productions, together with the moves associated with those fcateres. Consider the subspace onsatng of the features actually evoked by 2 given pasion together with the moves associated with this smaller set of features It we vsaard the later, and smaller space as the festive problers space for she p the moves, prones the analysis tree, and twens am sine is ORs luring Tinted peviod af ine will be governed only by the productions actually evoked daring thar time) then the Clletive problem space will undergo continuing, change throughout the cours of the game, moving from one subspace to anther ofthe lrge space defined by the entire content of Tong: term memory. The problem faced by the chess program ‘wll spear ust as illsruetured 25 the architec’ problem or the robor’ prablem—and for easly the same reasons 346, Serial processors andSPs ‘Gur anslysisas led us o see chat any problem solving process sll appear il-stractaredif the problem-solver isa machine that has actess to 2 sery lange long-term memory (a effectively infinite memory) of potential relevant information, and/or ccessto 3 very large estenal memory peovides information Shout the actual real-world consequences of problem-solving fctons. Large’ is defined relativeto the amount of information that can direct or affect he behaviour of the processor oxer say short period of time, sile"poteatilly relevant’ meansthatany sal prt of th rkrmaton may’ be evoke 2 se sme ‘during the problem-solving procese by recognition of some ature inthe current problem sate (the information avaiable directly tothe process) II we referback othe orginal definition of WSP. wesce that the present view of the boundary beryeen WSP and ISPs derives from our insistence that notions of computability in principle be replaced by notions of practicable computability in the definition of WSP. But this sift in boundary has highly Jmportan consequences. Itimplies that, from the standpoint of the problem solver, any problem wih a lage base of potential ly relevant knowledge may appear to be an ill-srvctured problem: and that she toblem-solver can be efiecive in [cating nih it only it hae capabilities for dealing with ISPs Conversely, it suggests that there may be noshing other than the size ofthe knowledge base to distinguish ISPs from WSPs,sd hot general problem-solving mechanisms that have shown “themselsestobe efficacious forhanling age albeit appre Ih. well-structured domains should be extendable. 10 il Structured domains without any neod for introducing qualia tively new components However well-structured the problem space in which 2 prablem-saleropersts, if itis tobe capable of modifying thst pace problem-solving progresses, ic mst possess means for sssimilating the information i acquires from long-term mes ‘ory, from problem instructions, and fro the estetnal envtoa ‘ment. The nest section discusses briefly the mature of she capabilites of these kinds that are required. 4, ASSIMILATING NEW INFORMATION ‘When the problem space remains uuchangel!chroughout the problem-solving process the assimilation of new information 1 the problem-solving system offers no particular difficulties, Anyinlormation that can be used belongs toone of theformsal information that ate specified in the definition of the problems space. Infact, she only new information that canbe aquired is information descriptive of new sates that are reached in the course of the problem-solving search ‘When the problem space is subject to modiicatic during problem-solving, provision must be made for ac =pting and similting information from one or mate of *hree sources: information evoked {rom long-term memory, information contained in problem instructions or additions and modifica tions to instructions, and information obtained through sen- sory channels from the external world. 4.1. Information from long-term memory Information evoked by the produetion-recognition system from long-term memory should not create particular diicul- ties of assimilation. The forms in which sich information is stored theprocesss for retrieving and incorporating in the redefined problem space are all part of the problem-soling system, broadly construed “This doesnot mean that we have had much actaal experience in constructing and using such semantic information stores Perhaps, when we come to have such experience, difficulties fnerge that cannot aow be anticipated. Nevertheless, the designer ofthe problem-solving sytem contralethe format is ‘which information is to be stored in long-term memory. The ‘worage scheme ean put that information into 2 relztively ‘imple, general, and homogeneoss format (eg. 2 network of Adetcrpton list structures—commonly referred to2s coloured directed graph): and the system canbe provided with relatively simple, general, and homogeneous processes for searching for ‘The Structure of fiistuctured Problems 168 information andl etivingit from the store lterfacing witha fvivonment whose derign is under cur contsol (memory Search) is always several anders of mag Jnncrfaing wi piven estcinal envieonment (perception). tude easier than 42. Information frominstructions Tasks presented toa problem-solver through natural language instructions pose the difficult initial problem of understanding the instructions, that is, of generating from: them 2 well feuctured (or illstuctured) statement of the problem. A. eneral discusion of understanding natural language would {ake us fa afield from our main concerns here, and must be ‘omitted rn the present paper. The rear istefeered vo Simon (1972), Siklssy al Simon (1972), chapters by Bobrow and Raphael Minsky (1969) and Winograd (1873) aves and Simon (1974) have constructed a system that reads problem instructions na natural language, and construcisfrom, them problem representation in the form of input appropriate fora problem-solving evstem like GPS. Their program caries fout the major steps in tranalating relatively simple ISPs imo wsre 43, Information about theexternalworld Analy o assim information aboot the externa sor ier ineraonabost the elects ofthe problem savers sori or both he ermark of thoteproblemsoles we Tread robot Here we ae concerned wih te probln= folverspereepeal or patternsecogizing capabilities tnother copia falls ovteide the scope ofthe present paper ‘Thecuter mits on aes of sch information defined Uytheprinve senor iscsimiatonef which he prob Solves capable, bun she short ro th igherLeveconeps ready developed and sored may pose the mest severe problems of siniting new information information sbou the exer world, the acquisition prowess [holes scontnuaineretion between theincoming data an programs and das aren sor inthe problen-sover. ‘tein sho vl pda tan von the Ce es ad enact ne ay eo es and clpe ito proces for manipulating those siroc= tures eis s ita, breaue i tends © meal all new SRlormation tote pradigns that ae alreay ava The Froblen sever neve pererves te Dig se, Bu nly the fered! suinels fitted thoh is own preconceptions154 Ah direction of conserving essting problem formlations. The ‘world at perceived is beter structured than the raw world ouside IMPLICATIONS FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, [Molizre's hero discavered that he had been speaking prose a his life without knowing it. Our analysis here implies that ‘hroughout the history of acificial imelligence, computer problem-sclsing programs have. also unknowingly, been hhandissr many aspects of problen-solving that are wsvally regarded as illeructured. Several examples of programs now filtcen years oll can be cited The early NSS chess program (Newell eal, 1958) contained 4 number of independent move generators, cach associated ‘vith a particular sub-goal (development, centre control, King safety, et.) Amove generator was activated hy the presence in the chess position of feature relevant tothe goa in question, When evoked. the generator proposed one of more moves for sdvancing the goal m question. These moves were evaluates by Alvnamic analysis which again tas sensitive ra features noticed in new positions as they arse during the analvsis. Hence *he overall organization ofthe program was quite close to “hat of the hypothetical program we described eavie. “The proposals for using a planning method in the General Problem Selver ean also be interpreted as 2 way’ of handling problems that are not completely well-structured. Planning wwasdoneby abstracting from the detail of aproblem space, and carrying out preliminary problem solvinginthe abstracted (and consequent] simpler) space. But the plan then had tobe tested by trying 10 eazy it out inthe original problem space. The deal of the plan wae thereby elaborated and its feasibility tested, Therelation between the abstract planning space and the ‘original problem space was quite analogous tothe relation we have discussed between an internal problem space {2 robot snd the external real world in which the robat performs. ‘What has been sbsent from (or 3 last not prominent in) schemes like these is 2 very large long-term memory of potentially evocable information that ean be wsed to bring shout repeated modifcationsin che problem space. The recent fromth of interes in semantics, in the design and constrction ‘of semantic nets inthe interpretation of instructions, and in interfacing robots with the external world ate all movements in the direction of enriching our arsenal of arifcal intelligence methods slong the @:mensions that will Become increasingly important as we move toward more comprehensive schemes for handling il-structored problem-ralving. Our analysis gives ts reason to be optimistic that progress will not requires to aduce mechaninns that ate gualtatvely diferent from the The Structure of tlstructured Problems, 168 ‘once slcady ingroduced in artificial imellgence schemes— Inechanisins with which we have already had some bested experience The bouradary ewrcen well-stevctred and illstrvcured problem-solving is indeed a vague and fail boundary. There lppears to be no reason to suppose that concepts as vet Uninvented and unknown stand between us and the feller exploration of those problem domaine that are most ebrioosly and visibly ill-tractored Acknowledgments rch war supported in part by Research. Grant fron the Navin Insite of Mental Health and in part by the Advanced Research Projets Agency ofthe Ofer fof the Secretary of Defense (FH4620-70-C.0107) which is ‘monitored be the Air Force Office of Sciemific Research. Lam ttefel to De Aaron Sloman and Prof. Sau! Amarel for helpful fommtents on an ealicr draft ofthis pape. 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