THESMOGPRIMER

625 Church Street

Suite 402
Toronto, Ontario
Canada M4Y 2G1
tel. 416-926-1907
fax 416-926-1601
www.pollutionprobe.org

POLLUTION PROBE IS A NON-PROFIT CHARITABLE ORGANIZATION THAT WORKS

in partnership with all sectors of society to protect health by promoting clean air and clean water.
Pollution Probe was established in 1969 following a gathering of 240 students and professors at the
University of Toronto campus to discuss a series of disquieting pesticide-related stories that had
appeared in the media. Early issues tackled by Pollution Probe included urging the Canadian government to ban DDT for almost all uses, and campaigning for the clean-up of the Don River in Toronto.
We encouraged curbside recycling in 140 Ontario communities and supported the development of the
Blue Box programme. Pollution Probe has published several books, including Profit from Pollution Prevention, The Green Consumer Guide (of which more than 225,000 copies were sold across Canada) and
Additive Alert.
Since the 1990s, Pollution Probe has focused its programmes on issues related to air pollution and
human health, including a major programme to remove human sources of mercury from the environment.
Pollution Probes scope has recently expanded to new concerns, including the unique risks that environmental contaminants pose to children, the health risks related to exposures within indoor environments, and the development of innovative tools for promoting responsible environmental behaviour. Work
has also begun on building a comprehensive water programme that will update our understanding of water
management issues and define a set of goals and measures for achieving them.
Since 1993, as part of our ongoing commitment to improving air quality, Pollution Probe has held an
annual Clean Air Campaign during the month of June to raise awareness of the relationships among
vehicle emissions, smog, climate change and related human respiratory problems. The Clean Air Campaign
helped the Ontario Ministry of the Environment develop a mandatory vehicle emissions testing programme.
Pollution Probe offers innovative and practical solutions to environmental issues pertaining to air
and water pollution. In defining environmental problems and advocating practical solutions, we draw
upon sound science and technology, mobilize scientists and other experts, and build partnerships with
industry, governments and communities.

June 2002

Pollution Probe is pleased to present this primer on smog. We receive more telephone calls, e-mails,
letters and media inquiries on smog than on any other subject. The Smog Primer has been developed
to build public understanding of the sources of smog pollutants, their effects on human health, and the
things we can do to reduce smog pollution and protect ourselves and our children from harm.
We are especially pleased to publicly release The Smog Primer on the tenth anniversary of Pollution
Probes Clean Air Campaign and Commute. This annual event engages thousands of employees in a
concerted effort to leave their cars at home or to commute to and from work by cleaner forms of
transportation. The Smog Primer also complements our new workplace trip reduction programme,
called S.M.A.R.T. (Save Money and the Air by Reducing Trips). The S.M.A.R.T. manual can be found
on our web site at www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Air.htm.
Pollution Probe is dedicated to making positive, tangible progress in cleaning the air we breathe. This
is essential for our health and well-being, and it is a goal that we can achieve. Please join us in advocating
for a clean environment and make personal choices that show your commitment to this worthwhile
endeavour.

Ken Ogilvie
Executive Director

the smog primer

Acknowledgements
Pollution Probe gratefully acknowledges the funding and/or in-kind support and technical review of
The Smog Primer by the following organizations:
ENVIRONMENT CANADA
HEALTH CANADA
JANEY S. MILLS P. ENG. MEMORIAL FUND
ONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Pollution Probe is solely responsible for the contents of this report.
This publication was researched and written for Pollution Probe by OLIVIA NUGENT. The updated material
on Air Quality Indices and Air Quality Advisories (pages 34 through 41) was researched and written by
JOHN HEWINGS.
We appreciate the work of staff members ELIZABETH EVERHARDUS for managing the project, KEN
OGILVIE, QUENTIN CHIOTTI and SANDRA SCHWARTZ for providing information and advice, and KRISTA
FRIESEN for helping with production and logistical support.
Special thanks are given to JOHN HEWINGS and WAYNE DRAPER for providing technical comments on
the primer.
Pollution Probe gratefully acknowledges SHAUNA RAE for design & layout and RANDEE HOLMES for editing
this publication.
The LAIDLAW FOUNDATION is also specially acknowledged for its generous support of Pollution Probes
Air Programme.

Smog Primer Table of Contents

Foreword..................................................i
Acknowledgements .................................ii
CHAPTER 1: What is Smog?......................2

Introduction ............................................2
What is Smog and How is it Formed? ......3
Smog Pollutants and Their Sources..........4
Transportation: A Major Contributor
to Smog ..................................................7
CHAPTER 2: Why is Smog a Concern?.....12

Smog and Human Health .......................12

Health Effects of Smog Pollutants .........14
Smogs Hazardous Journey
Through the Body ..................................16
Smog and Mortality...............................17
Who is Affected by Smog? ....................18
A Global Health Perspective ..................20
Environmental Impacts of Smog.............20
Economic Impacts of Smog ...................22
Climate Change and Smog.....................23
CHAPTER 3: Factors Affecting Smog .......26

Prepared for Pollution Probe by OLIVIA NUGENT.

ii

Seasonal/Daily Conditions.....................27
Local Weather Conditions ......................27
Topography............................................28
Urban and Rural Factors ........................28
Transboundary Air Pollution ...................29

CHAPTER 4: Getting Information on Air

Quality and Smog Pollutants..................32

Air Monitoring Stations..........................33
Air Quality Indices .................................34
Air Quality Advisories ............................38
Criteria Air Contaminants Emissions
(CACE) Inventory ..................................42
National Pollutant Release
Inventory (NPRI) ...................................42
PollutionWatch......................................43
CHAPTER 5: Whats Being Done

About Smog? ........................................46

What are the Federal and Provincial
Governments Doing Jointly?...................47
What is the Government of
Canada Doing?......................................48
What are Provincial
Governments Doing? .............................49
What are Municipal
Governments Doing? .............................51
What is Industry Doing? ........................52
CHAPTER 6: What You Can Do To

Reduce Smog........................................54
Getting Around......................................55
At Home ...............................................57
At Work ................................................58
References............................................61
Useful Web sites ...................................63

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iii

chapter one

What is Smog?
Introduction
Every day, the average adult breathes about 15,000 to 20,000 litres
of air. Air is a mixture of gases that makes up our atmosphere and is vital
to life on earth. It largely consists of oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%).
However, as a result of both natural and human processes, the atmosphere also contains a number of gases that, at elevated concentrations,
can be a health threat to people and animals and damaging to plants.
These gases include ground-level ozone (O3), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
sulphur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO), as well as a range of
organic gases and vapours referred to as volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). The atmosphere also contains tiny particles, known as particulate matter (PM), that may be either solid or liquid. All of these potentially toxic gases and substances are together referred to as air pollutants. Combined, they are the principal ingredients of smog.

the smog primer

What is Smog and How is it Formed?

The term smog was first used more than five
decades ago to describe a mixture of smoke and
fog in the air.Today smog refers to a noxious
mixture of vapours, gases and particles that often
appears as a yellowish-brown haze in the air.
Smog is formed in the lower atmosphere, just
above the Earths surface when a variety of
sources release smog forming pollutants into the
air.These pollutants are usually warmer than the
surrounding air and tend to rise.While being
dispersed by the wind, heat and sunlight cause
chemical reactions to occur between pollutants,
forming ground-level ozone. PM is also released
into the air or is formed later within the atmosphere through chemical reactions.These particles,
together with ground-level O3, are the two main
components of smog. Smog will remain in an
area until a weather system, such as a heavy
rainfall, washes most of the pollutants out of the
local atmosphere. High wind speeds can increase
dispersion of pollutants, thereby lowering the
concentration levels of the pollutants in an area.

chapter one: what is smog?

Smog pollutants can be generated by either

naturally occurring processes or by human
activities. Natural sources of pollutants include
forest fires and volcanoes, which add particles
and gases to the air; trees, which emit VOCs;
soil erosion, which produces dust; and biological
processes in soil that create NOx.The largest
source of air pollution affecting human health
and the environment, however, is human activity,
and primarily the burning (or combustion) of
fossil fuels (i.e., petroleum, natural gas and coal)
to transport people and goods, heat and cool
buildings, make electricity and operate industries.

Smog Pollutants and Their Sources

SMOG POLLUTANT

WHAT IS IT?

SOURCE

Particulate
Matter (PM)

PM includes microscopic liquid droplets and particles

of soot, ash, dirt, dust, metals and pollens. This matter
is found everywhere around us in our homes, workplaces, and outdoors. PM varies in size and chemical
composition. The size of the particle is of great importance, determining how far into the lung it can go
when inhaled. Particles are measured by their diameter
and range in size from 0.005 to 100 microns (m).
One micron equals one thousandth of a millimetre or
1/50 of the width of an average human hair. Larger
particles (such as grains of sand) are heavy enough
to rapidly settle out from the air and fall to the
ground. Smaller particles often do not settle out but
remain suspended in the air. These suspended particulates may be as large as 40 microns. With respect
to smog, two particulate sizes are especially of concern: those less than or equal to 10 microns (PM10 or
coarse particulates) and those less than 2.5
microns (PM2.5 or fine particulates). Particles directly
emitted into the air from a source (e.g., smoke from a
factory smokestack or dust from a construction site)
are called primary. Secondary particles are formed
in the atmosphere through chemical reactions involving gases (most commonly NOx, SO2, VOCs and
ammonia [NH3]) and other particles. These particles
are mostly very small in size (PM2.5). Secondary particles can also be formed when volatile heavy metals
that are emitted into the air in vapour form condense
to form fine particles or attach onto the surface of
existing fine particles.

PM comes from both human

and natural sources. Human
sources of PM include the
combustion of fossil fuels
and biomass, dust from
mechanical processes, such
as mining and milling, and
wind-blown road dust. The
burning of residential fuel
wood (e.g., from home fireplaces and wood stoves)
also releases a significant
amount of PM into the air.
Natural sources include fog,
dust, smoke from forest fires
and volcanoes. Secondary
PM is not emitted directly
from a source as it is
formed in the atmosphere
through chemical reactions.

Relative Size of
Particulate Matter

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Smog Pollutants and their Sources, contd

Smog Pollutants and their Sources, contd

SMOG POLLUTANT

WHAT IS IT?

Ground-level Ozone
(O3)

O3 is an odourless, colourless and

highly irritating gas that occurs in the
atmosphere when three atoms of
oxygen combine. It is important not
to confuse ground-level O3 with
stratospheric O3 (see Box 1-2).
(Throughout this document O3 is
used to refer to ground-level ozone.)

Ground-level O3 is not emitted directly into

the air from a source, but is created through
a chemical reaction between the pollutants
NOx and VOCs in the presence of sunlight.

Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx)

This group of nitrogen-oxygen compounds includes the gases nitric

oxide, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and
nitrous oxide. NOx react with volatile
organic compounds in the presence
of sunlight to form O3. NOx play a
part in the formation of secondary
particulates when they combine with
NH3. NO2 combines with water molecules in the air to form nitric acid,
which contributes to acid rain, acid
snow and acid fog.

Almost all NOx come from combustion of

fossil fuels. Major sources are the combustion of fossil fuels by motor vehicles and at
power generating stations. Other sources of
NOx include fossil fuel combustion at industrial facilities, such as pulp and paper mills,
oil refineries and natural gas plants, and as
a result of waste incineration, wood burning
and any other combustion process.

Also referred to as hydrocarbons,

VOCs are organic gases and vapours.
They are defined as volatile
because they easily and quickly
evaporate into the air. VOCs react
with NOx in the atmosphere in the
presence of sunlight to form O3. They
also contribute to the formation of
secondary PM.

VOCs come from both human and natural

sources. A large proportion of VOCs in Canada
are emitted naturally from plants and trees.
In fact, vegetation contributes more than five
times as many VOCs to the Canadian environment as do human sources. Human sources
include the use of gasoline- and diesel-fuelled
vehicles, evaporative emissions from vehicle
refuelling stations, emissions from industrial
processes and the evaporation of fumes from
a variety of solvents, including oil-based paint,
barbecue starter fluid and household cleaning
products.

Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs)

chapter one: what is smog?

SOURCE

SMOG POLLUTANT

WHAT IS IT?

SOURCE

Sulfur Dioxide
(SO2)

SO2 is a colourless, gaseous pollutant that, like NOx, contributes to

secondary particulate formation by
combining with NH3 in the atmosphere. The odour that comes from
striking a match is SO2. As well as
being a smog pollutant, SO2 is one
of the more persistent pollutants,
combining with water molecules to
form sulphuric acid, which contributes
to the formation of acid rain, acid
snow and acid fog.

The principal source of SO2 is human activity,

mainly from the processing of metal ores in
smelters, the processing of natural gas and
the industrial use of fossil fuels in petroleum
refineries, pulp and paper mills and electrical
generation plants. The emission of SO2 from
gasoline and diesel combustion, although not
a large source of total emissions, is of particular concern because of its concentration
in urban environments and its contribution
to PM2.5 formation.

Carbon Monoxide
(CO)

CO is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and poisonous gas.

CO is produced primarily from the incomplete

burning of fossil fuels. The major humanmade source of CO in Canada is fuel combustion in vehicles and stationary engines.
Other sources are industrial, associated with
burning fuel to generate electricity or heat.
CO is also produced by natural sources,
such as volcanoes, marsh and natural gases
and fires.

the smog primer

Transportation: A Major Contributor to Smog

Transportation is the largest single humanproduced source of outdoor air pollution in
Canada. On average, each of the 16.8 million
vehicles registered across the country emits
approximately five tonnes of air pollutants and
gases annually, mainly CO, NOx,VOCs and
carbon dioxide (CO2) (Figure 1-2).The introduction of the catalytic converter (Box 1-3) to
automobiles over 25 years ago, along with better
fuel-efficiency, resulted in a dramatic drop of
smog-related emissions from cars. However,
while cars are becoming more fuel-efficient and
less polluting on an individual basis, the growing
number of vehicles on the roads offsets some of
the benefits of improved automotive technologies. In addition, more people today are
purchasing sport utility vehicles (SUVs), which
are considerably less fuel-efficient than passenger
cars, consuming anywhere from 1/2 to 2/3 more
fuel.At the heart of the current air pollution
problem is the single occupant vehicle (SOV).
SOVs represent the most inefficient use of transportation energy. If more people carpooled and
took public transit, particularly for commuting
to work, transportation emissions would be
dramatically reduced.
Emissions from non-road or off-road engines,
such as those used in powerboats, lawn and garden
equipment and recreational vehicles, such as

chapter one: what is smog?

snowmobiles and all terrain vehicles, are responsible for approximately 20% of all smog produced
by mobile sources in Canada. Unlike cars, nonroad sources are not subject to emissions regulations and, as a result, are considerably more polluting and less fuel-efficient. For example, the twostroke engines that power the vast majority of
Canadas three million watercraft are major
environmental polluters, poisoning both the
marine environment and the atmosphere. According to estimates, a 70-horsepower, two-stroke
outboard emits the same amount of hydrocarbon
pollution in one hour as the engine of a new car
driven 8,000 kilometres. In February 2001, Environment Canada stated that it intends to proceed
with the development of emissions control
programs for off-road engines to align with the
United States federal emissions control programs.

FIGURE 1-1

In the year 2000, the average Canadian lightduty gasoline vehicle emitted approximately:

4480 kg of CO2
200 kg of CO
20 kg of VOCs
22 kg of NOx
.89 kg of SOx
.14 kg of PM10
.13 kg of PM2.5

BOX 1-1

BOX 1-2

Historical Smog Episodes

Ozone Is Both Good and Bad

Air pollution first became a serious problem in

the late 19th century. Throughout the first half
of the 20th century, heavy air pollution in a
number of cities resulted in the deaths of
hundreds, and on some occasions even thousands, of people. Three of the worst episodes
were the following:

Ozone (O3) occurs in two layers of the atmosphere the troposphere (extending from ground
level to about 15 km above the Earths surface)
and the stratosphere (the layer between 20 and
30 km above the Earths surface). O3 is the
same chemical in both layers, yet it has very
different effects on life, depending upon where it
is located. Within the lower troposphere, near
ground-level, O3 damages human health and
vegetation and is one of the key ingredients of
smog. This bad O3 is created in this layer by a
chemical reaction between NOx and VOCs in the
presence of sunlight in a stagnant air mass. In
the stratosphere, however, naturally occurring O3
protects life on earth by screening out the suns
harmful ultraviolet rays, and is referred to as
good O3. The thinning of the stratospheric O3
layer is a major concern; for more information on
stratospheric O3 depletion, visit Environment
Canadas web site at www.ec.gc.ca.

In 1930 in the Meuse Valley in Belgium, an

industrial area filled with steel mills and coal-fired
industry, an incident of air pollution caused the
deaths of 63 people, with hundreds of others
experiencing respiratory symptoms.
In 1948 in Donora, Pennsylvania another
industrialized valley 20 people out of a population of 14,000 died, and more than 40% of
the population became ill, 10% of them severely,
as a result of an air pollution episode.
The most dramatic air pollution episode took
place in London, England, in December 1952,
when a stagnant air mass, combined with
greater-than-normal coal burning during a cold
spell, was associated with 4,000 deaths.

the smog primer

BOX 1-3

What is a
Catalytic Converter?
Catalytic converters are pollution control devices
installed directly in the exhaust system of vehicles
to reduce harmful emissions. First used in 1975,
oxidation (or two-way) catalytic converters take
hydrocarbons (HC) and CO and convert them into
CO2 and water vapour, which are then released
into the air. Three-way catalytic converters, introduced in the mid-1980s, convert CO, HC and NOx
emissions into nitrogen, CO2 and water vapour.

chapter one: what is smog?

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10

chapter two

Why is Smog
a Concern?
Smog and Human Health
Smog is a mixture of pollutants. When inhaled, it can be harmful to human
health. The exact impact varies depending on the type and amount of
air pollutants that are present in the air, the length of time over which
individuals are exposed to those pollutants, as well as factors related to
the individuals themselves, such as age, weight, activity level and health
status. Recent health studies suggest that there is no safe level of human
exposure to O3 and PM and negative health outcomes are associated
with very low levels of exposure, even for healthy individuals.

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12

Health Effects of Smog Pollutants

FIGURE 2-1

Furthermore, medical studies have shown that

long-term exposure to low levels of these
pollutants may cumulatively contribute to
greater overall damage than short-term exposure
to high pollution levels, which is already known
to impact significantly on human health.

Health Effects of Air Pollution

SEVERITY
OF
EFFECT

Mortality
Hospital admissions
Emergency room visits

The damaging health effects of short-term

exposure to smog can range from eye, nose
or throat irritation to decreased lung function
(a decrease in the ability to move air in and out
of the lungs). Smog can also aggravate respiratory
or cardiac disease, and, in some cases, cause
premature death.The health effects of air
pollution can be illustrated using a pyramid
(see Figure 2-1) with the more serious and
rare effects (e.g., death) occurring at the peak
and cascading progressively down to milder
but more common effects (e.g., respiratory
symptoms and eye, nose and throat irritation)
at the base.The pyramid shows that, as the
severity of health effects increases, the number
of people affected decreases.

Physician office visits

Medication use
Symptoms
Impaired pulmonary function
Subclinical (subtle) effects
PROPORTION OF POPULATION AT RISK

Source: Stieb, DM; Pengelly LD, Arron N, Taylor SM, Raizenne M. Health effects of air
pollution in Canada: Expert findings for the Canadian Smog Advisory Program. Can
Respir J 1995;2(3):155-60.

PM10 can stay in the air for minutes or hours

and travel as little as a hundred metres or as far
as 50 km before falling to the ground. PM2.5,
meanwhile, can stay in the air for days or weeks
and travel for hundreds of kilometres, even as far
as 800 km. As the particles are dispersed by the
wind, other hazardous air pollutants may stick to
them, making them more toxic.

FIGURE 2-2

Relationship Between Hospital Emergency

Respiratory Admissions and O3 Levels
114
112

Daily Admissions

Studies have shown that, when smog levels rise,

there is an increase in the number of visits to
doctors by people with breathing problems, as
well as increases in daily respiratory admissions
to hospitals (see Figure 2-2).

110
108
106
104
102
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Daily maximum one-hour O3 level (parts per billion)

Source: Health Canada

13

chapter two: why is smog a concern?

PM is made up of solid and liquid airborne particles that vary greatly in size and in composition.
Most particulates larger than 10 microns will be
caught in the nose and throat, and never reach
the lungs. Smaller particulates, measuring less
than 10 microns (PM10), can be breathed into
the lungs and are referred to as inhalable PM.
Particulates that measure less than 2.5 microns
(PM2.5) are able to penetrate deep into the lungs
and are referred to as respirable PM. The smaller
the particulate, the deeper it goes into the lungs
and the greater the damage it can cause.

80

90

100

One type of particulate matter is acid aerosols,

minute water droplets containing dissolved acid.
Acid aerosols are formed from the burning of
fossil fuels in which sulphur is present.Through
combustion, SO2 and other oxides of sulphur
are formed, along with particles.When airborne,
SO2 is oxidized to form sulphuric acid as it
dissolves in liquids (e.g., water particles) or

adheres to the surfaces of particles in the air.

This combination of SO2, sulphuric acid and
particles creates acid aerosols made up mostly of
fine particles. Acid aerosols, because of their small
size, can penetrate deep into the lungs when they
are inhaled and are the most harmful type of
particulates to the lungs.
The damaging health effects that result from
exposure to particulate matter are specific to
the cardiorespiratory (heartlung) system.
The effects of small particles on the heart are
still being studied, but the lungs and heart are
closely connected.This means that stress in one
organ can affect the functioning of the other.
Cardiorespiratory problems observed in studies
of the effects of PM on human health include
impaired lung function, lung infections, asthma,
chronic bronchitis, emphysema and various
forms of heart disease.
O3 is an intense irritant and a dangerous health
threat. Even low levels of O3 can sting the eyes
and nose, and cause a burning sensation in the
throat. O3 is responsible for respiratory problems,
such as coughing and wheezing, and can reduce
lung function, thereby making it difficult to
breathe deeply and vigorously. Such impacts can
persist for up to 18 hours after the time of last
exposure. O3 can inflame and damage the cells

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14

that line the air spaces in the lung.Within a few

days after exposure to O3 has ended, affected cells
in the airways and lungs are replaced and the old
cells shed, much in the same way that skin peels
after it is sunburned.This process of cell replacement, however, is not perfect, and the constant
cycle of damage and repair may lead to premature
aging of the lung and cause long-term health
effects. For example, children who experience
repeated O3 impacts on their lungs during their
developmental years may suffer from reduced lung
function in adulthood.
NOx are responsible for adverse health effects both
directly and indirectly. Directly, nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), the main component of inhaled NOx,
irritates the lungs, impairs lung function and
lowers resistance to respiratory infection. In
children and adults with respiratory disease, such
as asthma, NO2 can cause symptoms including
coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath.
Even short-term exposure to NO2 affects lung
function. Indirectly, NOx are involved in the
formation of O3 (by combining with VOCs and
sunlight) and fine particulates (by reacting with
NH3), both having their own adverse health
effects as discussed previously.
There are thousands of different types of VOCs.
The health effects associated with them vary
according to the specific compound. As discussed
earlier,VOCs contribute to the formation of O3

15

chapter two: why is smog a concern?

and PM and thereby play a role in the resulting

health effects of those two pollutants.VOCs
range from relatively non-toxic chemicals to
chemicals that can affect the brain and cause
cancer. Several VOCs, including benzene and
1,3-butadiene, have been declared toxic under
the Canadian Environmental Protection Act,
which means at certain concentrations they
endanger human life or health. For more information on VOCs, consult Environment Canadas
Canadian Environmental Protection Act Registry
(www.ec.gc.ca/CEPARegistry) or refer to the City of
Toronto Public Health Report, Potential for
Occupational and Environmental Exposure to Ten
Carcinogens in Toronto (2002) listed in the
References section.
Exposure to SO2 leads to eye irritation, shortness
of breath and impaired lung function.When
inhaled, SO2 primarily stays in the nose, mouth
and throat but can penetrate more deeply into
the lungs during physical activity.When
combined with water, SO2 converts to sulphuric
acid, which is highly irritating to the sensitive
surface lining the respiratory tract. Prolonged or
repeated exposure can cause long-term damage
to the lungs. A study of 11 cities in Canada
found that sulphur dioxide was responsible for
an average increase of 1.4% in risk of death.
SO2 is also one of the main contributors to the
formation of fine secondary particulates in the
atmosphere.

CO is an air pollutant closely associated with harmful health effects and, in high concentrations, is deadly.
CO binds with haemoglobin in the blood, reducing the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. Consequently,
the bodys tissues are starved of oxygen. People with heart disease are most vulnerable to the effects of
high CO levels. Other high risk groups include pregnant women (and their fetuses), infants, children, the
elderly and people with anemia and respiratory or lung disease. Smokers may be even more at risk,
because they already have higher levels of CO in their blood as a result of smoking.

Smogs Hazardous Journey Through the Body

Air makes its way into the body as a result of
inhalation.The passage of air into the body begins
at the nose or mouth.The air then travels down
the pharynx (throat), through the larynx (voice
box) and down the trachea (windpipe), which
branches into two bronchi leading to the lungs.
Here, oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstream
and carried on to other parts of the body. If the
inhaled air is polluted, it can trigger harmful
health effects anywhere throughout its journey.
Upper Respiratory Tract (nose, pharynx, larynx and
trachea): The nose is very effective in trapping
any pollutants that may be present in inhaled air.
Approximately 50% of inhaled O3 and 90% of
SO2 will be filtered out by the nose. However,
in the process, the pollutants can dry out the
protective mucus lining of the nose thereby
interfering with the bodys ability to fight infection. If microscopic particles, such as PM10 and
PM2.5, are present in inhaled air, they may escape

the noses natural filtering system and penetrate

deeper into the respiratory tract. Coughing and
sneezing may occur in order to remove the buildup of trapped particles in the airways. Breathing
O3 can inflame and irritate the upper airways
causing a burning sensation in the throat.
Lower Respiratory Tract (bronchial airways, lungs
and alveoli): The bronchial airways of the lungs
have an upside-down tree-like structure, branching from a few airways at the top of the lungs to
millions of smaller ones deep in the lungs. Cells
lining these airways are covered with tiny microscopic hairs called cilia. Moving rhythmically,
the cilia transport harmful particles and bacteria
upward on a sheet of mucus to the throat, where
they are coughed up or swallowed. O3 and PM
that are inhaled into the lungs can irritate the
cilia, causing the cilia to move slowly or not at
all.This disruption allows dirt and bacteria to
build up in the mucus, thereby restricting the

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16

FIGURE 2-3

amount of space available to move air through

the respiratory passages.This, in turn, can cause
difficulties in breathing and shortness of breath.
Of equal concern is PM2.5, which is tiny enough
to penetrate deep into the lungs where there are
no cilia present to help expel it.
A
B
C
D

E
F
G

B Pharynx
C Larynx
D Trachea

F Bronchial Tree
G Diaphragm

Smog and Mortality

Lower Respiratory System

E Alveoli

}
}

Upper Respiratory System

A Nasal Cavity

Source: www.howstuffworks.com

17

At the end of each branch of the bronchial airways are tiny sacs called alveoli. Adults have about
300 million alveoli in each lung.These sacs play
an important role in transporting oxygen
which is needed to keep the bodys cells healthy
to the bloodstream, and subsequently on to
all parts of the body. O3 is very corrosive and
can damage the delicate thin-walled cells of the
alveoli. Repeated exposure to O3 can inflame
lung tissues and may lead to respiratory infections.
In addition, any pollutants that enter the lungs
can be absorbed into the bloodstream and transported onwards throughout the body thereby
affecting not only the lungs directly, but also the
heart and other organs.

chapter two: why is smog a concern?

While the hazy yellow appearance of smog

certainly makes our cities unattractive, reducing
smog is more than an issue of aesthetics. For
some people, its a matter of life and death.The
Canadian government estimates that air pollution
is responsible for 5,000 premature deaths annually
across Canada.The Ontario Medical Association

Who is Affected by Smog?

Everyone is exposed to air pollution and is thereby affected by it in some way.There are, however,
some people who may be more vulnerable to
the harmful effects of smog.Those at higher risk
include the elderly, children, individuals with
allergies, asthma, or other respiratory diseases
and healthy individuals exercising outdoors on a
smoggy day. Persons with existing heart disease
also appear to be more sensitive to air pollution
exposure than the rest of the population.

FIGURE 2-4

Increase in Mortality on High Air Pollution Days,

19801991
National Mean
7.6
Quebec City

11.0

London

10.6

Hamilton

10.3

Calgary

9.7

Montreal

City

The Human Respiratory System

(OMA) estimates that more than 1,900 people in

Ontario die prematurely each year from the effects
of air pollution. Furthermore, every year, about
9,800 people in Ontario are admitted to hospitals
and 13,000 visit emergency rooms as a result of
exposure to smog.As the population increases and
ages, the number of people affected by air pollution will increase. For example, according to the
OMA model, the number of deaths in Ontario
associated with air pollution is expected to rise
to 2,600 people per year by 2015.

8.4

Vancouver

8.3

Toronto

6.5

Winnipeg

6.4

Ottawa

4.8

Windsor

3.6

Edmonton

3.6
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

Percent Increase
Source: Burnett et al.

9.0

10.0

11.0

12.0

Children (15 years of age) inhale more air per

kilogram of body weight than do adults and, as a
result, proportionately more pollutants. Children
also breathe more rapidly than do adults and
tend to breathe through their mouths, thus
bypassing the natural filtering system in the
nose.This breathing pattern allows large amounts
of polluted air to get directly into their lungs.
Children are less likely than adults to be aware
of symptoms, such as chest tightness, which can
serve as a warning of pollutants harmful effects,
such as lung tissue damage.
In addition, the places in which children play,
and the distance from ground level at which they
breathe, increase their chances of exposure to
pollutants. Specifically, children spend a lot of
time actively playing in urban parks and school
grounds that are situated near busy roadways,

the smog primer

18

and, as a result, are exposed to high levels of

vehicular pollutants. Furthermore, because of
their shorter stature, children breathe closer to
the ground than do adults often close to
the same level as tailpipes are located where
pollutants are found in higher concentrations.
The health implications for a child exposed to
outdoor air pollution can be serious. Irritation
caused by air pollutants that would produce only a
slight response in an adult can result in potentially significant obstruction in the narrower
airways of young children. Air pollution can
damage the development of a childs alveoli,
thereby restricting the transfer of oxygen from
the lungs to the bloodstream. As well, studies have
shown that long-term air pollution exposure
during infancy can reduce the rate of lung growth.
The elderly ( 65 years of age) are also more
adversely affected by smog than the rest of the
population.They may be frailer and weaker than
younger people, and therefore less resistant to
infection. Many older people suffer from chronic
respiratory or heart conditions, or other pulmonary and circulatory stress, all of which may be
worsened by the inhalation of PM or other
pollutants. A number of studies have linked PM
with increased hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory problems in the elderly and
even premature death. In addition, the decline in
lung function that occurs with elderly people as
part of the natural aging process can be accelerated by the damaging effects of air pollutants.

19

chapter two: why is smog a concern?

People who exercise outdoors, such as cyclists and

runners, expose themselves to more pollutants
than do those who dont engage in strenuous
outdoor exercise. Exercise results in increased
heart activity, which in turn requires deep and
rapid breathing.When this happens, more pollutants are drawn deep into the lungs. Outdoor
exercisers also often engage in mouth breathing,
thus bypassing the natural nasal filtering system
that can protect them from inhaling PM. Since
O3 decreases a persons lung function, athletes
and outdoor exercisers may find it more difficult
to breathe deeply and vigorously.This condition
is worsened during a smog episode when higher
levels of pollutants are present.
People with asthma have bronchial tubes that
can be easily inflamed. Particulates, which can
irritate and inflame air passages, are likely to
cause trouble for persons with asthma and other
respiratory disorders. A number of studies have
found a strong association between increases in
concentrations of PM10 and a rise in the number of emergency room visits and hospital
admissions for asthma.When O3 levels are high,
more asthmatics have asthma attacks that require
a doctors attention or the use of additional
medication. Asthmatics are also severely affected
by the reduced lung function and irritation that
O3 causes in the respiratory system. Between
1980 and 1990, hospitalization of young children in Canada for asthma increased by 28%
among boys and 18% among girls. In Canada,
asthma is now one of the most common child-

hood respiratory diseases and is the number one

cause of school absenteeism.With more than 2.4
million Canadians suffering from asthma, this
represents a significant proportion of the population that is harmed by smog.
Individuals with existing heart diseases may have
hearts that are weakened as a result of poor oxygen delivery through blocked or narrow arteries.
Since CO deprives the body of oxygen, smog may
worsen these individuals conditions by further
diminishing the oxygen supply to the heart.

A Global Health
Perspective
Air pollution is a major environmental health
problem affecting developed and developing
countries around the world. Increasing amounts
of harmful gases and particles are being emitted
into the atmosphere on a global scale, resulting
in damage to human health and the environment.
Every year an estimated three million people die
and an even greater number suffer serious health
effects from air pollution, primarily respiratory
diseases, asthma and cardiovascular disease.This
mortality figure represents about 5% of the total
55 million deaths that occur annually in the world.
Globally, it is estimated that by 2020 a total of
700,000 premature deaths from particulate
exposure could be prevented each year if emis-

sion reduction policies were implemented.The

majority, as many as 563,000 prevented deaths,
would be in developing countries, while the
other 138,000 would be in developed nations,
such as Canada.

Environmental Impacts
of Smog
Smog is not only a human health problem. It
also affects the surrounding physical environment.
Two smog pollutants in particular have damaging
effects on the environment: O3 and PM.
O3 affects vegetation (e.g., agricultural crops,
trees and herbaceous plants) in several ways.
When plants take in CO2 through tiny openings
found on the surface of their leaves (called
stomata) during photosynthesis (the process by
which plants produce and store food), O3 can
also enter. Once inside the leaf, O3 can reduce
the size of the stomata by decreasing the firmness
or turgidity of the surrounding cells.While this
reduction in the size of the stomata can actually
help to protect the plant from further inflow of
O3, the O3 already present within the leaf can
destroy cells. Furthermore, the reduction of the
stomatas size reduces the flow of CO2 into the
leaf, thereby slowing down photosynthesis.These
damaging processes inhibit the plants growth
and reproduction, and diminish the plants health,
which, in turn, weakens its ability to survive disthe smog primer

20

ease, insect attacks and extreme weather.The

plant as a whole may grow 1040% more slowly
than without exposure to O3, age prematurely,
lose its leaves during the growing season and
produce pollen with a shorter life span. As a
consequence, O3 can reduce agricultural yields.
Crops at greatest risk of damage due to O3
exposure include dry beans, potatoes, onions, hay,
turnips, tobacco, winter wheat, soybeans, spinach,
tomatoes and sweet corn. A study of strawberry
plants revealed that O3 reduces the number and
weight of fruit, resulting in losses as high as
15%. Leaves may become visibly flecked with
small yellow, black or white spots, or develop
large bronze-coloured or paper-thin areas.
O3 is also very damaging to both synthetic and
natural materials. It can lead to the development
of cracks in products made of rubber, such as
tires, boots, gloves and hoses. Continued exposure can cause these products to disintegrate
completely. O3 accelerates the fading of dyes,
damages cotton, acetate, nylon, polyester and
other textiles, and accelerates the deterioration
of some paints and coatings.
The most serious effect of PM deposition on
vegetation is a physical smothering of the leaf
surface.This reduces the leaf s exposure to sunlight, which, in turn, causes a decrease in photosynthesis by hindering the flow of CO2 into the
leaf.The chemical make-up of the particles may
also have a direct effect on the plant and indirect

21

chapter two: why is smog a concern?

effects on the soil. Particle accumulation on the leaf

surface may also leave the plant vulnerable to disease.
Some studies have been conducted on the effects
of PM on materials such as metals, wood, stone,
painted surfaces, electronics and fabrics.The
deposition of PM on these materials may cause
soiling and discolouration, thus reducing their
aesthetic appeal. Exposure to PM can also cause
physical and chemical degradation of materials
that come in contact with acidic particles.
An obvious and aesthetic environmental impact
of PM is reduced visibility and presence of haze
in the air. Haze is caused when sunlight hits tiny
particles in the air and is either absorbed or scattered, thus reducing the clarity and colour of what
we see. Reduced visibility is usually a function of
light being scattered rather than absorbed.The
humidity of the surrounding air also plays a role.
As humidity levels rise, the particles absorb
increasing amounts of water from the air and
thus grow in physical size.This, in turn, increases
their ability to scatter light, thereby further
reducing the colour and clarity of our perception
of the surrounding landscape.
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, haze currently reduces visibility from
144 km to between 22 and 38 km in parts of
the eastern United States, and from 225 km to
between 53 and 144 km in the western United
States.Visibility generally is worse in the eastern

than the western United States as it has higher

average humidity levels and higher levels of
PM from both human-made and natural sources.
The size and chemistry of particles also influence
their ability to scatter light. Particles in the size
range of PM2.5 are the most efficient at scattering light. Coarse particles, however, can also
contribute to reduced visibility. Sulphates and
nitrates, which can adhere to finer particles, are
similarly very effective at scattering light.

Economic Impacts of Smog

Smog impacts the economy on several levels, the
most serious being related to health-care costs.
However, the smog problem in Canada also
affects the economy through reductions in agricultural yields and the potential loss of tourism
dollars as a result of decreased visibility at scenic
tourist destinations.
Health-Care Costs: The serious health effects of
smog also have significant economic impacts.
According to the Ontario Medical Association,
air pollution is estimated to cost the province
more than $1 billion per year due to hospital
admissions, emergency room visits and absenteeism.When the costs of pain, suffering and loss
of life from polluted air are added to this figure,
the total annual economic loss is estimated to be
$10 billion a year.This amount is expected to
increase to $12 billion by the year 2015.

According to two reports, however, it is possible

to significantly reduce these escalating health care
costs. A 1996 Ontario government report calculated that reducing key smog pollutants by 45%
would result in 190 fewer cardiac and respiratory
hospital admissions, 6,200 fewer emergency room
visits for asthma, and between 3 and 4 million
fewer episodes of acute respiratory symptoms
per year. Studies in Greater Vancouver have found
that more than 2,700 premature deaths and
33,000 emergency room visits could be avoided
over 30 years with a 25% reduction in PM.
Agricultural Costs: As discussed earlier, smog damages farm crops and vegetation, thereby reducing
yields of economically important crops, such as
soybeans, kidney beans, wheat and cotton. In the
United States, agricultural losses due to O3 have
been estimated to be between $1 and $3 billion
annually.
Tourism Dollars: With visibility reduced by as
much as 80% in some areas as a result of air
pollution, the loss of tourism dollars, particularly
in areas where people are drawn to the fresh
air and scenic landscapes of national parks and
wilderness areas, could be substantial. If Canadas
urban centres become more polluted, tourists may
choose to stay away for health and aesthetic
reasons. Environment Canada recently completed
a survey of tourist responses to poor visibility in
the Lower Mainland of British Columbia. It
concluded that increased pollution would negatively impact tourism in the region.
the smog primer

22

Climate Change and Smog

One connection between climate change and
smog lies in the burning of fossil fuels. Fossil
fuel use contributes greatly to climate change by
producing two main greenhouse gases: carbon
dioxide and methane, neither of which directly
causes smog. However, burning of fossil fuels
generates other pollutants that do cause smog,
including SO2, CO, NOx,VOCs and PM.

An accompanying increase in humidity could

also mean a rise in production of mould spores,
and a warmer climate would result in a proliferation of trees and other vegetation that produce
pollens, thereby making the situation worse for
those suffering from asthma, emphysema and
other respiratory illnesses.

There is another link between climate change

and smog: increasing temperatures associated
with the former could magnify the effects of the
latter. Some scientists have suggested that, as the
mean annual temperature increases in Ontario,
the formation of smog may also be increasing;
specifically, NOx and VOCs will be reacting at
higher temperatures and thus creating more O3.
As a result, frequent and severe heat waves could
translate into more frequent high O3-level days
and air pollution advisories.With higher temperatures, greater amounts of fossil fuels will be
burned to satisfy increased air conditioning
demand, thus producing more greenhouse gases
and smog causing pollutants.

23

chapter two: why is smog a concern?

the smog primer

24

chapter three

Photo: Peter Power, The Toronto Star

Factors
Affecting Smog
People may wonder where in Canada they can live that is free of smog.
This is not an easy question to answer, since the frequency and intensity
of smog is dependent on a number of physical and geographic factors,
such as weather conditions, time of year, topography, wind speed and
direction and proximity to urban centres or industrial regions. As a result
of one or more of these factors, three regions in Canada have a tendency
to experience more episodes of high level O3-related smog than others:
the southern Atlantic region; the Lower Fraser Valley in British Columbia;
and the Windsor, OntarioQuebec City Corridor. It is important to note that
high levels of O3-related smog are not confined to these regions and that
there are periodic problems in other parts of Canada as well.

the smog primer

26

Canadas official smog season is from May to

September when the sun is at its strongest. In the
winter, when the sun is weaker, O3 production
is reduced. However, smog is still a year-round
problem. PM and other smog pollutants, such as
NOx, SO2 and CO, are present in the air throughout the year as a result of ongoing emissions
from the industrial and transportation sectors.
O3 levels tend to build over the course of a day
usually peaking during mid- to late afternoon
when temperatures are highest and sunlight has
had time to react with vehicle exhaust and
industrial emissions. Because O3 requires sunlight to form, levels usually drop rapidly after
sundown. Levels of other smog pollutants, such
as SO2, NOx, PM and CO, are usually greater
during the daytime as well, due to the frequent
use of cars and trucks, as well as to increased
construction and industrial activity.

Local Weather Conditions

Weather plays a significant role in determining
smog levels. Ideal conditions for the formation
of smog are temperatures near or above 30C,
calm winds and few clouds. NOx and VOCs
need sunlight to create O3, and therefore, O3
levels are at their highest on hot, dry, sunny days.
Calm winds prevent pollutants from being dis-

27

chapter three: factors affecting smog

persed rapidly, giving them a chance to mix

together and undergo chemical reactions to form
O3. Sunlight and warm temperatures are also
conducive to the formation of secondary PM
in the atmosphere.
During the summertime, heavy smog episodes
will usually occur when a stagnant high pressure
system moves into an area. In the northern
hemisphere, winds in high pressure systems spiral
clockwise and outwards, bringing warm air up
from the south.The air tends to sink near highpressure centres, warming as it descends and
evaporating any clouds or precipitation that may
be present in the air.This is why high pressure
systems tend to bring bright and sunny days.
These systems, combined with warm summertime temperatures and little or no wind, will
usually result in stagnant air being trapped close
to the ground.When trapped by high pressure,
VOCs and NOx will bake in the hot sun,
creating O3. In addition, stagnant air masses
prevent pollutants from being dispersed.
The severity of smog is also increased with the
occurrence of a temperature inversion (Figure
3-1).When the air close to the earth is cooler
than the air above it, the lower, cooler air does
not rise but remains still, with the warmer air
above it creating a lid.This may result from a
cold front moving through a region or from
cool sea air blown over land by an onshore
breeze. Under these conditions, the pollutants

cannot rise and disperse; the smog is kept close

to the ground thus maximizing any damaging
effects.The severe inversion over Donora,
Pennsylvania in 1948 was associated with
respiratory illnesses in more than 6,000 people
and the deaths of 20 people.

FIGURE 3-1

Temperature Inversions and Smog

Normal Pattern

cooler air
cool air
warm air

V
V
V

Seasonal/Daily Factors

Temperature Inversion

cool air
warm inversion layer
cool air

Topography
Topography (physical landscape of a region) can
vastly influence air quality. A city in a valley, for
example, may experience air quality problems
due to the restriction of air movement created
by the physical barriers of the valley walls. A city
located on an open plain, however, does not have
these barriers, thus allowing for better dispersal
of pollutants. British Columbias Lower Fraser
Valley is bordered by the Coastal Mountains to
the north and the Cascade Mountains to the
southeast.When sea breezes off the Strait of
Georgia blow pollutants eastward from the
Vancouver region, O3 is gradually produced.
The mountains then trap the pollution in the
eastern part of the valley. Similarly, New
Brunswicks rolling terrain has many pockets
where cool sea breezes blowing off the Bay of
Fundy can become trapped and accumulate, creating temperature inversions and poor air quality.

Urban and Rural Factors

Smog is not just a problem in urban areas. In
fact, smog levels can often be higher in rural
areas than in towns and cities for several reasons.
Firstly, air pollutants move with the wind.
PM2.5 can stay suspended in the air for weeks
and travel up to 800 km with the help of the
wind, and high concentrations of O3 can occur
in rural areas downwind of major urban centres.

the smog primer

28

For instance, in Ontario, rural communities along the shores of Lake Huron (e.g.,Tiverton, Grand Bend)
and Lake Erie (e.g., Long Point) experience very high O3 concentrations during the summer. Secondly, the
chemical reactions that produce O3 can take several hours, which means that O3 may be formed some
distance downwind of the original NOx and VOC sources, as far away as 500 km. Higher suburban/rural
O3 readings compared to urban downtown readings can also be attributed to a chemical process whereby NOx from vehicle tailpipes, known as scavenging NOx, breaks down O3 molecules converting them
into oxygen (O2).The result is that, when traffic pours into downtown cores during smog episodes, a
doughnut effect can take place with the citys core showing low readings of O3 and outlying areas
showing high readings. Of course, this does not solve the smog problem in downtown areas as O3 is only
one of several harmful smog pollutants.

Transboundary Air Pollution

A common problem in some regions of Canada is transboundary air pollution from the United States.
A significant proportion of the O3 pollution in the WindsorQuebec City corridor is carried up by the
wind from the cars and industrial facilities in the Midwestern United States. It is estimated that 50% of
the O3 present in Southern Ontario during smoggy periods comes from transboundary sources. Southern
New Brunswick and southern Nova Scotia receive a significant portion of North Americas air pollution,
with approximately 80% of the smog in those regions originating in the eastern United States, the Ohio
Valley, southern Ontario and Quebec.

29

chapter three: factors affecting smog

the smog primer

30

chapter four

Getting Information
on Air Quality and
Smog Pollutants
Although the air around us may at times seem clean, with no visible brown
smoggy haze or unpleasant smell, appearances can be deceiving. To know
for certain what is present in the air, it must be monitored. This information then needs to be communicated to the public in an up-to-date, easily
accessed and clear manner. Having access to accurate information is key
to developing a better understanding of the environmental and health
effects of smog. By being properly informed, you can become more aware
of the need for clean air and the actions you can take to improve the
quality of the air in your community.

the smog primer

32

There are several ways to get information about

smog pollutants across Canada, including data
from air monitoring stations, air quality indices,
the Criteria Air Contaminants Emissions
Inventory, the National Pollutant Release
Inventory and PollutionWatch.

Air Monitoring Stations

Air pollutants across Canada are measured
continuously by monitoring stations operated
by both federal and provincial agencies.
Concentrations of air pollutants are measured
in tiny amounts, usually in parts per million
(ppm) or parts per billion (ppb). One ppb
means that there is one part pollutant to every
billion parts of air.This is comparable to one
drop of water in an in-ground swimming pool
or, in terms of time, one second in 32 years.
The federal monitoring and reporting networks
are the National Air Pollution Surveillance (NAPS)
network and the Canadian Air and Precipitation
Monitoring Network (CAPMON). NAPS,
established in 1969, is a joint program of the
federal and provincial governments to measure
and report outdoor air pollutant levels in
Canadian urban centres. It currently includes
271 air monitoring stations in 163 municipalities.

33

The number of pollutants measured, as well as

the type, varies from station to station depending
on the region.The most common contaminants
monitored are SO2, CO, NO2, O3 and PM.
Data from the NAPS monitoring stations can
be accessed through the networks annual
reports found on the following Web site:
www.etcentre.org/naps.
CAPMON is a rural network with 21 air
monitoring stations in Canada and one in the
United States. It has been in operation for more
than 20 years. Its initial focus was on acid rain,
but now smog pollutants (NOx, PM and O3) are
also measured at some sites. Plans are underway to
establish an interactive Web site where data from
CAPMON sites can be accessed by the public.
The provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Alberta and
British Columbia operate their own air
monitoring stations independently of NAPS and
CAPMON. Data from these sites can usually be
accessed through the provincial environment
ministries Web sites or through the provinces
annual air quality reports.

chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants

Air Quality Indices

In addition to forming the basis for annual reports
on air quality issued by various levels of government
in Canada, air quality data are widely used in
producing environmental assessments, impact
statements, policy positions and environmental
health indicator reports. In these contexts, air
quality is generally reported as concentrations of
pollutant in the air (e.g., parts per billion (ppb),
micrograms per cubic metre (g/m3)).
The public usually sees the results of air quality
monitoring in the form of air quality indices and
smog advisories.These convert large quantities of
data into simple numbers that convey meaningful
messages about air quality in a timely fashion.
Typically, such messages offer both advice on
how air quality can be improved and on how
individuals can reduce their personal exposure on
occasions when air quality is poor.When index
levels are high, for example, people might be
encouraged to reduce air emissions by taking
public transit or by avoiding the use of gasoline
powered equipment, such as lawn mowers or leaf
blowers. Similarly, industries might be urged to
make temporary cutbacks in production or
switch to less polluting fuels.The public might
also be told that poor air quality events can
present greater health risks, and encouraged to
modify their activities accordingly; for example, by
reducing outdoor exercise or by staying indoors.

Canadian Air Quality Indices

In 1980, the federal and provincial governments
jointly published an air quality index for national
use, known as Index of the Quality of the
Air/Lindice de la qualit de lair (IQUA).This
index, in turn, prompted the development of air
quality indices in several provinces during the
1980s. Each of these indices evolved in slightly
different ways in response to local factors.
Typically, all of the Canadian air quality indices
produce single number index values from raw
data available for various contaminants that are
averaged over varying time periods to provide
snapshot perspectives of community air quality
(see Box 4-1 for the methodology typically used
to calculate an index value).

Pollution Probe gratefully acknowledges the funding of this

insert by the JANEY S. MILLS P. ENG MEMORIAL FUND.
The updated material on Air Quality Indices and Air Quality
Advisories (pages 34 41) was researched and written by
JOHN HEWINGS.
Pages 34 through 41 have been updated as of June 2004.

the smog primer

34

BOX 4-1

Typical Method for

Calculating Air Quality
Indices in Canada
Assemble raw data at each monitoring station
typically includes two or more of the following
contaminants: sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide, ozone, total suspended
particulate or fine particulate matter
(< 2.5 m in diameter).

FIGURE 4-1

Air Quality Index: Toronto West

This example of a Toronto West AQI reading, taken from
the Ministry of the Environments Web site
(www.airqualityontario.com) is colour-coded with a
visual air quality meter for easy interpretation.
Health effects for the top pollutant are also given.

Avoid being outside around high traffic areas

and during peak rush hour times to minimize
your exposure to smog.
Date
Time
AQ
Reason
Health Effects
Very Good

Good

Friday, February 22, 2002

11:00 AM
18
Ozone (O3)
No known harmful effects
Moderate

Poor

Air quality indices have been used relatively

successfully in Canada as informational tools.
They are regularly included by all of the main
media outlets in their normal forecast information.
On occasions when there have been air
pollution episodes they have received major
news coverage.

chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants

If you must be outside, stay out of the sun

and drink lots of water.

The lack of a scientifically valid set of

statements explaining the linkage between
index numbers and the effects of air pollution;
Discrepancies between observed effects from
air pollution, such as hospital admissions due
to respiratory problems, and actual index levels;
A lack of correspondence between public
perception and air pollution index levels, partly
caused by the fact that the current indices
are environmental indices rather than health
based indices; and,
The failure of current indices to deal effectively
with the effects of combinations of air pollutants.

Air Quality Indices The Way Forward

Very Poor

Identification of the maximum sub-index value

for each appropriate time period for each
location.

35

Protect yourself from the hazards of smog.

Follow some of the advice given below when
your region is experiencing a high smog day.

Stay indoors in a cool, well-ventilated place.

Calculation of index values for each contaminant

(known as sub-index values) for each
appropriate time interval.

Index values for smog related contaminants are

often used in smog forecasts and the issuing of
smog advisories.

Protecting Your Health

During a High Smog Day

Avoid outdoor strenuous work or exercise.

Conversion of the raw data for all contaminants

to a common scale index values of 25, 50
and 100 related to various standards, air quality
objectives, interpolated and extrapolated values,
and recommended objectives.

This value is the index value for the location

for the appropriate time period.

BOX 4-2

Scientific concerns about the basis for the

National Ambient Air Quality Criteria that
are used to establish numeric values for each
of the contaminants in air quality indices;

Despite the relative success of air quality indices,

concern has been expressed for a number of years
by various groups, including representatives of
industry, environmental groups, health professionals
and government air pollution experts, about
fundamental flaws in the assumptions used in
their calculation.These include:

In June 2001, Environment Canada and Health

Canada began supporting a process to address
the shortcomings of the methodologies used to
calculate and report air quality indices.This was
in response to a call by the Medical Officers
of Health from Toronto and other Ontario
communities, as well as from other agencies
(e.g., Ontario Lung Association) to improve the
AQI so that it better reflected health risks.
Representatives from some of the major
stakeholders both inside and outside

the smog primer

36

government were engaged to improve the state

of Canadian air quality indices. One of the key
drivers for this process was a challenge by the
Hon. David Anderson, the federal Minister of
the Environment, in his speech to the 2001
Toronto Smog Summit. Expressing a shared
commitment by the federal, provincial and
municipal governments to improve air quality,
Minister Anderson asked index stakeholders to
define a path forward to improve the state of
Canadian air quality indices and to report back
on this progress within one year.
Shortly after the smog summit, a group of
stakeholders from across Canada met in Toronto
to deliver a consensus position on a direction to
improve the state of Canadian air quality
indices.The group decided that an index was
needed that would:
Accurately reflect the levels of health risk
associated with the current and forecasted
levels of common air contaminants on an
ongoing basis;
Provide publicly credible information to
allow individuals to protect themselves and
those in their care from the effects of high
air pollution;
Contribute to public information and
understanding of air pollutants, their effects
and the availability of actions to limit these
effects; and,

37

Reflect the total effects of all the major air

pollutants.
To reflect the groups deliberations, Environment
Canada and Health Canada decided to initiate
measures to immediately improve existing
Canadian air quality indices, and at the same time,
to proceed with a long-term plan to develop a
new multi-pollutant, health-risk based index.

Short-term Improvements to Existing

Canadian Air Quality Indices
Several Canadian jurisdictions have already
implemented remedial measures to ensure that
their indices more accurately reflect the effects
of current air pollution levels. Most notable
among the changes that have been suggested or
adopted is the inclusion of fine particulate matter
in several indices, including those used in the
Provinces of Alberta and Ontario, and in the
adoption of a three-hour average time for PM2.5
by the City of Montreal. Ontario, which has based
its index values for fine particulate matter on
the PM2.5 twenty-four hour average numerical
value (30g/m3) that is used within the national
Canada Wide Standards criteria, has also
incorporated new health messages relating to
fine particulate matter that reflect increased
concern over the entire range of values of this
contaminant. It is anticipated that including fine
particulate matter as one of the pollutants in the

chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants

calculation of air pollution indices will make these

indices more reflective of threats to human health.

Proposed Long-term Improvements to

Existing Canadian Air Quality Indices
Since 2001, a variety of stakeholders under the
sponsorship of Health Canada and Environment
Canada have also been engaged in detailed
discussions on producing a new index that
reflects the overall health risk associated with all
types of air pollution. Mathematical models are
being developed to establish the relationships
between air pollution levels and rates of certain
types of illness.Work is also underway to
improve messaging used in association with
Canadian air quality indices, air quality
monitoring networks across the country, and air
quality forecasting techniques used with air
quality indices. It is anticipated that a new index
format will be implemented nationally by the end
of 2005.

Air Quality Advisories

Because of the potential that exists for pollutants,
such as ozone, to affect peoples health, even at
index levels indicating moderate air quality,
several jurisdictions are now combining the
components of their indices with air quality
forecasts.When index levels are expected to rise
above predetermined levels, warnings are issued to
the public, with the advice tailored to the actual
and expected air quality.Warning systems are now
in operation in Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland,
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward
Island and British Columbia.Typical advice to the
public used in connection with smog advisories is
shown in Box 4-3. Governments also recommend
on actions that industry and government
operations can take to try and reduce emissions.
Table 4-1 summarizes the different methods
used to report on current and impending smog
conditions across Canada.

the smog primer

38

Table 4-2 summarizes the different methods used to report on current and impending smog conditions
across Canada.
TABLE 4-1

Alerts, Advisories, Watches and Forecasts

BOX 4-3

Provincial Uses of Air Quality Indices

Air Quality Index Readings

In most urban centres, an Air Quality Index (AQI) reading is issued by the province or
local municipality to provide daily readings on various air pollutants.

Smog Alert (also

referred to as an
Air Quality Advisory)

Federal, provincial and municipal governments issue advisories or alerts in some

smog-prone Canadian communities. These advisories are issued only if high levels of
O3 are expected to occur within the following 24 hours (i.e., a poor index value
reading) or if conditions are currently in the poor range.

Smog Watch

The government of Ontario issues a Smog Watch when there is a predicted 50% chance
that smog conditions will occur within the next three days.

Smog Forecasts

In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, smog forecasts are issued to provide daily information on expected levels of O3, ranging from good to very poor, over a period of 48
hours during the smog season of May to September.

Smog Termination
Notice

In some provinces, including Ontario, a smog termination notice is issued following a smog
advisory when the weather changes and O3 concentrations decrease to the moderate
range levels.

39

chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants

ALBERTA: Public access to index levels, which are

calculated and issued hourly, can be accessed by phoning
780-427-7273 or toll-free by dialing 1-800-310-0000
(within Alberta). AQI values are currently produced for
three stations in both Edmonton and Calgary, and for
Beaverlodge, Fort Saskatchewan and Red Deer. Data can
also be accessed via the Clean Air Strategic Alliance
Web site (www.casadata.org) and from the Weather
Network Web site at www.weathernetwork.ca.
BRITISH COLUMBIA: Outside the Lower Fraser Valley:
Provincial monitors (currently in 55 locations) are polled
hourly and posted directly to the Ministry of Water, Land
and Air Protections Web site (http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/
air/airquality). When hourly levels of the index go above
25 and 50, the computer system automatically issues
email alerts to users who have indicated a wish to be
kept informed. In addition, the Ministry can use the IQUA
to issue air quality advisories, episode alerts and burning
bans. Within the Lower Fraser Valley: Data are collected
every minute from over 25 sites. An index is calculated
and distributed hourly to the public via the Greater
Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) Web site
(www.gvrd.bc.ca) and by telephone at 604-436-6767
or toll free at 1-800-665-1118. In cooperation with its
partners, the GVRD may also issue air quality advisories
when the index is predicted to approach or exceed 50.
All British Columbia index sites are accessible on the
Weather Network Web site at www.weathernetwork.ca.

MANITOBA: Manitoba uses an air quality index, but only at

one station located in Winnipeg. Data from this monitoring
location are reported hourly and are sent to the media as
well as to the weather information channel on local cable
television. Environment Canada reports on Winnipegs air
quality on their weather information telephone line at
204-983-2050. Index values can also be obtained on the
Weather Network Web site at www.weathernetwork.ca.
NEW BRUNSWICK: The Air Quality Index prepared by the
New Brunswick Department of Environment and Local
Government is available for 15 locations in the province.
It is updated three times daily at the Departments Web
site at www.gnb.ca. Hourly updates are available at the
regional Environment Canada Web site www.atl.ec.gc.ca/
airquality, through the Weather Networks Web site at
www.weathernetwork.ca and by way of Environment
Canadas automated weather phone lines for Fredericton
(506-451-6001), Moncton (506-851-6610), Saint John
(506-636-4991), Bathurst (506-548-3220), Miramichi
(506-773-7045), Acadian Peninsula (506-726-5288)
and Edmunston (506-739-1814).
NEWFOUNDLAND: Newfoundland currently does not
provide air quality index readings. However, in 2002 they
became a partner in Atlantic Canadas Smog Prediction
Program (now called Atlantic Canadas Air Quality
Prediction Program). Information on air quality is
available on Environment Canadas Web site at
www.atl.ec.gc.ca/airquality.

the smog primer

40

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES: The NWT does not currently

provide air quality index readings to the public.
NOVA SCOTIA: The Government of Nova Scotia has
produced an air quality index for Halifax-Dartmouth and
Sydney that provides daily smog forecasts, available
twice a day, through the media, including the Weather
Network Web site at www.weathernetwork.ca. Index
values can also be accessed by telephone in Halifax
at 902-424-2775. The Province is a partner in Atlantic
Canadas Smog Prediction Program (now called
Atlantic Canadas Air Quality Prediction Program).
Information on air quality is available on Environment
Canadas Web site at www.atl.ec.gc.ca/airquality.
NUNAVUT: Nunavut does not currently provide air quality
index readings to the public.
ONTARIO: The Ontario Ministry of the Environment
currently calculates and publishes an index for 37 urban
and rural sites in the province, which goes by the name
Air Quality Index (AQI). Historical AQI readings for 3:00 pm
are provided for all reporting sites since January 1, 2003.
During the traditional smog season, May 1 to September 30,
AQI values are released to the media seven times per day
and during the October 1 to April 30 period they are
released at least five times per day. Two-day histories are
also reported for all reporting times. Air quality forecasts
are provided all year round. This data can be accessed
online at www.airqualityontario.com. Air quality readings
can also be accessed through a toll free line at
1-800-387-7768 (English) and 1-800-221-8852
(French), at a local Toronto number at 416-246-0411,

41

and on the Weather Network Web site at

www.weathernetwork.ca.
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND: The PEI Smog Forecast
Program forecasts the concentration of ground-level
ozone, the main component of smog. This forecast is
issued twice daily at 5:00 am and 4:00 pm from the
beginning of May to the end of October. PEI is a
member of Atlantic Canadas Air Quality Prediction
Program. The PEI regional smog forecast can be
accessed through Environment Canadas Web site at
www.atl.ec.gc.ca/airquality.
QUEBEC: Responsibility for air pollution control in
Quebec is split between the Montreal Urban Community
(MUC), which has jurisdiction on the island of Montreal,
and the Quebec government, which is the responsible
authority in the remainder of the province. The smog
forecasting program run by MUC provides air quality
forecasts and can be found at www.rsqa.cum.qc.ca.
Air quality forecasts can be found at
www.qc.ec.gc.ca/atmos/dispersion and smog
advisories can be found from May to September at
http://weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca. To date, in the province
of Quebec, only MUC has developed an air quality index
to provide information on air quality to the public.
SASKATCHEWAN: Saskatchewan does not currently
use the IQUA or any other air quality index.
YUKON: Yukon currently does not provide air quality
index readings to the public.

chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants

Criteria Air
Contaminants Emissions
(CACE) Inventory
Another useful way to obtain data on smog
pollutants in your community is through the
CACE inventory.While the AQI is successful in
conveying information on the actual levels of
smog pollutants in the atmosphere over a certain
area, the CACE inventory conveys data on the
actual emissions of various air pollutants (measured
in tonnes per year) that originate from a
number of sources located across the country.
These sources are organized in categories that
include industrial production, fuel combustion,
transportation vehicles, incineration, paved and
unpaved roads and forest fires, among others.
Every five years, Environment Canada issues a
national inventory of air contaminant emissions
from polluting sources in Canada of the five
common smog pollutants: SOx, NOx,VOCs,
CO and PM.This information is used as a basis
for other air issue programs, including acid rain.
Summary data for provinces and industrial
sectors are available on Environment Canadas
GreenLane Web site, found at www.ec.gc.ca.

National Pollutant
Release Inventory (NPRI)
The NPRI was created in 1992 to provide
Canadians with national, facility-specific
information regarding on-site releases and offsite transfers of polluting substances listed on the
inventory. Companies that manufacture, process
or otherwise use one of the listed substances,
and meet the reporting thresholds, must report
their releases or transfers to Environment
Canada annually.The NPRI provides Canadians
with access to information for specific substances
being released from specific facilities located in
their communities. For example, members of the
public can find out what the power plant or
factory in their neighbourhood emits each year
for a certain pollutant. Almost 2,000 facilities
across Canada report to the NPRI on a yearly
basis. Currently, industry is required to report to
the NPRI on 268 pollutants that are of concern
because of their potential toxic effects to
humans and the environment.
In 2002, as part of an NPRI expansion, polluters
will also be required to report on contaminants
that contribute to smog, namely, SOx, NOx,
VOCs, CO and PM.
The best way to obtain information on releases
of NPRI pollutants nationally, provincially and
at the local community level is through the

the smog primer

42

Environment Canada Web site (www.ec.gc.ca/pdb

/npri/).The site includes all non-confidential
NPRI information and data. In addition, the
Web site allows the user to query the NPRI
database on specific facilities in each of the
reporting years.This interactive querying feature
allows the user to select a specific facility reporting
to the NPRI, a specific geographic area, and the
release of any NPRI-listed pollutant. Data can
also be obtained through the NPRIs published
annual national overview reports, an NPRI data
disk, requests to an NPRI office, or by directly
contacting a reporting facility or industry
association.

43

PollutionWatch
PollutionWatch is an environmental Web-based
information service partnered by the Canadian
Institute for Environmental Law and Policy,
Canadian Environmental Law Association,
Environmental Defence Canada and
Environmental Defense U.S. Located at
www.pollutionwatch.org, the system allows
Canadians to easily access important information
about local polluters. By entering a postal code,
users can learn who is polluting in their
community, the type and quantity of pollution
being released, and the associated health risks.
PollutionWatch also ranks and compares
communities across Canada with regards to
toxic air pollutants emitted in that region. Users
can take immediate action by faxing or e-mailing
a pre-written letter of complaint straight to the
polluters. PollutionWatch data were based on
1999 NPRI data (245 substances) at the time
this primer was published.

chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants

chapter five

Whats Being Done

About Smog?
Canada faces the challenge of reducing harmful emissions while continuing to serve public and private needs in cost-effective ways. The need
for clean air must be addressed by taking action on transportation emissions, industrial emissions and transboundary pollution, and by encouraging emission-reducing behaviour at both the corporate and individual
levels.

the smog primer

46

What are the Federal

and Provincial
Governments Doing
Jointly?
The Canadian Council of Ministers of the
Environment (CCME) is a body composed of
13 provincial/territorial environment ministers
and the federal environment minister. Members
of the Council co-operate on issues such as air
pollution, waste management and toxic chemical
production.The members propose nationally
consistent environmental standards and objectives
for application across the country.The CCME is
responsible for the recent establishment of the
Canada-wide Standards (CWS) for O3 and PM
(Box 5-1). All jurisdictions except Quebec have
committed to meet these new standards (or the
Quebec equivalent standard) by year 2010 or
sooner. A range of actions to reduce emissions
from vehicles, products and industry will be
implemented to meet the standard.

47

chapter five: whats being done about smog?

What is the Government of Canada Doing?

BOX 5-1

CWS for O3 and PM2.5

The basic goal of the Canada-wide Standards
for O3 and PM is to minimize the negative
impact these pollutants have on human health
and the environment. Accordingly, the CWS for
PM is focused on PM2.5 which is recognized
as having the greatest effect on human
health. The agreed-upon standards for the two
pollutants are shown in the chart below:

Pollutant

Averaging
Time

Target to be
attained by 2010

O3

8 hours

65 ppb

PM2.5

24 hours

30 g/m3

Over the past four years, the federal govenment

has passed several new regulations to reduce air
pollution from tailpipe emissions, including
reducing the level of sulphur in both diesel fuel
and gasoline, and reducing the level of benzene
in gasoline. In 2000, Environment Canada also
announced a national program that involves taking immediate and long-term action to reduce
pollutants that contribute to smog, and declared
PM to be toxic under the new Canadian
Environmental Protection Act (CEPA 1999). In
2001, Environment Canada announced a 10year regulatory plan for cleaner vehicles and
fuels, initial measures to reduce smog-causing
emissions from industrial sectors, improvements
to the cross-country network of pollutant monitoring stations, and expansion of public reporting
by industry of pollutant releases.To complement
this plan, the federal government recently
announced an action plan called Interim Plan
2001 on Particulate Matter and Ozone, which
includes actions under way or contemplated to
reduce emissions of pollutants that contribute to
the formation of PM and O3. For example, current regulated vehicle standards will be replaced
by new standards that will further reduce NOx
emissions by approximately 88% from passenger
cars and up to 95% from light-duty trucks,
including SUVs. New regulations are expected

to be introduced to reduce sulphur in on-road

diesel fuel to 15 ppm starting June 1, 2006.
As an active participant in global efforts to control transboundary air pollution, Canada has
signed international protocols to reduce SO2
emissions and stabilize NOx emissions. Canada
has also signed an agreement with the United
States that will reduce air pollution flows from
the United States and thus improve air quality
and the health of Canadians living in downwind
areas in eastern Canada. It also commits to
reducing flows of pollution from areas in
Ontario and Quebec into the United States.

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48

What are Provincial Governments Doing?

Provincial governments across Canada have a
variety of air quality initiatives in place, including
implementation of vehicle inspection and maintenance (l&M) programs, emissions caps for
industrial polluters and various public information and education programs. Below are a few
examples of provincial clean air initiatives that
are taking place across Canada. For further
research on what specific provinces are doing to
combat smog, contact the provincial environment ministry directly (see Box 5-2).
British Columbia and Ontario have implemented
mandatory I&M programs for specified parts of
the provinces that identify polluting vehicles,
with the goal of having them repaired to reduce
smog-causing emissions. In its first two years, the
Ontario Ministry of the Environment claims
that its I&M program Drive Clean reduced
NOx and VOCs from vehicle emissions in the
Toronto and Hamilton areas by 11.5 per cent.
Drive Clean was expanded in May 2002 beyond
southern Ontario to include other cities, such as
Ottawa and Cornwall. British Columbias I&M
program, known as AirCare, requires light duty
vehicles to undergo emissions tests. If they fail
the test, the vehicles must be repaired. AirCare
was the first vehicle I&M program implemented
in Canada. In its first seven years of operation
(19921999) the program found one in three
vehicles to be faulty and in need of repair. Repair-

49

chapter five: whats being done about smog?

ing polluting vehicles has resulted in a 30% reduction in total vehicle emissions.
The Province of Quebec, through the Association
qubcoise de lutte contre la pollution atmosphrique (AQLPA), announced an Action Plan on
Climate Change, which included a commitment
to introduce an I&M program by the spring of
2002.This program, however, had not been
implemented at the time of publishing this primer.
The Ontario governments Smog Patrol is an
on-road campaign that targets grossly polluting
vehicles on Ontarios streets and highways. During
on-road inspections, Smog Patrol officers work
with local enforcement agencies to spot, test and
ticket vehicles that do not comply with regulations
on exhaust emissions.The Smog Patrol also raises public awareness that driving a vehicle with a
properly tuned engine helps to combat smog.
The Clean Air Program for Industry is a program
proposed by the Ontario government to ensure
that industrial sectors make their fair share contribution to reducing provincial air pollutants
that cause smog and acid rain. Proposals call for
the introduction of NOx and SO2 caps for
major industrial emitters, including such sectors
as pulp and paper, cement, concrete, iron and
steel, petroleum refineries, chemicals and nonferrous smelters.

BOX 5-2

Canadian Federal/Provincial Environmental Departments/Ministries

Canada
Environment Canada
27th floor, 10 Wellington Street
Terrasses de la Chaudire
Hull QC K1A 0H3
phone (819) 997-4203
fax (819) 953-6897
Web: www.ec.gc.ca/
Alberta
Department of Environment
9915-108th Street, 10th floor
Edmonton AB T5K 2G8
phone (780) 427-6236
fax (780) 427-0923
Web: www.gov.ab.ca/env/
British Columbia
Ministry of Water, Land and Air
Protection
2975 Jutland Road, 5th floor
Victoria BC V8T 5J9
P.O. Box 9339 Stn. Prov. Govt.
Victoria BC V8W 9M1
phone (250) 387-5429
fax (250) 387-6003
Web: www.gov.bc.ca/wlap
Manitoba
Department of Conservation
Room 327, Legislative Building
450 Broadway
Winnipeg MB R3C 0V8
phone (204) 945-3785
fax (204) 945-2403
Web: www.gov.mb.ca/environ/

New Brunswick
Department of Environment and
Local Government
20 McGloin Street, Marysville Place
P.O. Box 6000
Fredericton, NB E2A 5T8
phone (506) 453-3095
fax (506) 453-3377
Web: www.gnb.ca/0009/index.htm

Nova Scotia
Department of Environment and
Labour
6th floor, 5151 Terminal Road
P.O. Box 2107
Halifax NS B3J 2T8
phone (902) 424-4148
fax (902) 425-0575
Web: www.gov.ns.ca/enla/

Newfoundland and Labrador

Department of Environment
4th floor, Confederation Building,
West Block
P.O. Box 8700
St. John's NF A1B 4J6
phone (709) 729-2572
fax (709) 729-0112
Web: www.gov.nf.ca/env/

Nunavut
Department of Sustainable
Development
Brown Building
P.O. Box 1340
Iqaluit, NT X0A 0H0
phone (867) 975-5922
fax (867) 975-5980
Web: www.gov.nu.ca/sd.htm

Northwest Territories
Department of Resources, Wildlife
and Economic Development
Suite 600, 5102-50th Avenue
P.O. Box 1320
Yellowknife NT X1A 3S8
phone (867) 920-8048
fax (867) 873-0563
Web: www.rwed.gov.nt.ca

Ontario
Ministry of the Environment and
Energy
12th floor, 135 St. Clair Avenue West
Toronto ON M4V 1P5
phone (416) 314-6753
fax (416) 314-6791
Web: www.ene.gov.on.ca/
Prince Edward Island
Department of Fisheries,
Aquaculture and Environment
P.O. Box 2000
11 Kent Street, 4th floor
Charlottetown PE C1A 7N8
phone (902) 368-5340
fax (902) 368-6488
Web: www.gov.pe.ca/te/index.asp

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50

Canadian Federal/Provincial Environmental Department/Ministries:, contd

Quebec
Department of Environment
675, boul. Ren-Lvesque est
difice Marie Guyart, 30e tage
Qubec QC G1R 5V7
phone (418) 521-3860
fax (418) 643-3619
Web: www.menv.gouv.qc.ca/

Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan Environment
3211 Albert Street, Room 524
Regina SK S4S 5W6
phone (306) 787-2930
fax (306) 787-2947
Web: www.serm.gov.sk.ca/

Yukon
Department of Renewable Resources
10 Burns Road
P.O. Box 2703
Whitehorse YT Y1A 2C6
phone (867) 667-5460
fax (867) 393-6213
Web: www.environmentyukon.gov.
yk.ca

What are Municipal Governments Doing?

Municipal governments can play a key role in
fighting smog. Local and regional governments
usually regulate issues such as land use planning,
parking and traffic by-laws, building codes and
public transit.They also directly control a significant number of cars and trucks in their municipal fleet. If these areas are regulated wisely with
appropriate by-laws, then smog emission reductions can be substantial. It is estimated that, with
fleet and energy conservation initiatives alone,
municipal governments can reduce smog-causing
emissions by between 10 and 20% by 2005.
Many municipalities across Canada have
developed strategies and plans to combat air
pollution, most of them designed to increase
the use of public transit and cycling, and
decrease reliance on automobiles.

51

chapter five: whats being done about smog?

For example, in Toronto, Ontario where

smog is estimated to cause the premature deaths
of approximately 1,000 people yearly the
City of Toronto has designed a Smog Alert
Response Plan, which requires a reduction or
suspension of activities that contribute to poor
air quality when smog levels are unacceptable. It
also provides educational materials for distribution by staff serving at-risk populations, such
as children and seniors, so that these groups can
learn about smog, its effects on health and the
precautions they should take on Smog Alert Days.

essential gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles,

minimizing vehicle idling, reducing the use of
oil-based paints, solvents and cleaners, postponing the use of gasoline-powered equipment,
suspending the use of pesticides and postponing
refuelling of vehicles until dark. City staff in
general are advised to take public transit or walk
to work on days that smog alerts have been
issued.
In May of 2002, the Toronto Public Health
Department unveiled a social marketing campaign called 20/20 The Way to Clean Air,
which will promote community-based actions
that can be taken by governments, businesses
and the public to combat air pollution and
climate change in the Greater Toronto Area.
The programs goal is to reduce home energy
consumption and the number of personal
vehicle kilometers traveled by 20 per cent for
each participating household and collectively
across the Greater Toronto Area.

What is Industry Doing?

As with municipalities, there are many initiatives
being taken by various companies and industry
sectors. More information can be obtained by
contacting industry associations, such as the
Canadian Chemical Producers Association
(www.ccpa.ca), the Canadian Vehicle ManufacturersAssociation (www.cvma.ca) and the Canadian
Petroleum Products Institute (www.cppi.ca).

Many other municipalities across Canada have

active smog reduction initiatives and work in
partnership with a range of public interest groups
on cooperative projects. More information is
available by contacting local municipalities and
public health authorities.

The City of Torontos Corporate Smog Alert

Response Plan requires special actions to be
taken by City departments on Smog Alert Days.
These actions include reducing the use of non-

the smog primer

52

chapter six

What You Can Do

To Reduce Smog
A large amount of air pollution comes from power plants, industrial
sources and motor vehicles. The choices that individuals make every day
either increase or decrease air pollution from these sources and thereby threaten or protect their own health. Individuals have the power to
change their home, transportation and consumer habits to help reduce
air pollution. By taking action, everyone can play a part in making Canadas
air cleaner.

the smog primer

54

Getting Around
Transportation is one of the biggest contributors
to smog.When, where, how, why and what you
drive all play important roles in affecting air
quality. Here are some suggestions on how to be
more environmentally friendly when you need
to get somewhere.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Drive less, especially during
peak traffic periods or on hot sunny days.
Why? Auto emissions contribute directly to
smog. In Canada, cars account for 19% of the
nitrogen oxides (NOx), 37% of the CO and
23% of the volatile organic compounds
(e.g., benzene) released each year as a result of
human activity.
Did you know? On average, each one of the 16
million cars and light trucks on Canadas roads
adds more than 5 tonnes of pollutants annually
to the air we breathe.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Use public transportation
instead of your car. Walk or ride your bicycle.
(But be careful about over-exerting yourself on a
smoggy day.)

nearly a tonne of pollutants, including CO2,

from going into the atmosphere.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Carpool to work.
Why? Carpooling with one other person immediately halves your cars emissions.
Did you know? On average, a carpool saves 2,000
litres of gasoline each year.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Use an alternative fuel.
Why? Alternative fuels have fewer impurities
than gasoline and produce less CO and other
emissions that contribute to smog formation.

WHAT YOU CAN DO: Keep your vehicles tires

properly inflated.

Did you know? More than 30,000 vehicles operate on natural gas in Canada.There are nearly
one million natural gas vehicles worldwide, and
the market is growing.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Avoid idling. If you are going
to be stopped for 10 seconds or more, except in
traffic, turn your car engine off.

Why? One car commuter uses as much energy

driving a car for four years as a transit rider uses
in 40 years.
Did you know? Each person using public transit
for a year instead of an automobile can save

Did you know? Just 10 seconds of idling uses

more fuel than restarting your engine.

chapter six: what you can do to reduce smog

Why? If all drivers maintained their cars regularly,

together we could reduce NOx by 12% and
VOCs by 30%. Ontario has set a goal of
reducing these two pollutants by 45% from
1990 levels by the year 2015, and has proposed
accelerating the NOx target to 2010.
Did you know? Keeping your car well-tuned not
only helps the environment, it also saves you
money.You can save an average of $90 in fuel
costs a year by maintaining your vehicle.

Why? It has been estimated that 3% of Ontarios

fuel is wasted by idling. An idling diesel engine
will burn about 2.5 litres of fuel per hour. An
idling gasoline engine will burn about 3.5 litres
of fuel per hour.

55

WHAT YOU CAN DO: Get engine tune-ups and car

maintenance checks as advised by the car manufacturers maintenance schedule.

Why? Inflated tires cut down on drag, thereby

saving on fuel and harmful emissions.
Did you know? Just one tire under-inflated by
two pounds per square inch will result in a 1%
increase in fuel consumption.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Fill your gas tank during cooler
evening hours to cut down on evaporation. Avoid
spilling gas and dont top up" the tank. Replace
the gas tank cap tightly.

Did you know? Vapours from evaporating gasoline

(those wavy lines that appear in the air while
you are filling the tank) can account for twothirds of the VOC emissions from gasolinefuelled vehicles on hot summer days.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Consider fuel efficiency when
purchasing a vehicle, and keep your vehicle well
maintained. Check out the Auto$mart Web site
(http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/vehicles/) to find out
which vehicles are most fuel efficient.
Why? A large car that burns 14 litres of gasoline
to travel 100 km will emit 60 tonnes of CO2
during its lifetime. A typical smaller car that
burns 9 litres every 100 km will emit only 38
tonnes of CO2 over the same total distance. By
choosing the more fuel-efficient car, you can
save 22 tonnes of CO2 from entering the environment.The savings in fuel is about 8,800
litres, which translates into approximately $4,500.
Did you know? In 1990, North American sales of
SUVs barely topped one million, but by 1995
sales had reached 1.7 million, and by 1999 three
million of these heavy, less fuel-efficient trucks
had been sold.

Why? Smog-related emissions dont just come

from the tailpipe. Evaporation of gasoline from
filling up the gas tank releases smog-causing
VOCs into the air. Spillage is a major source of
O3 pollution.

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56

At Home
What you do inside your living space can have a
big effect on the air quality outside it. Here are
some choices you can make inside and around
your home that will help you pollute less and
save some money.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Be energy efficient. Monitor
your energy use and try to reduce your consumption by turning off lights, updating some of your
household appliances and products to low-energy
models, and using your air conditioner wisely during the summer months. If you live in the Toronto
area, Green$aver a residential energy audit and
retrofit organization will come to your house
and conduct an energy audit to test your home for
energy efficiency. For details, call their office at
(416) 203-3106.
Why? A large proportion of the Canadian energy
supply comes from burning fossil fuels, a major
contributor to smog. By cutting down your
electricity use, you are cutting down on smog.
Did you know? Energy-efficient, compact fluorescent light bulbs require less energy and last 10
times longer than regular bulbs.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Purchase green power to
meet your homes electricity needs. (Contact your
power supplier to see where and if it is available.)
For more information about renewable energy, see

57

chapter six: what you can do to reduce smog

Pollution Probes Renewable Energy Primer at

www.pollutionprobe.org.
Why? Green power is energy that is generated
from renewable sources, such as water, solar
energy and wind. Green power does not create
harmful smog emissions.
Did you know? On Canadas largest wind farm,
Le Nordais on the Gasp Peninsula, 133 wind
turbines harness energy from the powerful
winds off the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Reduce your outdoor use of
VOC-releasing products such as oil-based paints,
lawn pesticides, car cleaning solvents and waxes.
Why? These products dry through evaporation of
the contained solvent, releasing strong-smelling
VOCs, which contribute to smog formation.
Did you know? By 2010, solvent use in Ontario
will contribute more than twice the amount of
VOCs than from all transportation, which
includes cars, trucks, aircraft and marine vehicles.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Keep woodstoves and fireplaces well maintained. If choosing one for your
home, select a woodstove that comes equipped
with an anti-pollution device.

One way to minimize emissions from wood

burning is to maintain a healthy fire. A chimney
temperature of 150200C is considered to be
optimum for combustion.
Did you know? Dark or smelly smoke rising from
a chimney is an indication that the fire is not hot
enough and is releasing large quantities of emissions.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Cut down on the use of small
engine motors. These engines, which usually run
on gasoline, are used primarily in lawn and garden
equipment, such as lawnmowers, leaf blowers,
chain saws, and lawn and garden tractors.
Why? Small engines at or below 19 kW (25 hp)
contribute about 20% of VOC emissions and
23% of CO emissions from mobile sources.
Did you know? Manual push mowers available
today are lightweight, at only 714 kg, versus
the 2030 kg models of the past, and feature
metal handles instead of wood. Ideal for cutting
small lawns, they are quiet, store easily and
require no fuel.

Did you know? Backyard trees may result in up

to a 40% reduction in air conditioning needs, a
10% reduction in heating needs and a decrease
in ambient air temperatures of up to 4C.

At Work
Business and industry can also be leaders in the
effort to ensure cleaner air. Read Pollution
Probes S.M.A.R.T. Movement manual at
www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Air.htm for
ideas on how to implement some of the following suggestions at a workplace.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Promote telecommuting to
employees. Also known as teleworking, telecommuting is when employees work from remote
locations, usually from home.

WHAT YOU CAN DO: Plant deciduous trees in

locations around your home to provide shade in
the summer, but to allow light in the winter.

Why? If one million Canadians telecommuted

just one day per week, in one year they would
save approximately 200,000 tonnes of air pollutants, $34 million worth of fuel costs and one
billion kilometres of mileage, avoid the gridlock
of an extra million cars on the road, and free up
50 million hours that could otherwise be spent
with family and friends.

Why? Properly sited trees reduce home air conditioning and winter heating needs considerably
by providing shade and windbreak.

Did you know? More than 1.5 million Canadians,

or 10.7% of the workforce, perform their jobs
by telecommuting at least some of the time.

Why? The burning of residential fuel wood is a

significant source of air pollution in Canada.

the smog primer

58

WHAT YOU CAN DO: Remove parking subsidies and

add parking fees to your workplace parking lot.
Why? Single-passenger driving can be reduced by
as much as 30% by removing parking subsidies
or charging for parking where it used to be free.
Did you know? Parking lots are expensive.
Depending on where an office is located,
employers can save between $30,000 and
$200,000 annually by eliminating 50 employee
parking spots.

WHAT YOU CAN DO: Encourage cycling at your

workplace by providing shower facilities and
bicycle storage for employees.
Why? Making cycling to work as convenient as
possible will increase peoples desire to switch
from driving alone in their motorized vehicles.
Did you know? The average cost to manufacture
and install a post-and-ring bike stand accommodating two bikes is only $125.The cost for a
high-security bike locker is only $1,000.

WHAT YOU CAN DO: Encourage and facilitate carpooling at your workplace.
Why? When more employees carpool, fewer
parking spots are needed, freeing up valuable
land space.
Did you know? Twenty per cent of Toronto
Hydro employees joined a carpool program after
the utility offered them guaranteed indoor carpool parking and reduced their parking rate.

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chapter six: what you can do to reduce smog

the smog primer

56

References
American Lung Association. 1996. Health
Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution. New York.

Environment Canada. 2001. Providing Cleaner

Air to Canadians. Ottawa.

Pollution Probe. 2001. Air Quality Indices:

A Review. Toronto.

Burnett, R.T., et al., The Effect of the Urban

Ambient Air Pollution Mix on Daily Mortality
Rates in 11 Canadian Cities, Canadian Journal
of Public Health 89.3 (MayJune 1998): pp.
152156.

Government of Canada. 2001. Interim Plan 2001

on Particulate Matter and Ozone. Ottawa.

Pollution Probe. 2001. SMART Movement: Save

Money and the Air by Reducing Trips. Toronto.

Health Canada. 1997. Health and the

Environment. Ottawa.
Health Canada. 2001. Its Your Health: Smog
and Your Health. Ottawa.

Statistics Canada. 2000. Human Activity and

the Environment. Ottawa.

City of Toronto. 1998. Smog: Make it or Break it.

Toronto.
City of Toronto Public Health. 2000. Torontos
Air: Lets Make It Healthy. Toronto.
City of Toronto Public Health. 2001. Condition
Critical: Fixing our Smog Warning System.
Toronto.
City of Toronto Public Health. 2002. Potential
for Occupational and Environmental Exposure to
Ten Carcinogens in Toronto. Toronto.
www.city.toronto.on.ca/health/cr_index.htm

New Brunswick Department of the Environment

and Local Government. An Introduction to Air
Quality in New Brunswick. St. John.
Ontario Government. 1995. Ontarios Air Quality
Index. Toronto.
Ontario Government. 1999. Smog Alert: A
Municipal Response Guide. Toronto.
Ontario Medical Association. 1998. Health
Effects of Ground-Level Ozone, Acid Aerosols
and Particulate Matter. Toronto.

David Suzuki Foundation. 1998. Taking Our

Breath Away: The Health Effects of Air Pollution
and Climate Change. Vancouver.

Ontario Medical Association. 2001. Ontarios Air:

Years of Stagnation. Toronto.

Environment Canada. 1996. Guideline for the

Index of the Quality of the Air. Ottawa.

Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 2000. Air

Quality in Ontario. Toronto.

Environment Canada. 1998. Ambient Particulate

Matter: An Overview. Ottawa.

Pollution Probe. 1996. Clearing the Air:

Transportation, Air Quality and Human Health
Conference. Toronto.

Environment Canada. 1999. Smog Fact Sheet.

Ottawa.

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references

the smog primer

62

Useful Web sites

Canadian Council of Ministers of the
Environment
www.ccme.ca

Ontario Medical Association

Environmental Health
www.oma.org/phealth/health.htm

Canadian Lung Association CANDO Campaign

www.lung.ca/cando/

Ontario Ministry of the Environment

Air Quality
www.airqualityontario.com

City of Toronto Public Health and Smog

www.city.toronto.on.ca/health/smog/index.htm
Environment Canada
Regional Air Quality Information
www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/aq_smog/index_e.cfm
Environment Canada Clean Air Site
www.ec.gc.ca/air/
Environmental Law Center
University of Victoria, B.C.
www.cleanair.ca
Health Canada Health and Air Quality
www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/air_quality/index.htm
National Air Pollution Surveillance Network
www.etcentre.org/naps/
National Pollutant Release Inventory
www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/
Ontario Clean Air Alliance
www.cleanairalliance.org

63

useful web sites

Pollution Probe
www.pollutionprobe.org
PollutionWatch
www.pollutionwatch.org
United States Environmental
Protection Agency (U.S. EPA)
www.epa.gov/airnow/