Chapter 10: Superconductivity

Bardeen, Cooper, & Schrieffer

May 9, 2001

Contents
1 Introduction

1.1

Evidence of a Phase Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Meissner Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The London Equations

3 Cooper Pairing

10

3.1

The Retarded Pairing Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

3.2

Scattering of Cooper Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

3.3

The Cooper Instability of the Fermi Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

4 The BCS Ground State

17

4.1

The Energy of the BCS Ground State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

4.2

The BCS Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

Consequences of BCS and Experiment

28

5.1

Specific Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

5.2

Microwave Absorption and Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

5.3

The Isotope Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

BCS Superconducting Phenomenology

32

Coherence of the Superconductor Meisner effects

37

Quantization of Magnetic Flux

41

9 Tunnel Junctions

43

Introduction

From what we have learned about transport, we know that there

is no such thing as an ideal ( = 0) conventional conductor.
All materials have defects and phonons (and to a lessor degree
of importance, electron-electron interactions). As a result, from
our basic understanding of metallic conduction must be finite,
even at T = 0. Nevertheless many superconductors, for which
= 0, exist. The first one Hg was discovered by Onnes in
1911. It becomes superconducting for T < 4.2K. Clearly this
superconducting state must be fundamentally different than the
normal metallic state. Ie., the superconducting state must
be a different phase, separated by a phase transition, from the
normal state.
1.1

Evidence of a Phase Transition

Evidence of the phase transition can be seen in the specific heat

(See Fig. 1). The jump in the superconducting specific heat Cs
indicates that there is a phase transition without a latent heat
3

C (J/molK)

Cn T
CS

Figure 1: The specific heat of a superconductor CS and and normal metal Cn . Below
the transition, the superconductor specific heat shows activated behavior, as if there is
a minimum energy for thermal excitations.

(i.e. the transition is continuous or second order). Furthermore,

the activated nature of C for T < Tc
Cs e

(1)

gives us a clue to the nature of the superconducting state. It is

as if excitations require a minimum energy .
1.2

Meissner Effect

There is another, much more fundamental characteristic which

distinguishes the superconductor from a normal, but ideal, con4

ductor. The superconductor expels magnetic flux, ie., B = 0

within the bulk of a superconductor. This is fundamentally dif = 0 since for any
ferent than an ideal conductor, for which B
closed path
Superconductor

S
C

Figure 2: A closed path and the surface it contains within a superconductor.

0 = IR = V =

1 Z B
E dl = S E dS = S
dS , (2)
c
t
Z

or, since S and C are arbitrary

1
=0
S B
0= B
c

(3)

Thus, for an ideal conductor, it matters if it is field cooled or

zero field cooled. Where as for a superconductor, regardless
of the external field and its history, if T < Tc, then B = 0
inside the bulk. This effect, which uniquely distinguishes an
5

Ideal Conductor
Zero-Field Cooled

Field Cooled

T > Tc

T > Tc

B=0

B0

T < Tc
B=0

T < Tc
B0

T<T

T < Tc

B0

B=0

Figure 3: For an ideal conductor, flux penetration in the ground state depends on
whether the sample was cooled in a field through the transition.

ideal conductor from a superconductor, is called the Meissner

effect.
For this reason a superconductor is an ideal diamagnet. I.e.

B = H = 0 = 0

M = H =
6

1
H
4

(4)

1
(5)
4
Ie., the measured , Fig. 4, in a superconducting metal is very
SC =

large and negative (diamagnetic). This can also be interpreted

Tc

Pauli

D(E )
F

js

-1
4

Figure 4: LEFT: A sketch of the magnetic susceptibility versus temperature of a superconductor. RIGHT: Surface currents on a superconductor are induced to expel the
external flux. The diamagnetic response of a superconductor is orders of magnitude
larger than the Pauli paramagnetic response of the normal metal at T > T C

as the presence of persistent surface currents which maintain a

magnetization of
1
H
(6)
4 ext
in the interior of the superconductor in a direction opposite
M=

to the applied field. The energy associated with this currents

7

increases with Hext . At some point it is then more favorable

(ie., a lower free energy is obtained) if the system returns to a
normal metallic state and these screening currents abate. Thus
there exists an upper critical field Hc
H
Normal
Hc
S.C.
Tc

Figure 5: Superconductivity is destroyed by either raising the temperature or by applying a magnetic field.

The London Equations

London and London derived a phenomenological theory of superconductivity which correctly describes the Meissner effect.
They assumed that the electrons move in a frictionless state, so
that
8

mv = eE
or, since

j
t

(7)

= ensv,

js e2ns
=
E
(First London Eqn.)
t
m
Then, using the Maxwell equation
E =
or

m
1 B
js 1 B

+
=0

c t
ns e 2
t c t

(8)

(9)

m
1
B =0
(10)

j
+
s
t nse2
c
This described the behavior of an ideal conductor (for which
= 0), but not the Meissner effect. To describe this, the
constant of integration must be chosen to be zero. Then
ns e 2
B
js =
mc
or defining L =

m
,
ns e 2

(Second London Eqn.)

(11)

the London Equations become

B
= L js
c

E = L

js
t

(12)

If we now apply the Maxwell equation H =

4
c j

4
c j

B =

then we get
( B) =

4
4
j = 2 B
c
c L

(13)

and
4
1
B= 2 j
(14)
L c
c L
or since B = 0, j = 1c
t = 0 and ( a) =
( j) =

( a) 2a we get
2 B

4
B=0
c2 L

2 j

4
j=0
c2 L

(15)

x
SC
^

j Bzx

Bx
z

Figure 6: A superconducting slab in an external field. The field penetrates into the
slab a distance L =

mc2
.
4ne2

10

Now consider a the superconductor in an external field shown

in Fig. 6. The field is only in the x-direction, and can vary in
space only in the z-direction, then since B =

4
c j,

the

current is in the y-direction, so

2Bx 4
2 Bx = 0
z 2
c L

2jsy
4
jsy = 0

z 2
c2 L

(16)

with the solutions

Bx =
L =
3

c 2 L
4

B0xe L

mc2
4ne2

jsy = jsy e

(17)

is the penetration depth.

Cooper Pairing

The superconducting state is fundamentally different than any

possible normal metallic state (ie a perfect metal at T = 0).
Thus, the transition from the normal metal state to the superconducting state must be a phase transition. A phase transition
is accompanied by an instability of the normal state. Cooper
first quantified this instability as due to a small attractive(!?)
interaction between two electrons above the Fermi surface.
11

3.1

The Retarded Pairing Potential

The attraction comes from the exchange of phonons. The lat-

e-

e-

+
8

vF 10 cm/s

+
+

ions
+

region of
positive charge
attracts a second
electron

Figure 7: Origin of the retarded attractive potential. Electrons at the Fermi surface
travel with a high velocity vF . As they pass through the lattice (left), the positive ions
respond slowly. By the time they have reached their maximum excursion, the first
electron is far away, leaving behind a region of positive charge which attracts a second
electron.

tice deforms slowly in the time scale of the electron. It reaches

its maximum deformation at a time

2
D

1013 s after the

electron has passed. In this time the first electron has traveled

13
vF 108 cm

10
s

1000
. The positive charge of
A
s
the lattice deformation can then attract another electron without feeling the Coulomb repulsion of the first electron. Due
to retardation, the electron-electron Coulomb repulsion may be
neglected!
12

The net effect of the phonons is then to create an attractive interaction which tends to pair time-reversed quasiparticle
states. They form an antisymmetric spin singlet so that the
k

1000

e
- k

Figure 8: To take full advantage of the attractive potential illustrated in Fig. 7, the
spatial part of the electronic pair wave function is symmetric and hence nodeless. To
obey the Pauli principle, the spin part must then be antisymmetric or a singlet.

spatial part of the wave function can be symmetric and nodeless

and so take advantage of the attractive interaction. Furthermore they tend to pair in a zero center of mass (cm) state so
that the two electrons can chase each other around the lattice.
3.2

Scattering of Cooper Pairs

This latter point may be quantified a bit better by considering

two electrons above a filled Fermi sphere. These two electrons
13

are attracted by the exchange of phonons. However, the maximum energy which may be exchanged in this way is h
D .
Thus the scattering in phase space is restricted to a narrow
shell of energy width h
D .

Furthermore, the momentum in

k1

Ek k

k1

k1

k2

k2

Figure 9: Pair states scattered by the exchange of phonons are restricted to a narrow
scattering shell of width h
D around the Fermi surface.

this scattering process is also conserved

k1 + k2 = k01 + k02 = K

(18)

Thus the scattering of k1 and k2 into k01 and k02 is restricted to

the overlap of the two scattering shells, Clearly this is negligible
unless K 0. Thus the interaction is strongest (most likely)
if k1 = k2 and 1 = 2; ie., pairing is primarily between
14

time-reversed eigenstates.
scattering shell
k1

-k

Figure 10: If the pair has a finite center of mass momentum, so that k1 + k2 = K,
then there are few states which it can scatter into through the exchange of a phonon.

3.3

The Cooper Instability of the Fermi Sea

Now consider these two electrons above the Fermi surface. They
will obey the Schroedinger equation.
h
2 2
(1 + 22)(r1r2) + V (r1r2)(r1r2) = ( + 2EF )(r1r2)
2m
(19)
If V = 0, then = 0, and
V =0 =

1 ik1r1 1 ik2r2
1 ik(r1r2)
e
e
=
e
,
L3/2
L3/2
L3

15

(20)

where we assume that k1 = k2 = k. For small V, we will

perturb around the V = 0 state, so that
(r1r2) =

1 X
ik(r1 r2 )
g(k)e
L3 k

(21)

The sum must be restricted so that

h
2 k2
< EF + h
D
EF <
2m

(22)

this may be imposed by g(k), since |g(k)|2 is the probability of

finding an electron in a state k and the other in k. Thus we
take
g(k) = 0 for

k < kF

2m(EF +hD )

k >
h

(23)

The Schroedinger equations may be converted to a k-space

equation by multiplying it by
1 Z 3 ik0 r
dre
S.E.
L3

(24)

h
2k2
1 X
g(k) + 3 g(k0)Vkk0 = ( + 2EF )g(k)
m
L k0

(25)

so that

where
Vkk0 =

V (r)ei(k
16

k0 )r 3

dr

(26)

now describes the scattering from (k, k) to (k0, k0). It is

usually approximated as a constant for all k and k0 which obey
the Pauli-principle and scattering shell restrictions

so

Vkk0 =

2
2 k0
h
2 k2 h
2m , 2m

V0

EF <

otherwise

< EF + h
D

2 k2
V0 X
h

g(k) =
g(k0) A
+ + 2EF
3
m
L k0

(27)

(28)

or
g(k) =

2 2
h mk

+ + 2EF

(i.e. for EF <

h
2 k2
2m

< EF + h
D )
(29)

Summing over k

or

A
V0 X
= +A
L3 k h 2k2 2EF
m

(30)

1
V0 X
(31)
L3 k h 2k2 2EF
m
This may be converted to a density of states integral on E =
1=

h
2 k2
2m

17

dE
EF
2E 2EF

2
h

1
D

1 = V0Z(EF ) ln
2

1 = V0

Z E +
F hD

Z(EF )

2hD
2/(V0 Z(EF ))
'
2
h

e
< 0,
D
1 e2/(V0 Z(EF ))

The BCS Ground State

(32)
(33)
as

V0
0
EF
(34)

In the preceding section, we saw that the weak phonon-mediated

attractive interaction was sufficient to destabilize the Fermi sea,
and promote the formation of a Cooper pair (k , k ). The
scattering
(k , k ) (k0 , k0 )

(35)

yields an energy V0 if k and k0 are in the scattering shell EF <

D . Many electrons can participate in this
Ek , E k0 < E F + h
process and many Cooper pairs are formed, yielding a new state
(phase) of the system. The energy of this new state is not just
18

N
2

less than that of the old state, since the Fermi surface is

renormalized by the formation of each Cooper pair.

4.1

The Energy of the BCS Ground State

Of course, to study the thermodynamics of this new phase, it is

necessary to determine its energy. It will have both kinetic and
potential contributions. Since pairing only occurs for electrons
above the Fermi surface, the kinetic energy actually increases:
if wk is the probability that a pair state (k , k ) is occupied
then

h
2 k2
Ekin = 2 wk k ,
k =
EF
(36)
2m
k
The potential energy requires a bit more thought. It may be
X

written in terms of annihilation and creation operators for the

pair states labeled by k
|1ik

(k , k )occupied

(37)

|0ik

(k , k )unoccupied

(38)

or
|k i = uk |0ik + vk |1ik
19

(39)

where vk2 = wk and u2k = 1 wk . Then the BCS state, which

is a collection of these pairs, may be written as
Y

|BCS i '

{uk |0ik + vk |1ik } .

(40)

We will assume that uk , vk <. Physically this amounts to

taking the phase of the order parameter to be zero (or ), so
that it is real. However the validity of this assumption can only
be verified for a more microscopically based theory.
By the Pauli principle, the state (k , k ) can be, at most,

singly occupied, thus a (s = 21 ) Pauli representation is possible

Where

k+

and

|1ik =

k,

1
0

|0ik =

0
1

(41)
k

describe the creation and anhialation of the

state (k , k )

0 1

k+ = 12 (k1 + ik2 ) =

(42)

(43)

0 0

0 0

Of course

k+

k = 12 (k1 ik2 ) =

0
1

=
k

k+ |1ik =

1 0

1
0

k+ |0ik =
20

|1ik

(44)

k |1ik = |0ik

k+ |0ik = 0

(45)

The process (k , k ) (k0 , k0 ), if allowed, is

associated with an energy reduction V0. In our Pauli matrix
representation this process is represented by operators k+0 k,
so
V =

V0 X +
0
L3 kk0 k k

(Note that this is Hermitian)

(46)

Thus the reduction of the potential energy is given by hBCS |V | BCS i

V 0 Y
X
3 (up h0| + vp h1|) k+k0
L p
kk0

hBCS |V | BCS i =

p0

up0 |0ip0 + vp0 |1ip0

(47)

Then as k h1|1ik0 = kk0 , k h0|0ik0 = kk0 and k h0|1ik0 = 0

hBCS |V | BCS i =

V0 X
vk u k 0 u k vk 0
L3 kk0

(48)

Thus, the total energy (kinetic plus potential) of the system of

Cooper pairs is
WBCS = 2

vk2 k

V0 X
vk u k 0 u k vk 0
L3 kk0

As yet vk and uk are unknown.

(49)

They may be treated as

variational parameters. Since wk = vk2 and 1 wk = u2k , we

21

may impose this constraint by choosing

vk = cos k ,

uk = sin k

(50)

At T = 0, we require WBCS to be a minimum.

WBCS =

2k cos2 k LV03

kk 0

2k cos2 k LV03

cos k sin k0 cos k0 sin k

P

1
kk 0 4

(51)

sin 2k sin 2k0

WBCS
V0 X
= 0 = 4k cos k sin k 3 cos 2k sin 2k0 (52)
k
L k0
1 V0 X
(53)
k tan 2k = 3 sin 2k0
2 L k0
r

Conventionally, one introduces the parameters Ek = k2 + 2, =

V0 P
L3 k

u k vk =

V0 P
L3 k

cos k sin k . Then we get

k tan 2k = 2uk vk = sin 2k =

cos 2k =

(54)
Ek

k
= cos2 k sin2 k = vk2 u2k = 2vk2 1 (55)
Ek

wk = vk2 =

1
k
k
1

1
=
1 r

2
2
2
Ek
2
k +

If we now make these substitutions 2uk vk =

2
Ek , v k

(56)
1
2

k
Ek

into WBCS , then we get

WBCS =

k L3 2

.
k 1
Ek
V0
22

(57)

wk = v 2
k

clearly kinetic
energy increases

T=0

2 2

h k
k = -E +
F
2m

Figure 11: Sketch of the ground state pair distribution function.

Compare this to the normal state energy, again measured

relative to EF
Wn =

k<kF

2k

(58)

or

k
WBCS Wn
1 X
2
= 3 k 1 +

L3
L k
Ek
V0
1
Z(EF )2 < 0.
2

(59)
(60)

So the formation of superconductivity reduces the ground state

energy. This can also be interpreted as Z(EF ) electrons pairs
per and volume condensed into a state below EF . The average energy gain per electron is

2.
23

4.2

The BCS Gap

The gap parameter is fundamental to the BCS theory. It tells

us both the energy gain of the BCS state, and about its excitations. Thus is usually what is measured by experiments. To
see this consider

1
k L3 2
WBCS = 2k 1

2
E
V0
k
k

Lots of algebra (See I&L)

X

WBCS =

2Ek vk4

(61)

(62)

Now recall that the probability that the Cooper state (k , k )

was occupied, is given by wk = vk2 . Thus the first pair breaking

excitation takes vk20 = 1 to vk20 = 0, for a change in energy
E =

k6=k 0

2vk4 Ek

Then since k0 =

h
2 k 02
2m

2vk4 Ek

= 2Ek0 = 2 k20 + 2

(63)

EF , the smallest such excitation is just

Emin = 2

(64)

This is the minimum energy required to break a pair, or create

an excitation in the BCS ground state. It is what is measured
by the specific heat C e2 for T < Tc.
24

-k

2
vk
=0

w = v2 = 1
k

Figure 12: Breaking a pair requires an energy 2 k2 + 2 2

Now consider some experiment which adds a single electron,

or perhaps a few unpaired electrons, to a superconductor (ie
tunneling). This additional electron cannot find a partner for
normal
metal

superconductor

Figure 13:

pairing. Thus it must enter one of the excited states discussed

25

above. Since it is a single electron, its energy will be

r

Ek = k2 + 2
For k2 , Ek = k =

h
2 k 02
2m

(65)

EF , which is just the energy of

a normal metal state. Thus for energies well above the gap, the
normal metal continuum is recovered for unpaired electrons.
To calculate the density of unpaired electron states, recall
that the density of states was determined by counting k-states.
These are unaffected by any phase transition. Thus it must be
that the number of states in d3k is equal.
kz

d k
ky

Figure 14: The number of k-states within a volume d3 k of k-space is unaffected by

any phase transition.

Ds(Ek )dEk = Dn(k )dk

(66)

In the vicinity of k , Dn(k ) Dn(EF ) since || EF

26

(we shall see that 2wD ). Thus for k

Ds(Ek )
dx
d r 2
Ek
=
Ek 2 = r
=
Dn(EF ) dEk dEk
Ek2 2

Ek >
(67)

Density of additional
electron states only!

Ds Dn

Figure 15:

Given the experimental and theoretical importance of , it

should be calculated.
=

V0 X
V0 X
V0 X
sin

cos

=
u
v
=
k
k
k k
L3 k
L3 k
L3 k 2Ek
=

1 V0 X
r
2 L3 k k2 + 2

(68)
(69)

Convert this to sum over energy states (at T = 0 all states with

27

 < 0 are occupied since k =

V0
=
2

For small ,

h
2 k2
2m

Z h
D

hD

EF ).

Z(EF + )d
2
+ 2

Z h
1
d

= 0 D 2
V0Z(EF )
+ 2

1
D
= sinh1
V0Z(EF )

1
h
D
V0 Z(EF )
e

'

sinh x
ex

28

(71)
(72)

(73)

1
V Z(E
0
F)
h
D e

Figure 16:

(70)

(74)

5
5.1

Consequences of BCS and Experiment

Specific Heat

As mentioned before, the gap is fundamental to experiment.

The simplest excitation which can be induced in a superconductor has energy 2. Thus
E 2e2

T Tc

2 2
E
2e
C
T
T

5.2

(75)
(76)

Microwave Absorption and Reflection

Another direct measurement of the gap is reflectivity/absorption.

A phonon impacting a superconductor can either be reflected
or absorbed. Unless h
> 2, the phonon cannot create an excitation and is reflected. Only if h
> 2 is there absorption.
Consider a small cavity within a superconductor. The cavity
has a small hole which allows microwave radiation to enter the
cavity. If h
< 2 and if B < Bc, then the microwave intensity is high I = Is. On the other hand, if h
> 2 ,or
29

I s - In
In

superconductor

B=0

cavity
10

microwave
h

h = 2
B

Figure 17: If B > Bc or h

> 2, then absorption reduces the intensity to the
normal-state value I = In . For B = 0 the microwave intensity within the cavity is
large so long as h
< 2

B > Bc, then the intensity falls in the cavity I = In due to

absorbs ion by the walls.
Note that this also allows us to measure as a function of
T.

At T = Tc, = 0, since thermal excitations reduce the

number of Cooper pairs and increase the number of unpaired

electrons, which obey Fermi-statistics. The size of (Eqn. 71) is
only effected by the presence of a Cooper pair . The proba

2
2
bility that an electron is unpaired is f
+ + EF , T =
exp

2 +2 +1

so, the probability that a Cooper pair exists is

30

e
kT 2

-k
Figure 18:

2
2
1 2f
+ + EF , T . Thus for T 6= 0

(
r
!)
Z h
d
1
D
2
2
2
1 2f + + EF , T
= 0
V0Z(EF )
+ 2
(77)

Note that as 2 + 2 0, when we recover the

T = 0 result.
This equation may be solved for (T ) and for Tc. To find Tc
(T)
(0)

In Pb
Sn
Real SC data (reflectivity)

T/Tc

Figure 19: The evolution of the gap (as measured by reflectivity) as a function of temperature. The BCS approximation is in reasonably good agreement with experiment.
31

consider this equation as

T
Tc

1, the first solution to the gap

equation, with = 0+, occurs at T = Tc. Here

Z h
1

d
= 0 D
tanh
V0Z(EF )

2kB Tc

(78)

which may be solved numerically to yield

1 = V0Z(EF ) ln

1.14hD
k B Tc

kB Tc = 1.14hD e1/{V0Z(EF )}

(79)
(80)

but recall that = 2hD e1/{V0Z(EF )} , so

(0)
2
= 1.764
=
kB Tc 1.14

(81)

metal TcK Z(EF )V0 (0)/kB Tc

Zn

0.9

0.18

1.6

Al

1.2

0.18

1.7

Pb

7.22

0.39

2.15

Table 1: Note that the value 2.15 for (0)/kB Tc for Pb is higher than BCS predicts.
Such systems are labeled strong coupling superconductors and are better described by
the Eliashberg-Migdal theory.

32

5.3

The Isotope Effect

Finally, one should discuss the isotope effect. We know that

Vkk0 , results from phonon exchange. If we change the mass of
one of the vibrating members but not its charge, then V0N (EF )
etc are unchanged but
D

v
u
u
u
t

1
k
M 2 .
M

(82)

Thus Tc M 2 . This has been confirmed for most normal

superconductors, and is considered a smoking gun for phonon
mediated superconductivity.
6

BCS Superconducting Phenomenology

Using Maxwells equations, we may establish a relation between

the critical current and the critical field necessary to destroy the
superconducting state. Consider a long thick wire (with radius
r0 L) and integrate the equation
H=

33

4
j
c

(83)

j = j0 e

(r - r0 )/L

r0

dl

Figure 20: Integration contour within a long thick superconducting wire perpendicular
to a circulating magnetic field. The field only penetrates into the wire a distance L .

along the contour shown in Fig. 20.

Z

HdS =

H dl =

4 Z
j ds
c

4
2r0Lj0
c
If j0 = jc (jc is the critical current), then
2r0H =

(84)
(85)

4
L jc
(86)
c
Since both Hc and jc , they will share the temperatureHc =

dependence of .
At T = 0, we could also get an expression for Hc by noting
34

that, since the superconducting state excludes all flux,

1 2
1
(W

W
)
=
H
n
BCS
L3
8 c

(87)

However, since we have earlier

1
1
2
(W

W
)
=
N
(0)
,
n
BCS
L3
2

(88)

we get
r

Hc = 2 N (0)
We can use this, and the relation derived above jc =

(89)
c
4L Hc ,

to get a (properly derived) relationship for jc.

r
c
jc =
2 N (0)
4L

(90)

However, for most metals

N (0) '

n
EF

v
u
u
u
u
t

mc2
L =
4ne2
taking = 1
v
u
u
u
t

u n2m
c 4ne2 u
ne
u
t
jc =
2
=
2
4 mc2
h
kF
h
2kF2
35

(91)
(92)

(93)

This gives a similar result to what Ibach and Luth get, but
for a completely different reason. Their argument is similar to
one originally proposed by Landau. Imagine that you have a
fluid which must flow around an obstacle of mass M . From the
perspective of the fluid, this is the same as an obstacle moving
in it. Suppose the obstacle makes an excitation of energy and
v

vP

Figure 21: A superconducting fluid which must flow around an obstacle of mass M .
From the perspective of the fluid, this is the same as an obstacle, with a velocity equal
and opposite the fluids, moving in it.

momentum p in the fluid, then

E0 = E

P0 = P p

(94)

or from squaring the second equation and dividing by 2M

E
(a)

(b)

Figure 22: A large mass M moving with momentum P in a superfluid (a), creates an
excitation (b) of the fluid of energy and momentum p
36

P 02
P2
Pp
p2

=
+
= E0 E =
2M 2M
M
2M

(95)

P
v = P/M

Figure 23:

pP cos
p2
=

(96)
M
2M
p2
= pv cos
(97)
2M
If M (a defect in the tube which carries the fluid could
have essentially an infinite mass) then

= v cos
p

(98)

Then since cos 1

(99)
p
Thus, if there is some minimum ,then there is also a miniv

mum velocity below which such excitations of the fluid cannot

37

happen. For the superconductor

vc =

min
2
=
p
2hkF

(100)

Or
ne
(101)
h
kF
This is the same relation as we obtained with the previous

thermodynamic argument (within a factor 2). However, the

jc = envc =

former argument is more proper, since it would apply even for

gapless superconductors, and it takes into account the fact that
the S.C. state is a collective phenomena ie., a minuet, not a
waltz of electric pairs.
7

Coherence of the Superconductor Meisner

effects

Superconductivity is the Meissner effect, but thus far, we have

not yet shown that the BCS theory leads to the second London
equation which describes flux exclusion. In this subsection, we
will see that this requires an additional assumption: the rigidity
of the BCS wave function.
38

In the BCS approximation, the superconducting wave function is taken to be composed of products of Cooper pairs. One
can estimate the size of the pairs from the uncertainty principle

pF
p
2 =
p p 2m
2m
m
pF

h
pF
h
2 kF
EF
h

=
=
cp x
p 2m 2m kF

(102)
(103)

cp 103 104 A size of Cooper pair wave function (104)

Thus in the radius of the Cooper pair, about

4n cp 3
108
3
2
other pairs have their center of mass.

(105)

Figure 24: Many electron pairs fall within the volume of a Cooper wavefunction.
This leads to a degree of correlation between the pairs and to rigidity of the pair
wavefunction.

39

The pairs are thus not independent of each other (regardless

of the BCS wave function approximation).

In fact they are

specifically anchored to each other; ie., they maintain coherence

over a length scale of at least cp.
Normal Metal

SC

BCS

coh > cp

Figure 25:

In light of this coherence, lets reconsider the supercurrent

2e
{p + p}
4m
where pair mass = 2m and pair charge = 2e.
j=

p = ih

2e
A
c

(106)

(107)

A current, or a CM momentum K, modifies the single pair state

(r1, r2) =

1 X
g(k)eiK
3
L k

(r1 +r2 )/2 ik (r1 r2 )

(K, r1, r2) = (K = 0, r1, r2)eiKR

40

(108)
(109)

where R =

r1 +r2
2

is the cm coordinate and h

K is the cm mo-

mentum. Thus
BCS ' eiBCS (K = 0) = ei(0)

(110)

= K (R1 + R2 + )

(111)

(In principle, we should also antisymmetrize this wave function;

however, we will see soon that this effect is negligible). Due to
the rigidity of the BCS state it is valid to approximate
= R + r R

(112)

Thus

or

2e X
2eA

js
i
h

+
BCS
R

4m BCS
c

2eA

BCS
+BCS ihR +

2e
2X
2 4eA
js =
+ 2h |(0)|
R
|(0)|

2m
c

(113)

(114)

Then since for any , = 0

2e2
|(0)|2 A
js =
mc
41

(115)

or since |(0)|2 =

ns
2

ne2
B
j=
mc

(116)

which is the second London equation which as we saw in Sec.??

leads to the Meissner effect. Thus the second London equation
can only be derived from the BCS theory by assuming that the
BCS state is spatially homogeneous.
8

Quantization of Magnetic Flux

The rigidity of the wave function (superconducting coherence)

also guarantees that the flux penetrating a superconducting
loop is quantized. This may be seen by integrating Eq. 114
along a contour within the superconducting bulk (at least a
distance L from the surface).
e 2 ns
ehns X
A
R
js =
mc
2m

(117)

ehns X Z
e 2 ns Z
A dl
R dl
(118)
js dl =
ms
2m
Presumably the phase of the BCS state BCS = ei(0) is
Z

42

superconducting loop
C
X

X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

Figure 26: Magnetic flux penetrating a superconducting loop is quantized. This may
be seen by integrating Eq. 114 along a contour within the superconducting bulk (a
distance L from the surface).

single valued, so
XZ

R dl = 2N

N Z

(119)

Also since the path l may be taken inside the superconductor

by a depth of more than L, where js = 0, we have that
Z

js dl = 0

(120)

so
e 2 ns Z
e 2 ns Z
ehns
A dl =
B ds = 2N

ms
ms
2m
Ie., the flux in the loop is quantized.
43

(121)

Tunnel Junctions

Imagine that we have an insulating gap between two metals,

and that a plane wave (electronic Block State) is propagating
towards this barrier from the left
V
a

V0

metal

metal

insulator

2m
d 2
+ 2 E = 0
h
dx 2

d + 2m (E - V )
0
h2
dx2

d2

2m
+ 2 E = 0
h
dx 2

Figure 27:

a = A1eikx + B1eikx

b = A2eik x + B2eik x
c = B3eikx (122)

These are solutions to the S.E. if

2mE
k =
in a & c
h

r
2m(E V0)
k0 =
in b
h

44

(123)
(124)

The coefficients are determined by the BC of continuity of

and 0 at the barriers x = 0 and x = d. If we take B3 = 1
and E < V0, so that
r

2m(E V0)
k = i =
(125)
h

then, the probability of having a particle tunnel from left to

0

right is

Plr

1
1 k 2 1 k 2
|B3|2
=
=

+
+
cosh
2d

|B1|2 |B1|2
8 k
8 k
(126)

For large d

Plr

k
(127)
8 + e2d
k
r

2m(V
2d

E)
k

8
+
exp

(128)

k
h

Ie, the tunneling probability falls exponentially with distance.

Of course, this explains the physics of a single electron tunneling across a barrier, assuming that an appropriate state is
45

filled on the left-hand side and available on the right-hand side.

This, as can be seen in Fig.

28, is not always the case, es-

pecially in a conductor. Here, we must take into account the

densities of states and their occupation probabilities f . We will
be interested in applied voltages V which will shift the chemical
potential eV . To study the gap we will apply
S

E
eV

N(E)

Figure 28: Electrons cannot tunnel accross the barrier since no unoccupied states are
available on the left with correspond in energy to occupied states on the right (and
vice-versa). However, the application of an appropriate bias voltage will promote the
state on the right in energy, inducing a current.

We know that

2
k B Tc

eV

(129)

4kB Tc
2

10K. However typical

4,

metallic densities of states have features on the scale of electron46

volts 104K. Thus, on this energy scale we may approximate

the metallic density of states as featureless.
Nr () = Nmetal () Nmetal (EF )

(130)

The tunneling current is then, roughly,

I P
P

df ( eV )Nr (EF )Nl ()(1 f ())

df ()Nl ()Nr (EF )(1 f ( eV ))

For eV = 0, clearly I = 0 i.e. a balance is achieved.

(131)
For

EF

Figure 29: If eV= 0, but there is a small overlap of occupied and unoccupied states on
the left and right sides, then there still will be no current due to a balance of particle
hopping.

eV 6= 0 a current may occur. Lets assume that eV > 0

and kB T .

Then the rightward motion of electrons is

47

suppressed. Then
Z

I P Nr (EF ) df ( eV )Nl ()

(132)

and
Z
dI
f ( eV )
P Nr (EF ) d
Nl ()
(133)
dV
V
f
e( eV EF )
(T EF )
(134)
V
dI
' P Nr (EF )Nl (eV + EF )
(135)
dV
dI
Thus the low temperature differential conductance dV
is a mea-

sure of the superconducting density of states.

dI
dV

/e

/e

Figure 30: At low temperatures, the differential conductance in a normal metal

superconductor tunnel junction is a measure of the quasiparticle density of states.

48