EXAMPLE 5.4 A Carnot engine operates between «wo temperature reservoirs maintained at 200°C and 20°C, respectively If the desired output ofthe engine is 15 KW, as shown in Fig 5-11, determine the heat transfer from ‘the hightemperature reservoir and the heat transfer to the low-temperature reserit Ty 20°C Gn We tskw % ewe Fig. S41 ‘The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by ” ‘This gives, converting the temperatures to absolute temperatures, ie 15 n= arr 7 parars = 2k Using the fist aw We hae @, = Qy = W= 3942 = 15 2442 KW EXAMPLE 5.5 A refrigeration unit is cooling a space to ~5°C by rejecting energy to the atmosphere at 20°C. kis desired to reduce the temperature in the refrigerated space 19 25°C. Calculate the minimum percentage Increase in work required, by assuming a Carnot refrigerator, for the same amount of energy removed. For a Carnot refrigerator we know that Oe 1 COP WS TT For the first situation we have W, = Qy(Ty/T, ~ 1) = Q,(293/268 ~ 1) = 0.09330. For the second situation there results W, = Q,(293/248 ~ 1) = 0.1810, The percentage increase in work is then 0.1810, - 0.09330, Note the large increase in energy required 10 reduce the temperature in a refrigerated space. And this is a minimum percentage increase, since we have assumed an ideal refrigerator. 21 am = 940%EXAMPLE 5.6 A Carnot engine operates with air, using the cycle shown in Fig. 5-12. Determine the thermal efficiency and the work output for each cycle of operation. The thermal efficiency is found 10 be Tome Fst To find the work output we ean determine the heat added during the constant temperature expansion and determine w from = W/Qy = w/a. We find gy, fom the fs law using Au = 0: ay = Hay > fav = RT yf? = RT ye “To find vfs we must find Rh oe ean ; CQ osm At Using (449), we have — = (1.0763(300 500)" = 0300 meg Likewise, AT /T 8-9 = (303300 /5009"? = 2.79 m/e. Hence, any soye 22 = 000 /a cm Fly, the work foreach eye is w = nay = (04NX320.0) ~ 128 Ke, Solved Problems A refrigerator is rated at a COP of 4. The refrigerated space that it cools requires a peak cooling rate of 30.000 kI/h. What size electrical motor (rated in horsepower) is required for the refrigerator? ‘The definition of the COP for a refrigerator is COP = G,./Way. The net power required is then » Ox _ 30000 /3600 Whey = Gop = LOB 2.083 KW oF 2.793 hp $2 A Carnot heat engine produces 10 hp by transferring energy between two reservoirs at 40°F ig and 212°F. Calculate the rate of heat transfer from the high-temperature reservoir. Sine The engine efficiency is ay = 0.256033 54 55 The efficiency is also given by n = W/G,.. Thus, y _ (10 Wp )(2845 Buu he /hp) _ Ta 99,410 Bru/he ‘An inventor proposes an engine that operates between the 27°C warm surface layer of the ‘ocean and a 10°C layer a few meters down. The inventor claims that the engine produces 100 KW by pumping 20 kg/s of seawater. Is this possible? The maximum temperature drop for the seawater is 17°C, The maximum rate of heat transfer from the high-temperature water is then Gy = rite, ST = (20)(4.18)(17) = 1421 kW ‘The efficiency of the proposed engine is then = W/Gy = 100/1421 = 0.0704 or 7.04%. The cff- ciency of a Carnot engine operating between the same two temperatures is Te 283 anh Bal Hy ‘The proposed engine's efficiency exceeds that of a Carnot engine; hence, the inventor's claim is impossible, 0.0567 or 5.67% A power utility company desires to use the hot groundwater from a hot spring to power a heat engine. If the groundwater is at 95°C, estimate the maximum power output if a mass flux of (0.2 kg/s is possible. The atmosphere is at 20°C. ‘The maximum possible efficiency is nig assuming the water is rejected at atmospheric temperature. The rate of heat transfer from the enerEy source is Oy = the, AT = (0.2)(4.18)(95 ~ 20) = 62.71W ‘The maximum power output is then W= 10, (0,2038)(62.7) = 12.8 kW ‘Two Carnot engines operate in series between two reservoirs maintained at 600°F and 10°F, respectively. The energy rejected by the first engine is input into the second engine. Ifthe first engine's efficiency is 20 percent greater than the second engine's efficiency, calculate the intermediate temperature. ‘The efficiencies of the two engines are 2-2 =1- 0 mal a9 T where 7 is the unknown intermediate temperature in “R. Iti pvem that 9, = m3 + 0.27 Substituting for ny and ng results in T? +2127 - 712,320=0 M46°R oF 84.6°F56 A Carnot engine operating on air accepts 80 kI/ke of heat and rejects 20 kJ/kg. Calculate J the high and low reservoir temperatures if the maximum specific volume is 10 m?/kg and the SA reste ater the sothermal expansion is 200 KPa 108 ‘THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS lcnap.s “The thermal efficiency is qT fy' 2s i. (2) 04 = oxo = 0.10120, = (0.1012X10) = 1.012 mm! /kg, Now, the high Tu The low temperature is then T, = 047, 1 EXAMPLE 6.1 Airis contained in an insulated, rigid volume at 20°C and 200 kPa, A paddle whee, inserted in the volume, does 720 KJ of work on the air. If the volume is 2m’, calculate the entropy increase assuming constant specifi heats. To determine the final state of the process we use the energy equation, assuming zero heat transfer. We have =W-= AU = me, AT. The mass m is found from the ideal-gas equation to be PY __(200)(2) m= B= Goa = 476 ke The first law, taking the paddle whee! work as negative s then 720 = (8.76)(0.717)(T, = 293) Ty = 580K Using (6.{5) for tis constant-volume proces there results sos (4.76)(0.717) In 3p = L851 KI/KSolved Problems A Carnot engine delivers 100 kW of power by operating between temperature reservoirs at 100°C and 1000°C. Calculate the entropy change of each reservoir and the net entropy change of the two reservoirs after 20 min of operation, The efficiency of the engine is 373 123 ‘The high-temperature heat wansfer is then Qy = W/n = 100/0.7070 = 141.4 kW. The low- = 0.7070 femperature heat transfer is, 01 = On ~ W= 141.4 - 100 = 41.4 kW The entropy changes of the reservoirs are then Qu Qy At 141.4)[(20)(60), as, = Se = Spd. LNG 3595 i" T, 373 33.3 1 /K, AS + AS, = 1333 + 1332 = —0. KI/K. ‘The net entropy change of the Wo reservoirs i ASyey h (6.2), This is zero, except for round-off error, in compliance ‘Two kg of air is heated at constant pressure of 200 kPa to 500°C. Calculate the entropy change if the initial volume is 0.8 m’, The initial temperature is found to be The entropy change is then found, using (6.16) to be as = mfg z rm] = 20.0090 23, = 2040 KI /K A piston allows air to expand from 6 MPa to 200 kPa. The initial volume and temperature are 500 em? and 800°C. If the temperature is held constant, calculate the heat transfer and the entropy change. The it i, nthe wok for an ten ras, pie with Py Pi Py 0 = w= mtn ft = (tir, = (toys « 10-9 BP = 02018 ‘The entropy change is then PH yy Ps _ (soos x 10°8) we 26.7 Air expands from 200 to 1000 em’ in a cylinder while the pressure is held constant at 600 kPa. If the initial temperature is 20°C, calculate the heat transfer assuming (a) constant speci heat and (b) variable specific heat. (2) The air mass is pv m= ee The heat transfer is then (constant-pressure process) Q = meg(T, = T,) = (0.001427)(1.00)(1465 ~ 293) = 1.6720 (5) The mass and T, are as computed in part (a). The first law again provides, using fz and fy from. Table F-1, Q = my ~ he) = (0.001427)( 1593.7 ~ 293.2) = 1.856 KI This shows that a 9.9 percent error results from assuming constant specific heat. Ths is due to the large temperature difference between the end states of the process. 68 — Water is maintained at a constant pressure of 400 kPa while the temperature changes from 20°C to 400°C. Calculate the heat transfer and the entropy change. Using ¢, = vy at 20°C [state 1 is compressed liquid, W = Peg ~ €,) = (400)(0.7726 ~ 0.001002) = 308.6 KI /ke “The first law gives q = ue, ~u, + w= 2968.4 ~ 83.9 + 308.6 = 3189 kl /kg and the entropy change is As = 5 > 5) = 7.8992 — 0.2965 = 7.603 KI/ke - K EXAMPLE 10.2 Assuming that = h(s, P), what (wo differential relationships does this imply? Verify one of the relationships using the steam tables at 400°C and 4 MPa. If f= f(s, P) we can write ah ah a+ (sp), 4” But the first law can be written as (see (10.17)] dh = Tds + vdP. Equating coefficients of ds and dP, there results a r-(R), ¢=(e), Lersveri the conan reste relanshipe. ALP 4MFa and ing cena ference ents om citer ae of he dee aa) at T= a0" we hve fo the sperbeat le ah 3330 ~ 3092 °C (3),- O37 a ses 7 O72 Kor 399°C This compares favorably with the specified temperature of 400°C.EXAMPLE 10.5. Derive an expression for the enthalpy change in an isothermal process of a gas for which the ‘equation of state is P = RT/(v ~ b) ~ (a/e”), ‘Since P is given explicitly, we find an expression for Au and then use (10.44). For a process in which dT = 0, (10.41) provides Au Lez ‘The expression for Ad is then a ~ f(s - p+ Save -e(k - = hy = Au + Pye, — Py — A) erase EXAMPLE 10.7. Find an expression for ¢y Equation (10.56) provides us with +. if the equation of state is P = RT/Le ~ b) ~ (a/r?), o-s=1(ar), (i Our given equation of state can be writen as T= hfe) + Seo] so that (AT /av)p = (P — a/v? + 2ab/v?)/R = 1/(av/AT)p Hence ep, = TRY[(P + a/v? + 2ab/e)(v ~ b)) ‘This reduces to cy ~¢, = R if a = b = 0, the ideal-gas relationship. EXAMPLE 10.8 Calculate the entropy change of a 10-kg block of copper if the pressure changes from 100 kPa. to 50 MPa while the temperature remains constant, Use B = 5x 10"? K-! and p = 8770 kg/m’ Using one of Manvel’ equations and (1057) the entropy dierent i as a) gf _(% as~ (5p), 40 + (Sr) ,a0 = ~(Sp), dP = -ea ar ‘Assuming and to be relatively constant over this pressure range, the enropy change is \ 1 , " syn aye ECP By =~ gag (S X 10°5)[(50~ 0.) 109] = 0285 1h K If we had considered the copper to be incompressible (dt = 0) the entsopy change would be zer0, as observed {from (10.47). The entropy change in this example results from the small change in volume of the copper.Solved Problems 10.1 Verify (10.15) using the equation of state for an ideal gas. ‘The equation of sate fora ideal ga is Po = RT. Lethe tc vables be P,0T: Relationship uo oes the fore ary (2 (5),(32),(5),- -} he pata eres re (ir). -a(F)-¢ (),-ale)-# ie), wl F),- -F Form te pratt and snp: (ir) (3), (3), - ‘The relationship is verified 10.2 Derive the Maxwell relation (10.23) from (70.22) using (20.15). ‘The right side of the Maxwell relation (10.23) involves v, 5, and P so that alae) (ae),--! (&),- -(5),(3), ” (3) (3),- (3), From calculus, Using (/0.22) the above relation is written as -(3), (3), (3), (3),-(), Substituting this into (7) provides which is the Maxwell relation (70.23).cylinder (Fig. 3-10) is heated until the spring is compressed 50 mm. Find the ly unstretched, as shown EXAMPLE 3.7. The air in a circu work done by the air on the frictionless piston. The spring is i K=2500 Nim 50 ke — Fig, 3-10 ‘The pressure in the cylinder is intially found from a force balance: PAL Pag WP 2D” — (op og) 2" P, = 162500 Pa + (50)(9.81) Wa Pa cd = (620) 20? (995) = eng Using (472), the work required to compress the spring is ealulited to be We 3K(3 ~ 32) = (5)(2500)(0.5") “The total work is then found hy summing the above two values Hi, 125 6381 + 3.125 = 66.94534 Six g of air is contained in the cylinder shown in Fig. 3-13. The air is heated until the piston raises $0 mim, The spring just touches the piston initially. Calculate (a) the temperature when the piston leaves the stops and (b) the work done by the air on the piston. (e)_ The pressure in the air when the piston just raises from the stops is found by bataneing the Forces 10 the piston: Px(0.2¥° =. a a PA = Pag + W + (300)(9.81) a (100000) P= 193 7H Pe oF 957 KPa ‘The temperature is found fom the ideale aw BY _ (9B.-N(OAS)(V(02)/4 nk = (00050287) (6) “The work done by the ars considered 0 be composed of two par: the work to sie the pison and the work to compres the spring. The work required to ris the piston a distance of 008 m fs = 50K Ke) ~ RANG) ~ a LOE ay an “The work required to compress the spring is W’ = {Ax ~ $(400X0.05*) = 0.5 kJ. The total work equired by the air to raise the piston is W = 0.308 +0. 0.804 ks Frctionles piston Pav Isotherm 150 mm36 4a 42 ‘A paddle wheel (Fig. 3-15) requires a torque of 20 ft-Ibf to rotate it at 100 rpm. If it rotates for 20 s, caleulate the net work done by the air if the frictionless piston raises 2 ft during this, time, Sp w= twas =(-a0tisn| NEED a4 205) — a0 8 MaPgdew PE canon ur in 7 Rapala the piston is then “The work done by the air W = (Fa) = (PANE (2) = 1830 Rebs and the net work is Weg = 1830 ~ 4190 = ~2360 fib A 1500Kg automobile traveling at 30 m/s is brought to rest by impacting a shock absorber composed of a piston with small holes that moves in a eylinder containing water. How much hheat must be removed from the water to return it to its original temperature? As the piston moves theoush the water, work is dane due to the foree of impact ming withthe piston. The wosk that is done is equal to the Kinetic encry change; that is, Le wre d= ($}asn oy = 505 ‘he fn ora pe request his amour eat ms be andere othe wae a ent Dianna! epeanuc anes Beer A piston moves upward a distance of 5 em while 200 J of heat is added (Fig. 4-23). Calculate the change in internal energy of the vapor if the spring is originally unstretched, = ae ver “= oe em‘The work needed to raise the weight and compress the spring is W = (me Mh) + FRE + (Pa) AMA) = conn s1x00s « ($} 600000) + e009} 43 A-system undergoes a cycle consisting of the three processes listed in the table, Compute the ‘missing values. All quantities are in KJ. Pras] 7 aE T>2 @ Too [100 243 >» | 30 ¢ Bat wo | a 200 ‘Use the firs law in the form Q ~ W’= AE. Applied w process 1 -> 2, we have 2 = 100 = 100 «= 200 Applied wo process 3 -+ 1, there resulis 100 ~ a = 200 = 300K “The net work is then DW = WH, 24 Wo.y + Waay = 100 ~ $0 + 300 = 350k. The first law for a eycle demands that L@-EW = MOF b+ IW =380 b= SOR nally. applying the firs law to process 2 — 3 provides 50 -(-30) 26 c= 100k [Note that, for a eyele, LAF = Os this in fat, could have been used 10 determine the value of ¢ EAE = 100+¢-200=0 c= 10K 4.10 Calculate the change in enthalpy of air which is heated from 304) K to 700 K if 2 (a), ~ 1.006 KI/kg °C. BE (bc, = 00946 + 0.213 x 10-°7 — QUBE x 10-87? KI /hg °C, (e) The gas tables are used, (A) Compare the calculations of (a) and (6) with (e) (a) Assuming the constant specific heat, we find that Ah = 64, ~ T,) = (1.006)(700 ~ 300) = 402.4 KI /ke (6) Ic, depends on temperature, we must integrate as follows: an= [par [20996 © 0219. 10°F 0m x 10-72) aT 6177 /eB (©) Using Table F-, we find ft = hy — y= 713.27 ~ 300.19 = 413.1 WA (4) The assumption of constant specific heat results in an error of ~2.59 percent: the expression for ¢,, produces an error of +1.11 percent. All three methods are acceptable for the present problem.4.17 How much work must be input by the paddle wheel in Fig. 4-24 to raise the piston 5 in? The initial temperature is 100°F. ‘The first law, with Q = O,is We aU or PABA ~ Wace = me, (Ts ~ Ti) ‘The pressure is found from a force balance on the piston: pause =) “The mas of the airs found from the ideal aw s8.18)048)(8)(4)100)/0708 _ ” (GB3NS60) al ‘The temperature Ty is 38.18)(144)(n)(4)°05) 1728 gy (0255)(53.3) oar Finally, the paddle-wheel work is found to be Wrasae = ~PA Slt ~ me,(T, ~ T,) = ~(1818)(-r)(4)*5/12) ~ (0.0255)(0.171)(178)(840 ~ 560) = 1331 ane418 For the cycle in Fig, 4-25 find the work output and the net heat transfer if the 0.1 kg of air is contained in a piston-cylinder arrangement. PckPa) The temperatures and Vy are Pav, _(400)(0.08) ¢800)(0.08) _ T= aR ~ (o.iy(0.287) ~ 2787 Ty(o2m7) = 7K ron BY = HO 0 Using the definition of wore for exch process, we find =, a 800 Way = mRT in BE w (0.)(0.287)(2230)In Fy = 133.1 Wy. 1 = PCV, ~ ¥4) = (100)(0.08 ~ 0.64) = —564 The work output is thes Hay = 0-4 138.1 ~ 560-= 771 KL. Since this isa complete qele, the fst law for a cycle provides us with aes = Boa = THAIS