FIRST. EDITION 1979 SECOND EDITION 1985 © Copvaicny P. 8, Nican [No portion of thit book ean be reproduced by any. meant without prior exprest permission of the author or publishers PRINTSD IN INDIA By N.C. Jaw av rap Roose Pros, Rooket Dedicated to Prime Source of EnerayPreface : TO FIRST EDITION This book is the result of my experience for over 26 years in the field of h¥dro power engineering in various responsibilities of investigation, planning, design construction, maintenance, operation, management, research and teaching. Due to the incessant demands of my student trainees, colleagues and ficld engineers this handbook has been written to satisfy the needs of persons engaged in hydro electric engineering. Basically written for the civil engineers this handbook will also cater the needs of the electrical and mechanical engineers so far as planning of hydro electric schemes is concerned. While trying to bring the various topics of hydro electric, engineering under’ one cover, an attempt has been made 0 give in detail only those topics which axe not available in a compact form while such details as are available in well known publications have been avoided although they have been described to retain the continuity of the topic. ‘The undergraduate students will find at the beginning of the book the subject being covered in an elementary way and the various structures met with in hydro electric schemes, have bbeen introduced. A postgraduate student can use it as a texthook where the details of the structures are given. A civil, electrical or mechanical engineer will find the first section of the book helpful in planning a hydro electric scheme right from the investigation stage to the formulation of a detailed project report. Those engaged in details of civil engineering structures can uso this as a reference. book by referring to Section 11 which deals with the detailed structural design of intakes, power stations, and other appurténant structures likevill PREFACE, ‘Section IIL Hydromechanical Part Part G Gates and Valves H Trash Rack I Steel Penstocks, Tis hoped that this revised and enlarged edition will be of immense utility to the design engineers, Lucknow January 28, 1985 P. S. Nigam Contents Section I LAYOUT AND PLANNING Part A General Design of Hydro Power Structure WATER POWER 1. l 1 Introduction 1.2. Water power 1.3 Discharge characteristics 14 Water head 1.3. Firm and secondary power 1.6 Load 17 Capacity HYDRO POWER STRUCTURES 6. 9 2.1 Introduction 2.2. Water passage 2.3 Components of main power house 2.4 Layout of power house HYDRO POWER SCHEMES 18 = 3 3.1 ‘Types of hydropower schemes 3.2. Types of development : Based on hydraulic characteristics; heads location; capacity; inter connection and load characteristic 3 Hs ReeNe 12 6 9 9 12 21 18 isx CONTENTS 3.3 Classification of power house 14 34 Developmenss 4 8.5 Power stations 19 WATER CONDUGTOR SYSTEM 22-52 4 4.1 Head race channel 22 4.2 Head race tunnel-economic diameter with examples 28 4.3 Surge tanks-location, types and selection of types 29 44° Penstocks-number, alignment and layout, location, economic diameter 28 45 Tail race 52 WATER TURBINE 53+ 89 5 ‘Types of water turbines 53 5.2 Characteristics of various turbines 54 5.3. Impulse turbines 55 54 Reaction curbines-francis propeller Kaplan 56 5.5 Limitations for different turbines 60 5.6 Tubular and bulb «irbine 61 5.7 Effect of speed on turbine dimensions 65 8.8. Selection of turbines 66 5.9 Number of turbines 70 5.10 Setting of turbines 72 5.11 Synchronous speed u 5.12 Dimensions of an impulse turbine 74 5.13 Discharge diameter of reaction turbines 6 5.14 Reversible turbines 6 5.15 Characteristics of pump turbines 80 5.16 Dimensions of 2 pump turbine 67 PET POWER 6 CONTENTS x PRELIMINARY DIMENSIONING OF HOUSE 90-112 6.1 Introduction 90 6.2 Constituents of a power house 90 6.3 Dimensioning of power house 91 64 Draft tube 4 6.5 Spiral case 95 6.6 Impulse turbines 96 6.7 Generator diameter-sir gap diax meter and active core length; axial hydraulic thrust; weight of the generator rotor 7 6.8 Height of crane rail 102 6.9 E.O.T. erane capacity 102 6.10 Pump turbine 104 Design example 104 Part B Layout of Hydroelectric Schemes CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT LAYOUTS 7 LAYOUT OF LOW HEAD SCHEMES 8 al 72 al 82 a3 a4 a8 8.6 a7 8 3-119 Introduction 113 Alternative M3. 116 = 126 Introduetion 6 Low head power station 6 Power station on power channels 117 Concentrated fall or runcof-river layout 118 Comparison of diversion canal or divided fall layout with run of river or concentrated fall layout 121 Power station on irrigation canals 121 Power station using tidal heads 123 Depression power plants 126xi CONTENTS i HIGH & MEDIUM HEAD SCHEMES 127 - 19 i 9 9.1 Introduction 197 | 9.2 Power station below high dams 127 9.3 Power station at the end of tunnel and penstocks 129 A | 9.4 Pumped storage plants 129 | 9.5 Medium head schemes 132 | i UNCONVENTIONAL LAYOUTS OF HYDRO A POWER DEVELOPMENT 138 - 157 t 10 10.1 General 133 10,2 Hydrodam-pier type; well hydro- combine; Dam and powerhouse combinations; linear layout of spillwways power house 34 10.3 Power house spillway-power house below spillway 150 ' 1044 Units in circular shaft 154 10.5 Long shaft power house 156 i 10.6 Power house combined with i shaft spillway 137 | SMALL HYDRO SCHEMES 158-174 - 1 11.1 Introduction 158 I 11.2. Turbines for mini-power 159 11.3 Layout & civil works 170 11.4 Beonomie feasibility 173 Part C Investigation & Planning of Schemes i STAGES OF INVESTIGATIONS 175 - 178 12.1 Introduction 175, 7 122 Preliminary feasibility report 4 PFR 176 12.3 Detailed project report (DPR) 17 124 Pre-construction surveys and investigations 17 12.5 Type of investigations 178 CONTENTS: ii PRESENTATION OF PROJECT REPORT 179-187 13 13.1 132 13.3 14 13.5 13.6 Introduction 179 Outline for presentation of power project i79 Salient features for power project (Storage) 181 Salient features for power project (Diversion) 183 Project-need 186 Location and scheme of development 186 HYDROLOGY AND WATER AVAILABILITY 188 - 217 14.1 Water availability-dependabilitys u4 direct observation method; rain~ fall runoff series method; W.B. Tanghein's log deviation methods strange’s table method 188 14.2 Design flood-major and medium dams; Barrages and minor dams; weirs and aqueduets ete. 191 14.3 Flood Estimation-unit hydro~ graph method; flood frequency «method; regional flood frequency analysis empirical flood formulaes enveloping curves 195 144 Water requirement 201 Design examples 203 SURVEYS AND INVESTIGATIONS 218 - 248 15.1 Introduction 218 15 15.2 Topographical surveys 218 15.8 Meteorological investigations 228, 15.4 Hydrological investigations 229 15.5 Construction material investigations 230| xiv CONTENTS CONTENTS xy i 15.6 Pre-irrigation soil surveys and Grainage soil surveys for multie to one power system; the power market and the construction | Purpose projects 230 5 plan 265 15.7 Special surveys for hydro electric : Project 230 j QUTLINE DESIGN OF STRUCTURES 269 - 282 | 15.8 Ecological surveys - wild life 17 17.1 Storage diversion structures 260 hhabitat, fish culture; historical 17.2. Spillways-overflow sections of and cultural repercussions 231 : dams; separate spillways ze 15.9 Other ecological factors 232 17.3. Spillway gates 215 15.10 Geological and foundation studies 17.4 Foundation treatment 26 Seismology; field vest 233 17.5 Design of intake-classifications 15.11 Subsurface exploration for power location; approach to inlet trash houses. Reconnaissance; stage a rack shape; shape of inlet; design 277 investigations: preliminary stage 17.6 Outlets-capacitys location; cond- investigations; detailed or pre design stage investigations; cons- truction stage investigations; type itions determining outlet works; arrangement of outlet works; design of outlet; transition shape 279 ___ oF infermation required 236 17.7 Design of | power conductor 15.12 Underground power’ stations: system 281 reconnaissance; preliminary; 17.8 Design of power house 281 deiailed and pre-design; -cons- ‘ruction stage investigations 245 CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS 283 - 925 4 18 18.1 Construction materials; its requ- GENERAL PLANNING 249 - 268, irements; embankment materials 16 16.1 Alternative schemes 249 Cet a ea 16.2 Reservoir storage & water pow: Rashad danvaicnnalasennatnad a ae materials; general 283 studies-sedimemtation loss; evap oration “losses; reservoir operas 18.2 Construction scheme 287 (ion studies with design example 250 18.9 Construction schedule bad 16.3 Construction diversion scheme “ Re Cepatnuchomagutee a characteristics of stream flow; 18.5 Equipment for construction 288 : selection of diversion flood 18.6 Communications 289 diversion method 259 18.7 Personnel organisation 201 16.4 Types of load and_ power goner- 18.8 Buildings and colonies-proposed ation-economy of ‘hydro against colonies; proposed buildings 292 thermal power; integration of 18.9 Norms for detailed calculation 293 hydro and the thermal plants charges 307 18.10" Hourly use rates &18 19 19.1 19.2 19.3 194 19.5 ECONOMICS OF THE PROJECT CONTENTS 1 Design examples for working out requirement of equipment 312 326 - 347 Cost estimates 326 Project classification 326 Accounts Classification - Detailed estimate of cost for Unit I Head works; Masonry dam; concrete dam; spillway; outlets; tunnels; Power channe and tail race channel; Surge shaft; Penstocks; Powerhouse; Buildings; Plantation; Miscellaneous 326 Benefits and financial aspects 339 Economic Justification for the Project 339 Design examples 340 Section It CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES Part D Intake Structures INTAKE STRUCTURES 348 - 388 20 20.1 Introduction 48 20.2 Canal intakes 350 20.3 Components of canal intake 360 20.4 Protection against silt 363 205 nst floating debris 375 Head loss at entry 376 Discharge control 378 Intakes from power channel 378 1 Minimum head loss 379, Conduit entrance 380 ‘Types of low head intakes 383 Struetural design of canal intakes 388 21 DAM INTAKES aud 21.2 21.3 21.9 21.10 TUNNEL INTAKES 22.1 22.2 22.9 22.4 22.5 22 Part E CONTENTS xvii 389 - 405 General 389 Location of apron and trashrack 389 ‘Typical outlines for gate-slot and ttashrack 392 Intake transition for medium and high-head penstocks 392 Reventrant type intake 394 ‘Typical penstock intake for medium and high heads 396 Intake in arch dam, 398 Intake in hollow and buttress dams 401 ‘Multi-tier and other type of intake 401 Desilting arrangements 402 406 = 447 General 406 Inclined intake 406 Tower intake 407 Shaft intake 408 Submerged intake 409 Vertical shaft intake (USBR) 413, Design examples 4lt Power House Structure LAYOUT OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATIONS. 238 23.4 448 - 497 Classification of power stations 448 Subdivisions of a power station substructures; intermediate structures superstructure 449 Fanipment and facilities to he hhoused ia the power station 456 Maltiisciplinary approach for layout of power stations 456CONTENTS xix xviii CONTENTS: con’ : ' VIBRATIONS IN POWER STATIONS 536 - 565 23.5 Civil engineering consideration- oe number of machines in a 25 25.1 Introduction . im columns; final 25.2. Vibration and soil 536 25.3 Vibration analysis of an R.C, Frame resonance — methods amplitude methods combined method 537 25.4 "Thermal power stasion_ 547 25.5 Hydro power stations; impressed forces; calculation of frequencies; limiting frequencies; calculation tS type of joints: contraction joints, expansion Joints, partial joint, transverse 8, longitudinal joints; water seals-metal seals, shapes of metal seals rubber o synthetic seals- durabilivy, watertightness, mechanical properties, rubber afimpactempivieal rules 549 seals. for particular locations; 25.6 Simplified analysis - dynamic asphalt seals 457 anatsis exciting facing 28.6 Influence ‘of electrical and functions mechanical equipment ‘om Design examples 58 Tayout a7 re 23.7 Drainage & dewatering-gravity | SUBSTRUCTURE, eee drainage system; dewatering ' 26 26.1 General 556 system 494 262 Structural analysis of sub- 25.8 Recent twends in the layout of siructure containing draft tube- Power stations 489 rock and soil, foundation Fimetions of draft tube or ANALYSIS FOR STABILITY 498 505 aibaractre 09 nero : analysis, transverse analyis; 24 24.1 Tnvoduetion 498 fongidinal alge tcor 242 Factors affecting sabilty-over- "perature and shrinkage stress foening sliding: floatation. 499 funetions of substructure on rock 243 Foroos affecting siability, 48 | "foundation; Loads on sub- 244 Unequal setilement of founda- structure; Soil reaction analysis Nonsstypes and effects of | in the transverse direction; Settlements theory" of ima Analysis in longitudinal design 16 direction 566 245 Soil reactions under rigid 26,3 ‘Three dimensional behaviour of footing with, base ta aimee cae 609 ; Planes-instantaneous centre of 26.4 Stresses caused by a concentrated rotation method 323 load on concrete draft iwbe 609 246 Collection of data-data from 26.5. Stress in substructure due 10 Site; data from equipment the static load of generator 620 suppliers 335 26,6 “Substructure for impact turbines 648 24.7 Estimation of loads and forces 530xx SUPERSTRUCIURE 27 a1 272 27.3 274 20.5 27.6 SPIRAL, CASE, 28 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 CONTENTS 651 ~ 683, Types of superstructure 651 Superstructure for the Indoor Power station 655 Design loads and forces 658 Design principles 662 Construction detail of supers structure oor Thro dimensional analysis of Power house superstructure 673 Design examples 600 684-757 Hydraulic design 684 ‘Types of scroll case-selection of soroll case type-relative merits of steel and concrete spiral casings 685 Concrete spiral case - forces; ‘Transmission of machine load to substructure, load carried by spiral roof 636 Steel spiral cases - encasing: the spiral, erection of the spiral case 694 Embedment of steel spiral case (concrete in contact with liner; Gonerete separated from spiral casing; Concreting under full water pressure; Concreting under normal operating Dressure; Prepakt concrete) Full encased spiral case (beam and column arrangement arch; arrangement; Ring atrange- ment hollow cylinder; Mass concrete; Model tests merits and demerits of the fully encased concrete) 706 GENERATOR FOUNDATION 29 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE 30 28.7 28.8 29.1 29.2 CONTENTS: oxi Uncased scroll case - limitations of uncased gpiral; Ideas of hollow concrete m ‘Threo-dimensional analysis of spiral concrete, Methods of finding stresses in a 8-D structure photo = elastic analysis - model studies; assumptions; experi~ mental; calculations; presenta- tion of results 720 758 - 881 Generator arrangement (stator housing stator mantle poles wheel or rotor; Bearing arsange- ment for vertical waits; Thrast baring bracket) 758 Generator foundation (the barrel foundation; The atbor oandlation; Floor systems forces in foundation: Design of members} 765 Design examples 716 892 - 845, 30.1 General, 092 30.2 The different operations or sequence required for the completion of the power station 833 30.3 Excavation and dewatering of foundations 834 30.4 Conereting of substructure 835 80.5 Super-struciure columns 836 30,8 Erection of draft tube liner 837 30.7 Speed ring pedestalr etc. 837 30.8 Completion of supersiructire 838 30.9 Erection of yantry girders 839 30.10 Erection of BOT erane 839| xxii 31 4 THREE DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 32 30.11 30.12 30.13 30.14 CONTENTS Erection of speed ring 839 Concreting around spiral case 840 Erection of penstock valves ete, 840 Concreting of generator Foundation eal 30.15 Assembiy of runner and rotor 841 30.16 Testing of turbines and generator 84 30.17 Finishing of power station 30.18 Architectural effects 842 30.19 Partial completion of power house 842 UNDER GROUND POWER STATIONS 844 - 892 31.1 Introduction B44 31,2 Classification of power stations based on topographical conditions 845 31.3 Classification of power stations based on hydro dynamic considerations 847 31.4 Types of layout for underground power stations 852 31.5 Data required 869 31,8 Machine hall cavity 870 31.7 Stresses around opening based ‘on elastic theory 876 31.8 Rock loads on power house roof 880 31.9 Stress relieving 8a 31.10 Grouting 881 31.11 Instrumentation 882 31,12 Drainage 892 883 - 908 92.1 Introduetion 883 $2.2 The stress freezing method 884 32.3. Separation techniques 885 CIVIL WORKS FOR SWITCHYARD 33 TUNNELS AND APPURTENANCES. 34 CONTENTS x 324 32.5 32.6 32.7 Materials for three dimensional models (preparation of model casting; curing; fabrication; stress freezing, slicing) 890 Observations 892 Calculations 00 Instrumentation 906 Part F Other Structures 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 33.7 8 Sl 34.2 34.3 344 34.5 34.6 347 34.8 34.9 34.10 909 - 918 Switchyard equipment 909 ‘Transformer foundation 909 Cable tunnel 909 Gurrent transformer (©.T.) foundation ou Voltage transformer (V.T) foundation 912 Lightning arrestor (L.A) gt Gircuit breakers (C.B.) 914 Other structures (towers-forces; General design considerations) 915 919-964, Shape of tunnels 919 Limiting size of tunnels 922 Curves 923 Economics of tunnels for different use 928 Hydraulics of tunnel 925 Air locking and remedial measures 930 ‘Tunnel appurtenances 931 Geological features for tunnels 932 Theory of stresses in unlined and lined tunnels 936 Structural design of tunnel 942 Design examples 248PENSTOCKS 35. 35.1 35.2 35.3 354 35.5 35.6 35.7 CONTENTS 965 ~ 980 Introduction 965; ‘Wood penstocks 965, Reinforced concrete penstocks 966 Classification of penstock supports 968 Anchor 970 Penstock supports 977 nig friction 980 Section UI HYDROMECHANICAL PARTS Part G Gates &. Valves GATES 36 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 36.6 RADIAL GATE, 37 a7.) 872 37.3 981 - 1047 Introduction 981 ‘Typos and classification of gates 982 Fssential features of a gate 986 Vertical lift gates 987 Structural details of a fixed wheel gate (main horizontal girder, vertical stiffener, skin Piate, end girder, wheel, seals, guide rollers or guide shoes, wheel tracks, seat seal and seal bases, sill beam, anchor bolts or anchor plates) 991 Wave and earthquake forces (spacing of horizontal girders, water load, design of skin plate, design of horizontal beams, design of vertical stiffener; end girder) 1019 Design examples 1020 1048 - 1107 General description tose Operation 1052 Sumuctural design of radial gate 1052 30.5 31.6 3.7 GATE SEALS 38 38.1 38.2 38. 38.4 38.5 38.6 38.7 38.8 98.9 38.10 38.11 98.12 98.19, 38.14 38:15, 38.16 GATES HOISTS 39 39.1 39.2 39.8 LOW AND MEDIUM 40 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 CONTENTS ax Overall planning of gate (location of trunnion; sill; hoist anid radii of the gate) 1056 Detailed design 1058 Tolerances 1073 Earthquake and wave effects 1074 Design examples 17s 1108 - 1124 Material for gate seals 1108 Rubber seals Hos Low head seals 1109 High head seals 110 Moulded versus extruded seals 1110 Fabric reinforced seals min Solid or hollow bulb seals 1111 ‘Metal clad seals 112 Abrasion resistant luoro-carbon film 11S Specifications 16 Selecting the seal strip 118 Seal corne} m9 1120 \¢ of friction 21 Suggested mounting of seal 1122 Bolt holes 128 1128 - 1132 Introduction 1125 Hydraulic hoists 1126 Chain hoists 1128 HEAD GATES 1133 - 116) Spillway gate 1133 Other low head gates 143 Intake gates 1145 Air requirement 1157xxvi HIGH HEAD GATES AND VALVES 41 aL 412 413 Ald AS 46 47 CONTENTS: 162-1187 Hydraulic forces on gate 1162 High pressure slide gate 1166 Design trend in the construction of high pressure outlet gates 1168 Functions and types of valves 1171 Basis for selection of types of valves 1173 Descripuon of valves 1174 ‘Maintenance of gates, 1183 Part H Trash Rack TRASH RACK 1188 - 1200 42 42.1 Introduction 1188 42.2 Layout and location of trash rack OL 42.3 Arrangement of trash rack structure 1192 42.4 Types of trash racks 1194 42.5 Shape of trash rack structure 1196 42.6 Inclination of rack 1197 42.7 Removable and fixed type trash rack 1198 42.8 Coarse and fine trash racks 1199. 42,9 Selection of trash rack and design 1200 HYDRAULIC AND DESIGN OF TRASH RACK 1201 = 1245 4 43.1 Velocity through racks 1201 (48 43.2 Head loss through rack 1202 43,3 Formulae for the loss ofhead 1215, Design examples 1219 43.4 Design of trash rack 1223 43.5 Spacing of trash rack bars 1290 CONTENTS xxvii 43.6 Structural design of trash rack 1230 43.7 Design stress 124 43.8 Unsupported length 1241 43.9 Shape of rack bars 1241 43.10 Construction 1284 43.11 Supporting structure 1244 PROTECTION AGAINST FLOATING DEBRIS AND ICE, 1246 - 1259 44 44.1 General 1246 44.2. Trash booms 1246 44.3 Skimmer walls 1252 44-4 Prevention of ice troubles 1254 44.5 Method of overcome ice roubles 1255 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF TRASH RACK 1260 - 1273 ion 1260 AB 49.1. Tntroduetion 45.2 Hand rakes 1260 45.3 Mechanical raki 1266 45.4 Unguided mechanical rakes 1263 45.5 Guided mechanical rake 1266 45.6 Rake hoists and carriages 1268 45.7, Effectiveness of mechanical cakes 1m 45.8. Other method of cleaning 1272 45.9 Inspection of racks 1278 Part I Steel Penstocks MATERIALS AND TYPES OF STEEL 1274 = 1285 46 46,1 Small diameter pipes 1274 46.2 Medium diameter pipes 1274 46.3. Larger diameter pipes 1275 46.4 Multilayer penstockss 1275 46.5 Banded steel pipes 1276 46.6 Wire rope handing 1278sewiti CONTENTS 46.7 Fmbedded penstocks 1278 46.8 Shell thickness of steel penstocks 1279 46.9 Weight of steel pipes 1282 46.10 Anti corrosion paints 1289 45.11 Expansion joints 1283 46.12 Bends, branches ete 1204 46.13 Elbows 1284 45.14 Penstock accessories 1285 FABRICATION, ERECTION AND DESIGN OF PENSTOCKS 1286 - 1318 47 47.) Materials 7 1286 47.2 Heating and sess relieving 1288 47.3 Radiographie inspection of welds 1288 ATA Hydrostatic test 1289 ATS Other tests 1250 46.5 Erection 1290 47.7 Commissioning 1292 47.8 Design of steel penstocks 1293 47.9 Velocities in penstock 1293 47.10 Head on penstock 1296 47.11 Water hammer asa transient phenomenon 1297 47.12 Pressure relief valves 1304 47.13 Structural analysis of penstock 1309 47.14 Longitudinal stresses 1312 47.15 Longitudinal design stresses 1317 47.16 Seismic effects 1317 47.17 Vibration of penstocks 1317 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENOES 1319 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. Individuals 1352 Organizations 1358 INDICES Location Index 1355 Name Index 1360 ‘Topic Index 1368 1 Water Power 11. Introduction The completion of anew power house is a homage to the well-known scientist, Michael Faraday, who showed in the 19th century that when a coil of conductor is rotated in a magnetic field then electricity flows in the coil. ‘This basic scientific principle was utilised by Thomas Alva Edison in his invention of the first electrical generator which has become the basis for all generating equipment used in the different types of powerhouses already constructed throughout the world. ‘The type of prime mover utilised for the rotation of coil designates the type of power station. ‘Thus a steam power station utilises steam for running the turbine which being coupled with the coil rotates it and thus electricity is generated. In a diesel power station it is the diesel engine which is the prime mover for rotating the coil. In a nuclear power station, it is the nuclear energy which is wed in heating the water to. convert into the steam which, in turn, rotates the turbine coupled with the rotor of the generator. In a hydro electric power station it is water which acts as a prime mover in rotating the water turbine which is coupled to the generator rotor. Solar heat is utilised in transforming water into steam which, in turn, rotates the turbine and the generator rotor in a scheme utilising solar energy. Other unconventional sources of energy which are utilised for rotating turbine are the wind, geothermal gas and the bio 12 WATER POWER Bas; the last being utilised Eo the ln for heating the water for converting 12 Water Power Ina tehome whieh wi of running water are utili Saree io electra! eray. other drop or fall whi Of water throvgh which te wae ‘onsidering the case in FPS i snag shen it teans thet» tas of wn gee ace “# Pounds is moving every second. ie si i eaivaleat to ht thn she wok dove ny ne ee oF water 3% 8 624 f pounds, which len gra wed he wer turbine will mo be ay te (ny) transmitted to the ine. It is clear that out a8 oatpot in Rita ed st ‘lowatts and itthe eficieny of dence densted by ny then the Kilowatt produced mega feet akh x 624 i ES x a x x 16 Wate axh Te Xo kW - 1.2) “1 represents the overall efficie ae 4 In short the ex where 2 is constant de generating equipm: for an ideal cove met with, 10 14-18 for the practical cases usually DISCHARGE & HEAD 5 | In MKS units, the work done by water, Q cumees, when a “net drop of H metre is available, would be Qx Hx 1000 kg m. When converted into horse power this would be equivalent to L2H 1000 horse power (metric) (13) ~ Converting this energy obtained from turbine to kilowatt, “ie would be QB 1000 0.795 x 2, x 9, kW = 98 QH Xx 1kW ay 1.3. Discharge Characteristics ‘The discharge available in a stream may be either in the form of varying discharge normally available from natural river which varies from season to season, It can also be ‘available as a bulk discharge obtainable from natural lakes for artificial storages and reservoirs created by damming ‘A scheme in which the discharge is varying and only that much water can be utilised for conversion as available in the river is known as Rumoftriver scheme. ‘The quantity of water withdrawn from storage can be varied according to will and this type of development is known as a Storage scheme. Jt would be seen fem equation 1.2-1.4 that the same ‘quantity of power can be generated if either the discharge or the head is high, ‘Thus a high discharge low head development scheme | can generate as much as a low discharge high head scheme 14 Water Head Jn equations 1.2 and 14 the term h(H indicates the net head of water whieh is available for the running of turbi During the conveyance of water, a portion of head is lost in friction ote. Fig I.l shows a typical installation of hydro dlectric plant wherein various losses in energy and the useful energy developed by the turbine are indicated. A number of adjectives: ate used to, define the various types of heads Which are given below :WATER POWER wae Fig. 11 Typical hydroelectric installation showing lost and useful energies Gross head + Difference and tail water level when n in elevation of head water level 10 water is flowing, Jet head : ‘The head available for doing work on the turbine, that is, the difference between the total inlet and outlet of turbine, ‘etal head at Total head + The sum « and potential head, Velocity head : The considered, divided by ‘otal of velocity head, pressure head square of mean velocity, at the section y 2g, where ‘g’ is acceleration due to Bravity, Pressure head : Height of water coh of water column that can be supported by the pressure at the section considered, Potential heed : Mean height of the section considered above any arbitrary reference level. Maximum heed : the turbine. Mininum bead : the turbine, Rated head : rated output at ‘The maximum steady net head acting on The minimum steady net head acting on ‘The head at which the turbine produces the the rated speed and full gate opening. 4 15 Firm and Secondary Power The pproximately constant power which is assured at Power station and against which load demands for per supply can be made is known as the Firm Pave, et LOAD & CAPACITY - In rumofsthe river schemes which are generally designed for 90% availability of water, the firm power would be available for at least 90% of the years during the total life of the scheme, However, in any particular year the discharge jn the river may be higher than this 90% availability “discharge and some extra power can be generated. This extra power is known as Secondary Power. 16 Load electrical terminology the energy used by consumer is kaon as load which bof ifferent pes av explained bow srage load of plant or system during a given period of ue in a hypotetial conta ond over the sane period that would produce the same energy output as the actual loading produced. ‘The peak doad is a maximum load consumed or a group of units in a stated period of time. It may either be in the form of maximum instantaneous load or a maximum average load over a designated period wie caiman a aaa sian balsa em ‘jn that period Thus, there may be daily. weekly, monthly and yearly : 1.7, Capacity ‘The capacity of a power plant is difficult to define on for a turbine and speed, power factor, and temperature rise in a generator. i The installed capacity is customarily the nameplate capacity of the total number of generators installed in a power station,2 Hydropower Structures 21 Introduction Before going i of en SINS tt the details or own structures, it wil 10 familiarize hy it ; Himself with the v: with in hydroel ee designin i ing the various par I be desi for the re f fous structur t lectric schemes an ipo. Fig at hyarcaehames and their purpose. Fig ydroslecirie development where channel a Yance sructire wink in Fig. 22 a used as water conductor systems, tunnels have bee: se BEES ree canes Fig. 2.1 Diagrammatic sketch hydropower struc through a channel When the water through a wate Structure m (plan) showis lowing the various tures involved in development is flowing ina river, it has ve ; a s to be diverted system to the power house. The remeapt for diverting | INTRODUCTION . mer TG Fig. 2.2 Diagrammatic sketch (elevation) of a development where tunnels are used ‘The river might have been used for navigation purposes or for transport of logs. In such a case navigation locks and tog chues have to be provided in the diversion structureso that facilities for them ate not obstructed in the river. ‘The diverted water of the through an iadateor ad VegildlefQ) ‘This head regulator has proper arrangement to prevent the entry of trash and debris Jato the canal by means of providing trash rack, ‘The trash rack is generally of coarse type which means that the clear spacing between bars, forming the rack is large so that only large drift such as cakes of ice, roots, trees and timber are prevented from entering into the canal. In order to control the flow of water inside the canal, gates are provided in the head regulator. In order to prevent entry of silt in the canal silt excluder is provided just upstream of the beginning of canal head regulator so that bed load does not enter the canal, From the head regulator water enters the power chonnel which is constructed 10 carry water for power generation. ‘This channel is sometinnes also called the head race channel or sometimes for brevity only the head race, Thus in this Context head rage’ may be defined as a channel leading water canes ter whedbs water turbine or forebay (defined lacer). ¢ It is just possible that the silt excluder provided at the beginning of the canal may not be effective to exclude all the enters the conveyance canala HYDROPOWER STRUCTURES silt or else the water in cou: se of its jc ir ; in courte ofits journey in the eh aight collect more sit. Therefore, sometioes vt gist Provided in the channel to eject silt. ‘The mumber of theee srgiectors depends upon the amount of silt and availability “The foreba absorb water and in case there is sudde! Below the byepass, a fine trash rack may be provided to protect the mechine and machine apparatus through which Water ows, ‘The clear opening between bars’ is made Rarrower than the narrowest part of the water passages of the Trachines to prevent clogging by material whieh passes. the fash rack. The raking or the cleaning of the trash racks Tay be done either manually or mechanically. In case of fine trash racks the raking i generally done mechanically. ‘An intake siruture i placed in a surface water source to pont the withdrawal of water from this source to the power fasion, ‘Thus the main intake structure provides fer the installation of trash racks, gates to controt the flow of Water inside the penstock, as well as the streamlined transition seam tmooth fov in the penstock. Generally the intake tructure will be a gravity structure to resist (as well as hold the penstocke, oes From the intake water fows through COMPONENTS OF MAIN POWER HOUSE 9 lectricity is generated. After running the turbines the Water is discharged into the draft tube. From the draft tube inside the power house, the water is collected in the tail race channel, Thus the water conductor system in a development described above would consist of the head race channel, penstock and the tail race channel. 22 Water Passage Ina high head development, the passage of water may be a bit different as shown in Fig. 2.2. The water from the reservoir enters through the intake, into the head race or power tunnel, which runs under pressure, Before entering the penstocks a surge tank is provided between the head race tunnel and the penstock. The Purpose of the surge tank is to provide sufficient water to the power houso in case of sudden load acceptance during the time taken by water to flow from the reservoir to the penstock. The other purpose of the surge tank is to prevent the high water pressures being transmitted to the head race tunnel during load rejection or sudden stopping of the” machine. From the surge tank, the water fows under pressure in the Penstock, then to the potter house, For controlling and Felaugting the flow of water, valves may be provided both upstream of the penstock inthe surge chamber and down- stream of the penstock in the power house. The water from the power house is discharged into the teil race tunnel, 2.3 Components of Main Power House It will not be out of place here to introduce to the readers important components of a power station which are described below. Fig. 2.3 shows a typical section of a hydroelectric power station showing the components as well as sequence of construction of the power house. Inside the power station the water from the penstock enters the spiral case. It is the fixed circumferential casing of a reaction turbine of gradually contracting cross section, so designed as to impart to the incoming water an initial whirl10 HYDROPOWER STRUCTURES l COMPONENTS OF MAIN POWER HOUSE 11 i ca aoe oon TEN re H tr mir i i v j i i : § i t ile é is ant = = ; Hr 5 sma | C | Hop g prvi? i 2 it ha sae 3 Pee tee [} 3 i 1 ij is i Hef! fa BaD ig { i ie Fig. 23 Typical section of a hydel power station e i 3 component and to feed the water uniformly to the turbine ; 5 runner, : ‘Stey ring (also called speed ring) is a very important 5 component of turbine consisting of fixed, stay or guide vanes i _ fitted to the inner poriphery of the spiral ease.” Besides ra Hf guiding the water from the spiral case to the tnrbine runner, eH if I the fixed vanes also transmit the load of turbine pit, weight - j : I of hydro-generator parts etc. to the foundation. i In order to regulate the quantity of flow of water from the i Spiral case to the turbine runner. movable vanes or wicket gates Move between the guide vanes, The rater of the turbine is rotated by waiter, and through @ common shaft the rotor of the generator also revolves, thus generating electricity.12 HYDROPOWER STRUCTURES ‘The velocity of water discharging from runner is very high and therefore, a gradually flaring passage, known a Porites, Sich tuables che utliation % able velocity, head in ra discharged from runner. The stay ring is connected to the draft tube through a Uroat ring. So far as structural subdivisions are concerned, a power station can be divided into three main subdivisions shown in Fig. 2.3, as given below. The substructure contains the draft tube and provides the ‘ransition foundation member for the whole building, ‘The intermediate structure contains the spiral case and also the foundations for the stator as well as the rotor of the generator. The superstructure provides the covering of roof and walls for the generating equipment and it also supports the electric overhead travelling (E.O.T.) crane which is used fr handling the parts of the generator and the turbine. 24 Layout of Power House In para 2.3 introduetion was made only to the components of the main power house where electricity is generated, However, in order to erect machines, transmit and control lectricity, other facilities are required which are described below and shown in Fig. 2.4. This figure, incidentally also shows the flow of water, mechanical and electric control and equipment etc. Unit indicates the set of combination of turbine and generator and Unit Bay or Machine Hall isthe space occupied by the main generating equipment (Fig. 2.3) Exastion Bay is the space in continuation of the Unit Bay provided for handling of equipment during erection and maintenance, as the E.O.T. crane also travels in this bay. + Control Bay is the space provided for locating electrical control equipment. Either this may be an extension of the unit bay in width or it may be housed in a separate building Switchyard is the area where outdoor switching equipments are installed. 3 Hydropower Schemes 3.1 Types of Hydropower Schemes ‘The classification and types of development of hydropower schemes are so varied that a general classification would be dificult, Sometimes the classification of development and the power station are mixed and confused. The type of development would depend upon the general layout arrangement of the whole scheme from the intake of water 0 its discharge outside power house while the classification of power house would be limited within the walls of the powerhouse itself, Sometimes it would be difficult to make a clear distinction between the two, However, the broad classification of the two cases can be made. as given in para 3.2. I will not be out of place to mention that there are no hard and fast rules about typifying various schemes, Here the types are given in order to specify the various functional influences properly. ‘The same scheme can be classified in a different way under separate characteristics. 3.2 Types of Development These can be classified on various characteristics as below : Based on Hydraulic characteristics (i) Run-ofthe river scheme (ii) Pondage scheme (iii) Storage scheme (iv) Tidal plants (v) Depression plants (vi) Pumped storage plants. 134 HYDROPOWER SCHEMES Based on head (i) Low head plant upto 30m (ii) Medi Ip (ii) Medium head plant— 90-$00m (ii) High head plantgrence hanna Based on location (Concentrated fall type (i). Divided fall type Based on capacity (i) Midget or Micro plants fi cro plants upto 99 kW (ii) Low capaci Plants 100 to $99 kW (ii) Medium eamne plants 1000 13 Above {i¥) High capacity plants from 10,000 LW. anct Based on interconnection and loaid charaetevisties (Isolated plant or interconnected type (ii). « " or Peak load” stations, Peer eeta cared 3.3 Classification of Power House Based on supersiructure = (3) Outdoor types (4 2 +) Outdoor type, (ii) semicoutdoor ‘ype Gi) indoor type, and (iv) underground type. Based on turbine type + (i) Réaction i sow, ay ati Sh * (D Reactionfpropter, (i) mixed Based on foundation conditions ¢ (3) Soil, and (it) rock 3.4 Developments Based on hydraulic characteristics At the tile indicat, the clasifeation based on th source of water available for power utilization and ¢) characteristic with which it is available as cxplataed belos” Runefthevo teh : BS the tle signifies, thts ge he river oF any oer, no storage to medify ‘At the most the storage uctuatons only. the (ype of diversion he storage ofthe reservotn tructed to diver water even ins pending upon the iopngraphys & behind @ barrage to cater for even. source is utilized, There is practically the volume of water withdrawn. At available may take care of diurnal f It should be kept in mind tha Structure has no influence on Thus dams may he constructed run-of-the-river scheme. reservoir may be created monthly variations, DEVELOPMENTS 15 Pondage schemes allow for weeklylmonthly variations in discharge of water. Thus in these schemes some modifi in the withdrawals of water for generation of electricity is possible. It is obvious that modifications in the water ‘withdrawals in this type of schemes can be more than in the Fun-of the-river scheme but less than in a storage scheme, ‘Storage scheme has a reservoir in which seasonal surplus of ‘water in excess of demand is stored for use of generating electricity in seasons of lower flows when demand exceeds inflow. Ina storage scheme there is much greater flexibility for modulation of inflows. It can have annual or even carry- over capacity from one year to the next, Tidal plonts vile the level diference created by the tides for''geoaration ‘of lcisio power. "The tidal. range: or ainplimnde is given by the difference between the high te level andthe subsequent low tide level. "The tial range at such: not Sonsiant even, at ope site but Suctunten fo a smaller or larger exten around a local mean value depending on the geographical postion of che area Duprson plots : Where vast areas of low lying land slongwith some source of water cleseby are avaiable, thea power ean be generated by dropping water into the depression, Since the depression has no outlet, the quensty of water discharged into it will have to be kept equal to the annual Pere ieee eee Panped snags chimes : Tm these schemes water generates power during peak deinand, while the same water pumped back in the reseryoir during lean demand period. A pumped storage plant operates on the principle tha the fame iachioes are ued for generation of power during peak hours when power is given tothe network aed for pumping back water into the reservoir during off peak hours, uti power from the ysien.. ‘The provision is beeed on econo of operation ‘and ihe availabilty of enough spare capacity in the grid to operate the machines as pumps in the low Joad period. Usually, theve plants follow giurnl cycles but some may follow seasonal cycles. ‘The Principal sypes of pumped storage: schemes can be classified into the following four pia16 HYDROPOWER SCHEMES (i) Recircutating type (i) Muttipie-use type Water-transfer types and (iv) Tidal-power type, Zaid ot head : The basis of classifying the development epends on ‘the operating head on the turbine, ‘The tinie imposed are just arbitrary and change according to technological advances, Low head scheme 30 metres, Medium head utilizes head from 30 to 300 metres, High head scheme has heads above 300 metres, ‘The limits are not exactly defined and sometimes the upper init for a medium head scheme can be taken ‘Pon 200-250 metres. ‘The low head plants have a char may be used on medium heads ‘ignificantly with the arrangements of a high head plane Zited on location Af the power station is situated adjacont fo {he diversion structure where the drop of water has beng ‘reated, it is known as concentrated fall, Jn case the power house is situated away from the diversion utilizes an operating head less than ‘acteristics layout which but it would differ fall oF extended fall, Teasl m eapciy)«" The classification at based on capacity Of generator has already been indicated above. ‘This show, Mote ay of defining these plants as categorised by Mosonyi but is not universally accepted. Based on Interconnection and Load Characteristics + fa power station acts independently, it is referred to a8 an fjaleed plant and if a part of a network or grid, it is reheenet 0 as interconnected. ‘The latter type is further subdivided into two types. Thy Power stations operating contin Med tad gins lead stations and operate at relatively” high load factors (almost equivalent to firm power steam stations), ‘These cater for power at the base of the load cures muously at a constant power DEVELOPMENTS a Bower stations sappring power to meet the peaks of the Hadicure sve called prt ioe plants, Thote supply ae nd when the power is needed and hence may not operat continuously, so that their load factor is low. : ‘pti ‘ous type of developments, From the description of the various typ it would be “evident that the diferent type of ond interconnection piants can be satisfied with the following types : Base load power station : (a) Nuclear, (b) ‘Thermal, (c) Rumofthe-river plant, and (d) Pondage plant. Pea lad er sation: (8) low peaks by pondage. plant, (b) high peaks by storage plant, (c) still higher peaks by pumped storage plants. The nidal time taken for thermal and suclant powsr stations to start is from days to. months and hence it woul be difficult to use it as a peaking station where constant hating off and puting on of energy are ragured, Therefore the chofce fora base, Toad mason fs rected wo hove ope mar ie eaither not penible to open sd cme the. power station quickly or where it is not possible to modify ¢ volume of water withdrawn to a considerable degree just as in run-oftthe river or pondage power stations, Since a pondage scheme at provision of some storage wich may low for weekly ot month Auctantions in discharge, the peaking, capacity of a pondage plant is to the extent. ; ae ower stations which can take wp high peak of satem sie invariably storage plants Sail higher peaks cam taken up with the same storage where facilities for pumped storage has been provided. erie Some times in exceptional circumstances it may be posible to use a run-of-the-river plant as a peaking station ream ing that the diversion structure hes a storage capaci athorb. at least dora Suctusons Behind i aise ower howe generating capacity ean be jncrensed three or four times considering that it will be run for eight hours a day. aE J would be imperative, to provide a storage down “um of the peaking plant in case there is committed use down:18 HYDROPOWER SCHEMES stream of it on account of irrigation and fix fnrigation and fixed power requirements. ‘The purpose of this downstream. storage would be to regulate the flow of water according to ies downstream requirements, From the above discussion it would be clear that only hhydeo power stations are ideally suited torun as peaking sations. Tt would, be however, not out of place to ‘mention that in regions and countries where hydropower is not available other means for peaking have been adopted recently, To reduce construction efforts and costs and to avoid Beographic limitations in a recent project in Germany it utilizes compressor station to pump air into underground caverns. At peak energy demand this air is fed to a gas turbine to produce electricity. Basic components of the system are the compressor, the synchronous machine, the turbine with its combustion chambers, and the air storage cavern. The synchronous machine operates either asa motor, driving the compressor during the compression phase, oF asa generator driven by the turbine during the generating phase, The generator output is 290 MW with a speed of 3,000 rp.m. having an exhaust gas flow of 426 kg/sec and the fuel used is natural gas or liquid fuel. Air storage has also been suggested as an energy buffer michael power plea outlay system ses arena Pumped storage sites are not always available near the best tidal sites, and an integrated plant is both complex. and expensive, In one alternative the tidal plant consists of a number of turbine-driven compressors which charge the store on the rising or falling tides when the head is at a imaximum. Genoraton tales place in compressorless gas turbines when fair is discharged from stora; requirements the electricity satrn, NE ME The raiment of In the second alternative, there are som in the ti » there are some sets in the tidal plant coupled to generators, while the remainder are compressors, ‘Ihe advantage of this scheme is that it permits * Owner NW.K. near Bremen, Re coeds 'eported in Energy International, June POWER STATIONS 19 direct electricity generation during favourable periods when the maximum generating head occurs simultaneously with the electrical peak hours. Both concepts would serve the mid load range of utility ‘operations. 3.5 Power Stations Based on Superstruture Four different types of hydro power plants are portible depending on the type of powerhouse superstructure, In the indoor ype the generators are placed in a machine hall having an indoor crane, The generator room is fully enclosed and is of sufficient height to permit transfer of equipment by means of the indoor crane. There may be one crane of a large capacity, so as to handle the largest possible single piece of equipment involved in the erection and main~ tenance of the power plant, or two cranes each of half its capacity with a lifting beam arrangement, facilitating the handling of the heaviest parts of the equipment. In the semi outdoor tybe, the generator room is fully enclosed with a relatively low roof and the gantry crane, characterised by the outdoor station, transfers the equipment. Hatches are provided in the power stations roof for lowering and raising the parts during erection and maintenance. In the culdoor ype‘there is no generator room and the generators are housed in individual cubicles or recessed the roof deck. ‘The generators have a removable protecting cover and the crane is of the outside gantry type. Im the underground the power station is sited inside the hall. The choice of a power station, as to whether it should be surface or underground is largely dictated by economic consideration, The layout of the power station in relation to the other main features of the project is of vital interest in the overall economy of the project. An underground power station has the following advantages : (4). Tecan be located if the canyon is very steep. (ii) Construction of tunnels, shafis, vaults and erection work can go on unimpeded by climatic consideration20 HYDROPOWER SCHEMES round the year, i) Ttcan be located where valleys are narrow and are subjected to land slides and rockfalls. (iv) The arrangement permits for providing penstocks through rock which need comparatively thinner liner, (v) Less effect of seismic forces, (vi) Better protection against aerial attacks, (vii) Does not interfore with the overground ‘and scenic beauty features, (viii) Establishing an increased netchead may be possible. (ix) Quantity of concrete in substructure is less than in a surface power house, Superstructure is also simpler, (x) Maintonance in civil engineering works is less, Chief disadvantages are in the provision of costly approaches, ventilation and cable tunnels and artificial lighting. ‘The underground station has a depressing effect onthe worker inside, unless air conditioning, adequate lighting and other necessary facilities are provided, Dewatering problems also increase. All these cost entra capital and maintenance amount. Equipment and accessories costing extra have also to be considered. While selecting the ‘type of power house care should be taken to keep into account all the tecbno-economic features. The total capital plus maintenance cost of an underground power station should be weighed against that of a surface type. ‘The fact that in an underground power station, there will be larger Seneration of power and hence the revenue should also be reflected in additional benefits and the benefit cost ratios of the two can be compared to arrive at the best solution. The choice between an outdoor, seri outdoor or indoor type is dependent on the following : (i) Level of approach to the power station (ii) Soverity of climatic variations at site (ii) Height of tail water tevel with respect to generator floor, and (iv) The seismicity of the area. POWER STATIONS al 32 preferr- Power stations without the genorator hall aze to be prefere ed in seismic areas. ‘The outdoor gantry is about 50 to 100% expensive as compared to the crane inside the power house. With high tail water conditions, the downstream wall will hhave to be made for the protection of generator against flood- ing and a semi outdoor or indoor type may be selected depending upon economics, Generally an outdoor power station is not suited to Indian and similar other situations where there is heavy rainfall and great va temperatures. Based on Turbine i ny power station The type of turbine that will be used in any p e ‘would depend upon the water head available and the specific speed. a ing_used, while For very low heads tubular turbines are being used, for very Targe heads Pelton wheels are used. For low and medium heads propellor types (fixed or Kaplan) are used while for medium and high heads Francis types are used. i i smaller machines, Since higher specific speed would mean small the present tendency is to develop higher speed machines for higher heads. Thus Francis turbines are taking the place for higher heads where only Pelton wheel could be thought of, Based on Foundation Condition Since the foundation condition affects the design of the cubstructure considerably, sometimes the classification is, based on whether the power station is founded on soil or rock. A power station founded on soil would require thicker concrete below the draft tube. It may 250m Francis 60—400 2.5 t0 450 m Kaplan 300—1000 1.5t070 m Propeller 300-800 15 030 m ‘Tubular <15m 5.6 Tubular and Bulb Turbines Even though Kaplan and Propeller type of turbines are meant for low head hydro development, the conventional type with spiral or semi-spiral cases and elbow type draft tubes involve considerable cost in the civil works. For more econtomical development of very low heads upto about 1525 metres, special axial flow turbines of tubular type have been developed. The characteristic feature of tubular turbine is that the flow is straightend from forebay to the tailrace, confining it to a substantially axial direction and placing the shaft axis in horizontal or slightly inclined position, Such an arrangement does away with the usual large water passages and powerhouse structure become more compact. Secondly straight axial flow enchances turbine performance, permitting increased operating speed and output, thereby reducing the size and cost of the machinery alo for a given oirput. A more recent development is the bulb type turbine in which gencrator is placed in a bulb shaped water tight steel housinig Tocated in the contre of the water pasiage. ‘The gensratcr may be driven by the runner divectly or through fears, The bulb shaped generator housing placed in the contre of the water passages way, requires an enlarged we passage around the bulb. ‘These special turbine “TOF Tow head developments of power from tidal waves. Fig, 5.4 shows a comparison of the layout with Kaplan and bulb turbines. From this figure, it will be evident that for the same output less amount of space, is required for the tubular turbine. The power house can be made much lower and shorter resulting in overall economy in eivilCy WATER TURBINES kt teear eLevation s Fig. 5.4 Comparison of space req & bulb turbine ments for Kaplan engineering works. However, the comparative cost of _ equipment might be more, Fig, 5.5 shows as how to find the dimensions of a tubular turbine. Once the discharge diameter of the trbine is Known, the relative dimensions of other parameters in a power station are found from Fig, 5.6 and Table 5,2 taken from Allis-Chalmers, mepufactures of “Tube” turbine units ‘The units range from 50 10°5,000 kW. Design Example 5.1 Dimensioning of Tubular Turbine ‘The use of Fig. 5.8 is given below : ri Sea level site has 9m head and a discharge of 46 mdfs. (Turbine shaft is located not more than 1,0'm above full load tailwater elevation. ‘This height must be reduced by differences in vapor pressure ue to altituce of turbine above sea. level). ; SELECTION OF TURBINES 63 750mm to 300m GENERATOR OUTPUT IN KILOWATTS TEN UNIT SIZES-MILLIMETRES(INCHES) . 000(39:5) 250(48 2) 1s00(59- 75010 2000767) 22s0ie6'8 as00 (98 275010003 20 750 128.5) 5422000 S, Boas SeLaves, ‘BeLADES, Tavaoes +l» seLaves a er ee 22 DISCHARGE CUBIC NETRES PER SECOND 2 Bo aero oa as 0m, Tats F808 DISCHARGE CUBIC FEET PER SECOND Fig. 5.5 Allis-Chalmers standard tube turbine units sizing chart (After Allis Chalmers) 1. Since 46 m/s is beyond the sizing curve capacity at a ‘Gm head, at least two units are required; two at 23 m9]s were selected. 2. Intersection of 9m and 23 mils is between 2000 and64 WATER TURBINES 2250-mm sizes and above 1500 kW. 3. A 2000-mm unit provides slightly less output and has a lower cost. - Output at maximum blade angle is m3/s FiO. 1500 nw = 1595 KW 4, A 2250-mm unit provides a higher output at maximum, blade angle and discharges the required amount of water at better efficiency, Output at maximum blade angle is ae % 2000 kW = 1926 kW Se 7 TEE Se HM er stale See ee UNIT ‘BLADE CONTROL caouno BesistonGEneRaron Wake Rowe Meee ae i BEmovaaLe Toe PoRT ON OF Isecen GENERATOR DRAFT TUBE 7 accine |incnEASER usr A RUNNER OIA ENO OF STEET RAFT TUBE UNeR Fig. 5.6 Basic dimension in tubular turbine power station (after Allis Chalmers) | EFFECT OF SPEED ON TURBINE DIMENSIONS 65 Table 5.2 Basic Dimensions A ~ Runner Diameter in millimeters (inches) = 1.00 All other dimensions are in proportion from runner diameter A [EE [date [L253 [2909 | 2282 | 20 | 2250 | 2500] 2730 | a000 29-85 | 9.4402) 69.) | (68.9 [0 |e a | coe [ato Bods 187 154 132 181 490 1.29 128 Lar Lae CG 86 79 78 72 69 67 66 66 65 65 D 20 20 20 20 29 20 20 20 20 20 B07 07 07. 07 07 08 06 06 06 06 Fou 16 15 15 15 Me Mt oot G 38 36 35 35 34 54 39 33 33 438 HLS 13 11 11 10 09 09 09 08 08 J 09 09 09 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 Kis 15 15 15 15 15 18 on L 09 09 09 09 08 08 08 08 08 07 M 13 18 19 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 N 30 27 26 25 24 24 23 23 23 22 [Note Dimensions are approximate and may vary for specific applications Rated ourput is 23.0 m/s — ayy POM sy, ot tot and is, therefore, near best efficiency. A larger turbine will be required ‘if the unit is located more than 1.1 m above tailwater elevation. 5.7 Effect of Speed on Turbine Dimensions Recent practice is to adopt higher specific speeds as the use of high specific speed reduces the overall size, weight and cost. It, however, requires a lower setting to reduce cavitation and results in lower maximum efficiency. Fig. 5.7 indicates the relative size of runners to produce same horse power of 100,000, Higher head witl naturally Fequire lesser discharge aud lesser volume, High speed also ‘esults in reduction of size.66 WATER TURBINES ag We 2040m Ne 78 Rew, Fig. 5.7 Effect of speed on size of Francis runner to produce 100,000 H.P. 38 Selection of Turbines The limitations of heads for different types of turbines are given in para 5.5. When the head is not in an overlapping range, choice of selection becomes easier. ‘The difficulty arises when it is in overlapping range. Efficiency and other 4 foctors then affect the selection which are described below. Fig. 5.2 gives the basic shape of efficiency eurve of impulse, Francis, Kaplan and tubular turbines with the same output. The curves in this diagram do not indicate maximum values, and allow comparisons to be made only between impulse and Francis (curves | and 2), and between L | SELECTION OF TURBINES or Keplan and tubular turbines (curves $ & 4), since impulse and Francis turbines aro mainly considered for high or fairly high heads, whereas Kaplan and tubular turbines are ‘suitable for lower heads. In choosing the most suitable ‘turbine type for a particular case, the falling-off of efficiency in the partial Joad region is generally not a decisive factor, particularly when several units are to be installed in any single power station, since it is almost always possible to select the region of best efficiency. Fig, 5.8 shows the ranges covered by Francis turbines. The continuous lines indicate turbines with the same output and dotted lines refer to turbines with the same speed. The left top shaded area indicates the overlapping range of impulse and the right bottom shaded area of Kaplan turbine. In the planning of hydro electric power stations with high heads, it has to be decided in each case whether Francis tarbines or impulse turbines are to be used. In this connection, the following points should be considered : Fig. 5.8 Range coverea by Francis turbines68 WATER TURBINES Francis turbines require less space and operate at higher running speeds under the same conditions, However, the highest hydraulically attainable speeds may be limited by the design possibilities of the generator or the design strength of the turbine Hydraulically, the Francis turbine is more favourable because it can utilize the head down to the lowest tail-water Jevel, whereas. the impulse turbine has to be set up with a clearance of a few metres above the highest tailwater level If the water flows into an equaliging basin or a storage lake with large water level. variation, Francis turbines are an advantage, particularly in underground power plants, because in most cases, the groups can be installed without Aifficulties at a sufficient depth. In power stations set up in_the open, the excavation work for Francis turbines is admittedly greater than that for impulse turbines, because Francis turbines owing to cavitation considerations have to be situated below the lowest tail-water level. On the other hand, the ground plan of the plant becomes smaller. ‘The Francis turbine reaches higher values in the region of optimum efficiency, that is at 80 t0 90% load, whereas the impulse turbine becomes substantially more favourable at lower loads. With Francis turbines this can be compensated by combined operation of several sets. Factors which also influence the choice between high pressure Francis turbines and impulse turbines are the sand content and other impurities in the operating water. With Francis turbines, replacements of worn-out labyrinth and seal rings, and also of the runner and the guide vanes, require extensive dismantling. An allowance must, therefore, be made for corresponding shut-down periods. Impulse turbines are more sensitive as regards wear and the resulting deterioration of efficiency in the course of time, but replace- ‘ment of attacked components can be performed rapidly. Figure 5.6 after Escher Wyss gives a general view of the present range of application of Francis turbines and also indicates the types of turbines which can be used for speeified conditions. The turbine sketches are all drawn to the same scale, in order to enable a direct comparison of relative SELECTION OF TURBINES 69 sites, The shaded areas indicate the ranges of application of the other two types of turbines, namely, impulse turbines ‘on the upper left hand side, and Kaplan turbines in the lower right hand portion of the diagram. ‘The ranges of appli- cation overlap each other, so that in principle in many cases two types of turbines can be considered. With further advances in technical development some displacements of the border lines can be expected to occur, the trend being for instance, to use Francis turbines for even greater heads than those at the present time. The choice in each individual case will have to be based on, technical, economical and operating requirements. The range of application of Francis turbines with regard to the maximum head, i.e. the ‘upper portion of the diagram is limited by technical feasi- bility considerations, Furthermore, as regards output (unshaded area on the upper right-hand side of the diagram), the limit is set by turbine dimensions and transport limita tions, In the lower righthand portion of the diagram, ‘operating economy considerations are the only decisive factor, The dotted boundary-lines for constant speeds constant are valid only for single-runner Francis turbines. ‘The corres ponding speed _on the left of there curves is usable over the entire range, Higher operating economy is always attained in the vicinity of a boundary-line. A reduction of the theoretically most appropriate running speed may be required in individual cases, owing to the altitude of the site, the technical feasibility of the generator, combined operation with a storage pump, or large fluctuations of the head. The recent trend in the design is to have large Francis Turbines. From 1940 to 1960 the output increased from 73 to 147 MW but since then the progress has been phenomenal. Fig. 5.9 gives the comparative sizes and other charactoristics of the three recent giant sized Francis Turbines. In order to effect economy large size power turbines have high rotational speeds (by increasing the specific speed) resulting in reducing dimensions and weight of rotating parts, It results also in reduced size and cost of the power house structure. New runner profiles have been used to increase the specific speed and improve the cavitational characteristics. ‘This has10 WATER TURBINES cease owe seer” vt Fig. 5.9 Comparative sizes of three giant turbines resulted in’ getting improved efficiency. Bigher speeds require spec itive special materials for runner et oe in a single piece, 13% Cr, stainless steel and sce rith additives are used and for improvi " ; and for improving welding oat or 6% Ni ie used. Suitable steel alge Wea ey class having high strength an i five cing ak high srength and geod anticorrosion properties @ machine with less initial cost and 5.9 Number of Turbines Considering the development, the first determined is to find out the numbe aa er of turbines that are to NUMBER OF ‘TURBINES n | be ‘used in generating power from a particular scheme, As already: stated, smaller number of Jarger units will be more Spomniical than larger number of smaller units. Also in the “power station it would be advisable to have identical units. Other factors which would affect the choice of number of "units are given below. 1. Efficiencies of larger units are higher than those of smaller units of the same type. 2: Manufacture and transport problems put constraint on the maximum size of the turbine, 3. If power generation is uniform or slightly fluctuating, a fow large sized turbines are indicated. 4. Fluctuating power generation may require larger number of small units in order to retain high efficiency, 5. It is advisable to plot the required power generation against time which will help in fixing the number and size of units Tr would not be out of place here to mention that the importance of the power house in the grid is also a major determining factor regarding the number of units, Thus if there are a. Jarge number of power stations connected to then. a proposed power house can have a single unit if the percentage of power. production ip small compared to the total grid, However, if the power house will produce a large percentage, say 20% of the total power then it would be advisable to have a suitable standby. ‘The example of’a 300 MW installed capacity hydropower station with a single unit is that of Ritsen in Sweden near the Norwegian border, 150 km north of the Arctic Circle which was commissioned in 1978. Nicknamed “Max” it is the most northerly hydropower station of Sweden utilizing a fall of 173 m. ‘The power station is an underground one intilizing the water of river Sule. The runner diameter is 4.73 m, designed to operate at 166.7 r.p.m. Its control is a utomatic from a place 250 km away. ‘The Surliyar hydro power station utilizing the water of river Surliyar in Tamil Nadu (India) has one horizontal Pelion wheol generating 35 MW under a head of 1030 mm.n WATER TURBINES 5.10 Setting of Turbines The impulse turbine is, almost in all cases, placed above the tailwater so that there is free fall of water on tail race afier_ impinging on the buckets while reaction turbines discharge under the tail water level, in order to avoid cavitation effects. The different practices of finding the setting are given below. While there should be a minimum water seal above the discharge opening of draft tube in order that there may be no aeration inside, thus impairing the efficiency of the draft tube, the centre line of the distributor is fixed in elevation ig into view the cavitation effect. The following formula in FPS units is applied to know the draft head Hy = Hy — off G1) where Hy = draft head in ft. or distance from tailwater to the point of mininum pressure,which point is usually taken as the centre line of the propeller runners of as the bottom of the Francis runner (Fig. 5.10). H = total head in ft. Hy = atmospheric head (depending on elevation)—vapour pressure (depending on water temperature) = height of barometric water column = plant sigia or ‘Thoma’s cavitation factor whose values are given below in Table 5. For a Francis turbine, the distance between the centre Tine of the distributor to the bottom of runner ie. line of draft head is given by Nae Am So Xx De 6.2) For a propeller turbine A = 0.41 Ds (6.3) Thus to get the level of the centre line of runner, the parameter A as found in equations 5.2/5.3 has to be added to Hy, the draft head. In MKS units bys hy — oH SETTING OF TURBINES 8 Table 5.3 Plant sigma factor for different turbines ‘Specie a= Prone o—Fived blade a= Movable ade Speed ropler proper 13 0.014 = ay 20 0.024 ~ a 30 0.051 - - 40. 0.059 - - 50 Olt ~ - 60 0.20 - - 80 0.32 - = 100 0.48 0.92 = 110 - 0.46 0.44 150 - 0.52 0.53 170 - 0.9 0.75 200, - 13 1 20 - - 14 where the head is in metres and the plant sigma or cavitation coefficient can be taken as below. Specie sped ot rated opacity ecommnéed value of len sigme 50 0.01 SOOT 0.03 150 0.07 200 013 250 021 300 0.29 350 0.40 400 0.50 450 0.68 e Fde Siervo and Leva recommend the following formula for 6 7 om 7.54 x 10-8, Nba (64)“ WATER TURBINES It would be seen that the value of-c increases with increase in specific speed, so that higher specific speed plants need a lower value of hy or lower setting. ‘The value of « may be high enough to give a negative value of hy, when the turbines are called counter pressure turbines. 5.11 Synchronous Speed The synchronous speed is that speed of the turbine at which it is possible to couple the generator to produce the required power. After finding the rotational speed of turbine the synchronous speed of generator is found which then is used to correct the specific speed of turbine as explained below. ‘The synchronous speed nearest the désign speed is selected subject to the following considerations : () Armultiple of four poles preferred but the standard generators are available in some multiples of two-poles. Gi) If the head is expected to vary lets than 10% from design head, the next greater speed should be chosen. A head varying in excess of 10% from design head requires the next lesser speed, 120 x frequency Synchronous speed = Nov of pokes (5.5) s+ No. of poles = 120% frequency (5 6) Synchronous speed Frequency = 50 cps, in Indian Power Systems, Thus find the syachronous speed and correct the specific speed for the synchronous speed which gives corrected specific speed. 5.12 Dimensions of an Impulse Turbine ‘These can be found as below : Let, H = effective head Cy = Confliciont of velocity of jet 4 = diameter of jei (vena contracta) and not that of nozzle orifice then Q = Cy. of 3gH w/t a, DIMENSIONS OF AN IMPULSE TURBINE — 75 v.Q.H 350 Horse power, P 1 where w = unit we. of wate, © = efficiency DI SST, with deine Linear velocity of runner is =DN = g 4/gfi, with definition of, as given later, and where D = Diameter of runner then Expressing d in terms of (4/D), we have | 606 V2gH a = (ayn aa wHe soy 7 (A) 808 8%. 29 H Pa tgy' ce viet Z(G) re Collecting the constants (60}2 w (2g)92 Po Pm OE Cy. Bt (aD) Hence for geometrically similar units operating at correct speeds i.e. at a constant ¢ Pm comant) 222, OF 8 = (omiaay 5 which is the specific speed relation already described from general considerations. Specific speed then is Putting w Ne = 1293.00, aia; 62) It _will be noted that homologous wheels of any size under any head, when rumning at their proper corresponding speeds and disregarding slight changes in relative function will have the same efficiency, Cy, @, and D/d. Value of Cy is subject to litte variation in well designed needle nozzle and can be taken as 0.97 to 0.99 as a good approximation,si WATER TURBINES # for average practice is as below + Neatbesteficincy 2 3 4 5 6 é 0.47 0.46 045 0.44 0.493 0.495 # varies slowly, and since the effi 4s and since the efficiency does not v greatly for moderate values of specie speed, tis oon ihe the specific speed is mainly dependent om the ents the spe ly dependent on the diameter Convenient approximation can be obtained, for norimal Oe ag Nt go8%, 2 5; by uting an average efficiency of ‘85 and an average $ of 0.46, which give approximately = ot Dia) ee A normal diameter ratio favourable to highest e is D/d = 18 This corresponds to Ny = 3, High efficiency is obtained from D/d = 27, Ny = 2 and Dd = 12, N= 4.5 Higher specific speeds involve a sacrifice of effick increasing extent, reer 513 Discharge Diameter of Reaction Turbi e8 For that head find out the ideal specific suitable turbine as given : ‘at speciic speed (Ni) ofthe fo) Fraies turbine N= oa (in FPS) or sy wx 2400 Nem ag MKS), (5.9) REACTION TURBINES 1 () Fixed blade propelter N= or (5.10) (0). Adjciabte Blade propeller x un Find out the ideal speed of turbine, giving Ns, H and P (h.p.) from the formula N.pua N= yor or Find oat the design speed of generator which is coupled with turbine by finding the synchronous speed. Discharge diameter can be found with the help of the peripheral coefficient ¢. Peripheral coefficient is the ratio of the peripheral velocity of the turbine at normal inlet diameter to the spouting velocity of water under the head acting on the turbine and is given below. For Francis turbine, 5 = 0.058 Nt {0.09 (FPS) + 0.0275 (MKS) (6.12) For propeller turbine .065 Ne? (FPS) a=! ds = 0.0242 Ne (MKS) (5.13) and discharge diameter is given by ‘ Ha p = 133 2H pps. MSIE nKs) (5.14) Having known Ds and Ns, the various dimensions of draft tube and scroll ease can be found. From the above it will be seen that there are three diameters for runner and the dimensions of the draft tube78 WATER TURBINES andl Scroll cate are linked with D | ed with Dy. Asan exptanaton the other diameters are shown. in the Fig. 310. pee Da'= diameter at the discharge opening of the runner Dy = minimum openin & diameter of runner (not shown in fig) Di = diameter of ent of entering edge of runner blade distributor centre line, erect 1 FZ ry f 510 Runner diameter and setting a 54 Reversible Turbines A pump turbine is @ dual coh iump erbine is purpose hydraulic machine. that ie functions of a puinp and a tarbine faa single = Pump turbines are represeata sirection ‘of wotation as turbine and oh 4 pump. Although pump orbs have also been developed. i sectptanc, non-reversible type I, they have not yet gained The machine "Tey by developing power as a ': REVERSIBLE TURBINES 9 hydraulic turbine when the flow passes back from the storage lake'to the lower pond. ‘The principle is shown in Fig. 5.11. The unit generates power while spinning in one direction performs as a pump when external power drives it in the opposite direction: serves as an instant reserve (inlet valve open); operates as a. synchronous condenser in either direction. The pumpjturbine is directly connected to an electrical machine, which serves as a motor ‘when the unit _operaies as a pimp and a generator when it ‘Operates as a turbine. Hee eee Fig. 5.11 A Francis-type reversible pump/turbine In the basic pumped-storage concept the pumping of water to the upper reservoir is done during periods of low system ero Son power A aaTaUIeS Power pee Fiods When its more valuable; Reversible ‘aaring peak Toad periods when it is more sab have been ‘developed upto 300 metres with Francis type of runner. Pump turbines may be divided into three principal types Ce reece eee eee ereaaste ee (i) Radial flow or Francis type, (ii) Mixed flow or diagonal flow type, and (iil) Axial flow oF propeller wpe. ‘The diagonal flow and propeller types are subdivided into fixed blade and adjustable blade types. Since a reversible pump turbine is both a pump and a turbine, a definite relationship exists between its pumping and generating capacities. For the same head and at the same speed, discharge capacity as a pump will be less than that as a turbine, The ratio can be determined by model tests and it ‘ean be modified only slightly by design changes.80, WATER TURBINES Operating duties of pump turbines are less favourable from cavitation stand point when pumping than when generating, Also pump turbine impellers are more sensitive to cavitation than turbine runner designed for the same specific speed. Therefore, such units have to be set deeper as compared to the turbine runner of the same specific speed, In case of fixed blade reversible machine for the same speed, the head corresponding to bést efficiency will be lower for the Pump. than working as turbine. However, by use of adjustable blades, the best efficiency points for pumping and generating can be substantially brought together, 545 Characteristics of Pamp Turbines ‘The specific speed at peak efficiency of a hydraulic machine does not change with changes in rotational specd. In the following discussions ali references to the specific speed of & pump turbine refer to specific speed at the best efficiency point. ‘The best efficiency specific speed of a pump is defined by » Age (6.15) where, 2 = rotational speed in p.m. Bj) = pump best efficiency specific speed in = ft-galj/min or m-mijs - Hy = pump best efticiency head, in ft (m) and, Qvu= pump best efficiency discharge in gal/min (m/sec) ‘The design specific speed of turbine is defined by ( Pa y niPayue Age. 6 Oa ae) 4 where, Ny = turbine design specific speed, Hi, turbine design head, ft. (m), and Pas turbine full gate capacity in horse power at Hy cer e CHARACTERISTICS.OF PUMP TURBINES 81 Tt can be shown that equations 5.15 and 5.16 have correlation upon substitution of discharge (Q) times head (H) for power (P) into equation 5.16. Stepanoff, using the same para- meters, Q and H, for both machines, expressed” the Felationship between pump and turbine specific speeds as ay =, (5.17) where ny — turbine specific speed, 4, = pump specific speed, and 11 = hydraulic efficiency, approximately equal to the square root of the pump best efficiency. Since pump criteria dominates the selection of a pump- turbine, USBR has applied the pump specific speed (ny) formula to all three classes of machines in the following treatment. If an ispeller/runner was selected only on the basis of turbine performance and the pump turbine operated in the turbine direction, expected eficiencies could be equal 1 oF greater than that of pure turbine. While the turbine best efficiency head is 15—30% greater the that pump best efficiency head, in actual practice’ when pumping performance must be considered, there is a sacrifice of approximately 1% of turbine efficiency for a pump turbine as opposed to a pure turbine. ‘The theoretical minimum value of the ratio of turbine best efficiency head (Hpi) to pump best efficiency head (Hyp) for a pump turbine is Hi 1 Hy ps 6.18) where ‘ty = pump hydraulic efficiency, and fy turbine hydraulic eff cy. ‘The value of this ratio increases as specific speed increases. Using the head and tail water surface elevations as reference, there is a further divergence of the turbine best efficiency head caused by penstock lostes. Adjustment of the turbine best efficiency head ratio is possible by varying the rotational speed (n), stich as by using a two speed generator motor. When either pumping. or generating, consideration must bbe given to avoiding cavitation damage and vibration that82 WATER TURBINES occur at heads greatly removed from that of the respective best efficiency head. “A multispeed generator-motor can be used, for a pump-turbine operating over a wide head range U.S.BR. ‘has suggested the maximum head range relative to pump best efficiency head for a single-speed pump turbine as shown in Table 5.4. Table 5.4 Permissible operating head range for reversible turbines (after USBR) Prany specie speed Max. Mia Pp fad ead Fetal emt, % % <1500 <29 no 95 1,500—2,000 2938.7 15 90 2,000~3,500 38.767.7 125 85 >3,500 >627 130 70 ‘The amount of time that a unit is expected to operate at the extreme high or low heads is a factor in determining the permissible operating head range. The allowable yn of operating head is narrower for pump-turbines than for real turbines. Turbine versus Pump Turbine Since a pump-turbine has a larger diameter (Dy) compared to a turbine, the shut off head is considerably greater for a pump turbine rotating in the turbine direction than for a comparable turbine operating at the same speed. 1¢ is more likely that the turbine shut off head will be in the operating head range for a pump turbine than for a turbine. Selection of pump best efficiency head or design head near the lower end of the operating head range favours turbine operation at the expense of pump operation. With the pump design head near the minimum head, turbine operation is possible’ at minimum head and the turbine best efficiency point is more likely to oceur within the operating head range, For multispeed operation, if rotational speed varies with the square root of the head, the efficiency will remain nearly constant regardless of change in head, and turbine power output will be possible as the head decreases toward zero head. CHARACTERISTICS OF PUMP TURBINES 83 As noted earlier, the pump turbine impeller diameter is larger as compared to turbine. It is 90% more and the number of blades in the pump turbine is 2—8 times lesser. ‘As the passages in turbine are shorter, deceleration of water when the runner is used as a pump is too abrupt for efficient diffusion within the runner, Conversely, water is accelerated jin the turbine direction; however, hydraulic acceleration is inherently more efficient than deceleration. ‘The acceleration Process does not cause significant loss in the efficiency of the turbine runner. The direction of water flow at the outer periphery is more radial for a turbine funner than for a pump turbine impeller. The throat diameter (Dz) will be nearly equal for either a turbine runner or pump-trbine impeller operating at the same. head and speed. The throat diameter (Dj) of a Pump-turbine is approximately 10% greater than that of a comparable centcifugal pump for the same speed. Effects of Specific Speed on Pump Performance A study of many sets in the world by USBR has given following experience limit, ayy (HT = 60—70,000 fe-gal;mil (US units) (5.19) Dy VET = 640-750 m-mY%s (metric units) (5.19a) When deep submergence is prohibitively expensive, the limiting factor will be lower value of the experience limit Moy VA ‘There are three general categories of centrifugal pumps a8 below : 1. Centrifugal pumps (radial flow) with radial discharge having low values of specific speed-less than 4,000 gal/min (77 m8s). ‘The hydraulic passages in centrifugal pump impellers are relatively long and the cross section relatively small. As the specific speed decreases, the passages become longer. 2. Diagonal flow (mixed fow) pumps having specific speeds in the range of 48,000 gal/min (77-155 mis) ‘They have axial and radial components of velocity at the impeller discharge.at WATER TURBINES 3. Propeller pumps (axial flow) with axial discharge having specific speeds greater than 8,000 gal/min (155 ms), The ‘hydraulic passages through the impeller are relatively short and larger in cross section, For a high specific speed pump, the best efficiency point occurs near zero head and maximum discharge, The curve showing the relationship of the head versus discharge for a high specific speed pump rises relatively steep from the point of ‘best ficiency to that of shutof® head, and the power input increases with increasing head. Tor a Tow specific speed pump, the best efficiency point will occur near the shut off head. ‘The lower the specific speed, the less becomes the slope of the head versus discharge curve from the best efficiency head to shutoff head. The ‘maximum power input to the pump usually occurs just below best efficiency head and decreases with increasing head. Generally, the higher the specific speed of the pump, the smaller the physical dimensions for a given capacity and head, Pumps that have the highest attained efficiency are those with specific speeds approximating 2,500 galfinin (48 mje). To prevent cavitation at a given head, the submergence required for a pump will inereave as specihe speed increases. Effects of Wicket Gates on Pump Performance Although wicket gates are provided on pump turbines for controlling turbine load, the plot of pump characteristics for Pump-turbines versus wicket gates also shows that wicket gates are beneficial for pump operation. During pump operation, the position of the wicket gates is usually set at the point Where the best efficiency can be obtained-at the given head With decreasing gate opening correction for an increasing head. Under certain conditions, such as pumping at love fead, the gate position is adjusted to decrease the power input or to reduce capacity for preventing undue cavitation, When operating at heads other than best efficiency head, the ‘decrease in pump lficiency for pump-turbines with wicket (gates is less than the decrease inefficiency of pumps without wicket gates. Also at shutoff head the conversion CHARACTERISTICS OF PUMP TURBINES 85 i is more efficient for a pump f velocity head to pressure head i a Bbc ith ‘wicket gates; thus resulting in a higher shutoff oad (gates closed) and a reduced power input than for a “comparable pump without wicket gates. r describing the effects of cavitation on unit Jnachinee having similar geometry and hydraulic characte- Tia ip defied as the Thoma signa (0) New (5.20) on Me where H.= head developed (pump) or absorbed (turbine) in fe (mn) Noss = net positive suction head at some location, in ft (m), and = critical sigma value at which there is an abrupt fer Sccrease in performance of the hydraulic machine. Nom (net positive suction head) of the pump is defined as : Nya = Hy + Hy ~ Hy ~ He 6.21) eu head with reference to til water surf aft head with reference to tail water surface ov inpelefeunne enelie, n(n) Hy = atmospheric pressure head for altitude at pump suction supply, in ft (m) ‘Hy = vapour pressure head of water for highest expected temperature, in ft (m), and Hy = head loss in the pump suction line and impeller approach, in ft (m). given by the formula The vale of agp oop = 63 X 10-8 (m4,)8 (US Units) A Sp LAT X 10-8 (n,,)48 (metric) (5.228) (5.226)86 WATER TURBINES The conditions at which cavitation is first observed in pump, model tests using a transparent suction tube, ate Aefined as sigma begin (9, ) or trial sigma given by + 6 = 7.2 x 10° (n,,)8 (FPS) (6.28a) % = 1.37 x 10°9 (ng) (metric) (5.28b) as obtained by one manufacturer (Voest Alpine). Although critical sigma increases with increasing specific speed, cavitation can be tolerated at the lower heads which are usually associated with high specific speed pumps. ‘The destructive effects of cavitation increase with the cube of the head. The relationship of critical sigma with the specific speed shown in equations 5.22 and 5.28 can be considered 2 general law, but the design of an impeller for @ particular specific speed can be varied to some extent by varying the throat diameter and the impeller vane entrance angle to obtain the desired suction performance. Suction performance can be improved by sacrificing pump efficiency. Localized cavitation usually occurs at sigma values higher then the critical sigma values. Although localized cavitation is too limited to have an appreciable effect on the pump efficiency. it is of concern since sufficient material can erode from an impeller to affect the structural integrity of the impeller, U.S.BR. has defined excessive cavitation as the removal of 0.00004 Ibs. of metal er operating hour per square foot of impeller/runner throat area (at Ds) or 19.5% 10-5 kg per operating hour per square metre, This applies to aluminium, bronze and stainless Meel, For carbon steel, the allowable rate of metal removal is four times greater. As a compromise between the deep seiting required of Pumps for eliminating cavitation and the likelthood of attendant excavation and structural costs, units under heads of 122 m (400 ft) are designed with the intent that they will be, exposed to limited cavitation. Avoiding cavitation Becomes more critical at heads above 122m, Becaure of the relative compactness of high head hydraulic equipment, it is feasible to excavate underground caverns to obtain the DIMENSIONS OF A PUMP TURBINE 87 required sub-mergence, and the trend is towards underground plants at high heads. The available sub-mergence at the plant should be studied ‘over the operating head range to ensure that the plant sigma is greater than critcel sigma for the major portion ofthe uate submergence usually operating schedule. Tnadequat Y Protnts problems at the maximum and insur of th operating head range. 516 Dimensions of a Pump Turbine i of a reversible turbine can Several impeller characteristics of @ be indicated as a function of specific speed. The ratio of ipberal velocity at Dy to the water spouting velocity as 2 fonction of specific speed, i of particular interest. This velocity ratio is commonly represented by the symbol $x which defines the relationship between the best efficiency head, rotational speed, and diameter of the impeller in the following expression nD, a #4 eet bead 6.53 x 10-8 nD; 5,252) = SP ws) (25a) 19D Dk (mersic 5.250) Aaayin” Etmewi) 25H) where n= rotational speed (synchronous) Dy = discharge diameter of impeller or entrance diameter of runner, ft (m), and Hy = best cfficioncy head developed (pump) or absorbed (turbine), ft (m). Having once known Dy, she throat diameter Dy and height of wicket gate can be obtained from ratios given in Table 5.5.88 WATER TURBINES Table 5.5 Ratios of impeller discharge diameter to throat diameter and wicket gate height ve, specific speed © Pap Silo ais Babes ‘Speed Pump Turbine Pump & Pomp Turbine fallint tle Tarkine Pap Turbina 160300 eg 0.60 O18 2000 = 1681.85 1.20 out O17 = 165 182 Las 12 0.18 = 300 148162 1.04 0.16 0.23 3000 139154 0.97 0.195 0.25 ~ 60 1.38 1510.96 0.20 0.26 = 70 130 142 0.90 0.28 0.29 4000 1251.37.88 0.95 0,32 - 80 2485087 0.26 0.925. = 90 121 131 - 0.27 0.34 50000 — 19 ae 0.29 = - 1000 1181.8 | 0.30 - 6000 = ay - ~ = 70000 ee = = - ~ 1500 LB = - - 8000 ~ Is - 7 ea where, Dy = Discharge diameter of impeller (max,) Ds = throat diameter of impelier (min) M = height of ket gate Concersons 4 ‘The pump and turbine specific speed units conversions are shown below given that n,, is the specific speed of pump and ysis the specific speed turbine, Pg (ft-galfmin) = 51.7 n,, memtjs DIMENSIONS OF A PUMP TURBINE 89 yy (fe-gal/min) = 65 ny ftp. ny mkw = 3.08 n,, mms 9, = 4.45 n,, fechp. a, mkw = 3.81 n, fi-hp. 1 hp (metric) = 75 metre-kgisec 1 kw 101.971 m-kg/see 1 hp (metric) = 1,014 hp (FPS) 1 bp (FPS) = 550 filbjsec = 0.7457 kw.se 6 Preliminary Dimensioning of Power House 6.1 Introduction The dimensions of power house are dependent upon the size of the generation units and the auxiliaries that are required to be placed in the building. The details will be found in Secticn I. ‘This chapter deals with the dimensioning of power station during the initial planning stage. 62 Constituents of a Power House ‘As discussed earlier the three essential constituents of a power house are (i) | Unit Bay, or Machine Hall, (ii) Erection Bay, and (i) Control Bay ‘The dimensions of the unit bay will depend upon the dimen- sions of the draft tube, scroll case and generator as well as the auxiliaries required to be placed, Generally the auxiliary ‘equipment placed in the unit bay will be mechanical & hydro mechanical auxiliary equipment shown in Fig. 24. and detailed in Table 22.1. The dewatering sump should be connected to the lowest point of the draft tube. It will {economize in space, generally speaking, if the dewatering sump circular in plan is provided common between two draft tubes. Providing dewatering sump at one end of the power house and leading water in it through a system of pipe lines Sian DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE 1 may neither be economical nor conducive to easy operation, Sometimes it _may be necessry and economical to keep the inlet value in the unit bay instead of in a separate chamber, although it may entail a larger span for the crane. An easy method for finding the dimensions for a unit bay is to draw superimposed outer line diagram for the draft tube, sctoll case and generator housing on a graph paper. ‘Then provide | to 1.5 metre extra space on all four sides from the extreme outer line of either of the above structures whose dimensions are greatest in that direction. The methods of finding these dimensions are given later on. ‘The erection bay is used for the erection of runner, generator rotor and repair of transformer etc. ‘The space should be svfficient for one runner, one rotor and some extra space. Generally two-thirds or three-quarters of the width of one unit will suffice, There are a few power stations which have no erection bay at all. It is possible only where manufacturers are near the site of power station and transport clearances are sufficiently large. The floors below the approach floor in the erection bay may be utilized for store, machine shop etc. The control bay may be situated either upstream of the unit bays founded separately or on the extended portion of the draft abe as a multistoreyed structure. If conditions permit for suitable placing of draft tube gate gantry then the latter alternative is cheaper. ‘The control bay will generally house the electrical auxiliaries and other control equipment, auxiliaries, alongwith other facilities. The route from generator to transformers should be minimum as it involves use of bare copper bars which are very expensive. 6.3 Dimensioning of Power House The various steps in the preliminary dimensioning of the power station are the following : J. Number of turbines is to be found out as to how many turbines would be required for a particular type of load generation and streem flow as explained in para 5. 2. Selection of tmbine—Given the head and the discharge and load pattern, find out the type of turbine most suitable for the job as explained in para 5.8. 3. Corrected specific speed of the suitable type of turbine is92 DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE then atte ou By fist fixing the ideal specific speed and thon, {he synchconous speed, to which the eorneceey speed should conform as explained in para 5.11, £ Tie dinersins of an inpulse trbine can be found trom rane Big and the ditcharge diameter of ractin teh fon para 5.13, Fai cinenion Of draft ube and spiral case may be found as cxplained in paras 6.4 and 6.5 and the dieension of the Senerator as explained in para 6.6, E Alter nding the above, the dimensions of the unit bay in flan a8 well ax dimensions of erection bay and ct onion bay are fixed as given in para 6.2. (©) Level of B.O-T. crane rail which determine the olathe (Of superstructure. The ‘hook of the rag should be atch a level that there is enough clearance above an installed unit when the shaft is being taken out from the unit to the erection bay, (©) The height of ctane rail above the generator floor would thus be the sum of the following © © Maximum height of generator part including exciter ete. above generator floor. (3) Glearance required above item (i) = 0.5 m, Gil) Length of shaft including rotor/runner to. be ‘transported in one piece from unit to iv), Length of sting below hook (v) Distance of hook below crane rail (A) The height of roof member above sail will be the sum of the following : () Distance of EOT girder top from the rail, Gi) "Distance of top of crane pulleys above (:) (iil) Clearance between (ii) and bottom of roof member = 0.5 m, ‘The height of crane rail is discussed in para 617, ‘erection hay. i i h DRAFT TUBE van wane 93, Single pier draft tube Dg = 1.2 — 2.0 metre (b) Dg > 2.0 metre Fig. 6.1 (a) Double pier draft tube94 DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE, 64 Draft Tube The dimensions of the draft tube for the preliminary Purposes are given in Fig. 6.1 as per USBR pra The dimensions and shape of this structure are actually given by manufacturers of turbine. MaDe mae sted ina Oyranar sca te SPIRAL CASE 95 6.5 Spiral Case The dimensions of the spiral case liner as per U.S. B. R. practice are given in Fig. 6.2 ‘As per practice adopted by BHEL, the dimensions of metallic and concrete spirals are given below : Metallis Spiral Casing ‘The overall dimensions of the spiral casing depend upon the inlet diameter of the runner (Dy) and the head acting on the machine. ‘The major dimensions of the spiral casing with respect to D; and head H are given in Fig. 6:3. Tt Fig. 6.3 Spiral casing Concrete Casing : ‘The concrete turbine casi ‘a maximum head of 80 m. It consists of semispiral and open portion. Usually the spiral portion is of trapeznidal shape. The various shapes are given in Fig. 64. The enveloping Fig. 64 Concrete casing j96, DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE angle of the ypiral (#o) is usually Kept from 180° to 225°, ‘The overall dimensions of the casing may be determined at follows. The radius of the inlet section of the spiral casing. Ry = 1.6 D, 6.) ‘The width of the open portion of the casing B=Ri+KD, (62) K = 095 for fy = 180° 11 for $y = 200° to 295° 66. Impulse Turbines Paras 6.4 and 6.5 deal with reaction turbines. ‘The layout and the dimensions in an impulse turbine will be different, ‘The working out of dimensions for an impulse turbine have been described in para 5.12. USBR has given the following guide lines for dimensioning the substructure, Horizontal Units ‘The jet centre line is tangent to the pitch diameter, D, of the wheel and the buckets are centred on this pitch diameter. ‘The double elliptical bucket is proportional to the full open Jet diameter, d. Bucket width by = 3.75 d Bucket length L = 2.75 d Outside diameter of wheel =D+L o D425 (63) ‘The housing above the lower jet is kept to a minimum to reduce windage losses, but the wheel pit should be large enough to ensure free discharge from the buckets. ae Pit width by = A495 below H = 2000 ft (6.4a) by = SMG above Ht = 4000 (6.40) where Qw = discharge per wheel, and H = net head. A 1:10 slope of the wheel pit floor toward the tail race is’ desirable to expedite the flow and ample venting is GENERATOR DIAMETER 7 necessary to avoid partial vacuum, bent area recommended heing 2bs (height of roof from maximum tail water) ‘The lower horizontal tangent to the pitch diameter of a horizontal unit must be well above maximum operating tail ‘water to avoid fouling, the minimum height above maximum, tail water is recommended as 4 ft (1.2 m) and that above normal tail water as 8 ft (2.4 m). In plan, in case two wheels are driving the generator, the maximum angle of divergence of manifold for the two wheels is kept 45° from the generator centre line, Vertical Units ‘The. bucket dimensions in this case also are the same as in horizontal units so that the outside diameter of wheel =2D+2754 The pit diameter should be at least 2.5 D to ensure escape of water. ‘The width of -the tail race is usually kept the same as 2.5 D with an exit velocity of 2-4 PPS (0.6—1.2 MKS) at minimum water level. The pit should be vented through ‘an opening whose area is twice the pit width. There are usually 2 to 6 nozzles per wheel supplied from a spiral-shaped manifold and with needles operated in unison by one governor. The manifold should have a velocity of from 13 fr/sec (4 m/sec) for lower heads to $0 fijsec (9 m/sec) for the higher heads, In this case also the minimum height above tail water is kept as 4 ft (1.2m) and that above normal tail water as 8 ft (24 m) sufficient concrete is provided around the manifold to hold the reaction of the jets. In this case the diameter of the shaft is about 10% more than in reaction turbines. 6.7 Generator Diameter This dimension will depend on the number of poles and capacity of generator and the manufacturer. However, two practices are given below : Doland has given the following formula Dp = 4.68 Py? 400 Ko288 (6.5) where, Dz = diameter of stator in inches98. DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE Px = No. of poles K = Capacity of generator in KVA As per B.H.E. 1. practice, the main parameters of the generator are given below. (a) Reted output of the generator in MVA (b) Synchronous speed of rotation {c)_ Moment of inertia required from the generaior rotor (6) Overloading capacity, if any. Air gap diameter and active core Jength The overall dimensions of the hydro generator depend mainly upon the airgap diameter (D;) and the active length of the core (It). ‘The guidelines for selecting these parameters in relation with the output and synchronous speed of the generator are given in Figures 6.5 and 6.6. The coiber major pasemeters of the generator may be determined with the help of the following expressions (see Bigutes 6.7 end 6.8) + awe ae a ; as H in eo bee curpur mma Fig. 6.5 Output versus speed and D, GENERATOR DIAMETER 99 Fig. 6.7 Umbrella type Outer core diameter (D,) p=v,(i+ 2) 60) Stator frame diameter (Dj) Dy = Dy + 1.2m +E)sim en‘ 100 DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE Fig. 6.8 Suspended type construction Inner diameter of generator barrel (Ds) Dy= Dif 16020m a) Length of tater are in = h4018 401422 4005 Vin emia (69) audi sete 10) where, V ir the rated voltage in kV. ‘Height of the lead bearing bracket The height of the load bearing bracket hy, can be determined by the following formula = hy = K4/By for suspended type of construction (6.11) hy = KB, for umbrella type of construction (6.12) where, K = 0.85for a load of 50 t/arm of the bracket. = 1.0 for a load of 100 farm of the bracket 1.1 for a load of 150 t/arm of the bracket ‘The number of arms of the bracket are decided on the basis of total load on the thrust bearing, ie. maximum hydraulic thrust of the turbine runner and weight of the rotating parts. Axial hydraulic thrust The axial hydraulic thrust on the runner can be determined by the formula HYDRAULIC THRUST Puc = KF Di Hoa where, Pax = axial hydraulic thrust in tonnes; Dy = inlet diameter of runner in m, Hy, & maximum head in m, and for K = see Tables 6.1 and 6.2 Table 6.1 For Kaplan runners Number of runner = 4 5G. blades K 0.85 0.87 0.90 0.93 Table 6.2 For Francis runners Maximum 5075100200300, head K 0.33— 0.28~ 0.23— 0.15— O0.10— 040 03¢ 027 0.20 014 3 a0 = 7 SSI wm Fig. 6.9 Generator rotor weight 101 (6.13) 8 0.95 400 0.07— og102 DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE Weight of the generator rotor The reference curve or preliminary determination of the generator rotor weight (Wg) in relation with air gap diameter (Di) and active core Tength (1k) per metre is given in Fig 6.9. The valves obtained from this curve shall be multiplied by the active core length (ly) to get the rotor weight. . 6.8 Height of Crane Rail Madhavan & Nag have given crane span and height of crane rail from generator floor as shown in Table 6. Table 6.3 Fade Capaciy Greve spon “Tight of ere rail From aM in VA ft inerator foor in mate 30 5,000 15 15; ie 10,000 15.0 1 i 15,000 18.0 175 60 5,000 10.0 95 i 10,000 1s 10.5 i 15,000 13.0 115 " 20,000 15.0 125 iy 30,000 175 140 120 13,000 1s 10 7 20,000 125 15, “ 30,000 145 13.0 40,000 160 140 7 50,000 17.0 145, » 60,000 18.5 15.5 ” 70,000 - 16.0 245, 20,000 us 10.5 » 40,000 45 13.0 a 60,000 175 45 i 80,000 = 15.5 69 E.O.T, Crane Capacity The heaviest load that a power house crane has to lift is that of generator rotor. One method of finding rotor weight is given in Fig. 6.9. After studying the data regarding rotor | 0.8, CRANE CAPACITY 103 weight from ninetoen installations. Gordan has arrived at the following equation for weight of rotor having standard inertia. Ry = 50 (MVA/a050-74 (6.14) where Ry = Rotor weight in tonnes for rotors with standard inertia MVA = Rotor rating at 60°C temperature’ rise n= Rotor speed, 90 r.p.m. minimum ‘On small and isolated system below 100 MVA extra inertia is required for stability. Standard inertia for generator rotors can be determined from the equi GD? = 310000 (MVAjats)L-25 (6.13) where GD? = Standard inertia (tonne/m?) G = Rotor weight (conne) D = Diameter of ‘gyration (m) In order to allow for the effect of extra inertia on rotor weight, Eqn. 6 14 can be modified as Rey = 50 (MVA/u09)074 114.0 (K—1)) (6.16) where © = cooflicient of added inertia K = inertia ratio, defined as rotor inertia divided by standard inertia, The coefficient C is a measure of effect of added inertia on rotor weight i.e, a value of C = 0.5 would indicate that the weight of rotor” increased by 50% for 100% increase in inertia. After examining tho data ‘of 10 rotors, Gordon concluded that extra inertia may or may not add to weight to rotor depending upon its design. A conservative estimate for the crane capacity requiced to lift a rotor with extra inertia can be obtained by assuming a coefficient C = 0.36 in equation 6.16. Data obtained by Gordon for large’ slow speed rotors indicated that their weight is about twrice predicted by equation 6.14. However, there wore insufficient data to develop a reasonably accurate formula for units with speed below 90 14 The generator rotors need not necessarily be lifted as complete bodies during erection. ‘The formulae given in10t DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE above equations may therefore, result in crane capacities several times higher than actually required, if used without proper caution. 610 Pump Turbines ‘The size of the impeller and the depth of submergence for ‘a pump turbine can be found from Para 5.14. Knowing once the discharge diameter Dy, the size of the spiral case can be found out from Fig. 6.10 which has been taken from USBR. Design Example 6.1 Dimensions of pump turbine and spiral case, USBR has given the following example of estimating pump turbine characteristics which is designed with the following conditions. Output + Head 100 MW 1000 Fe (305 m) ‘Turbine operating range : 935 — 1045 ft (285 — 319 m) Pump operating range : 955 ~ 1065 ft (291 — 925 m) Pump best (peak) efficiency head : 1000 ft (305 m) Turbine efficiency at full gate and design head = 89% Pump efficiency at best efficiency head = 92% Hy — Hy ~ Hi (pump mode) = 92 f¢ (9.75 m) In this example limitations of size, speed, or submergence are not placed on the unit selection, Turbine discharge Qy at full gate can be calculated from the formula P= Mw = Qtr TH 580 (US) we QB eerie Tox oor (erie) Thus Qy = MWC34) 100 asa) “GC1134 hd me ~ 0.1154 (1000) 0.89 = 1329 cusee, PUMP TURBINES 7 aaa L bse fant Hy \ lh i £ { a! vom noniiy 10 Wa HarTRaMd St SuOKNDNID 25¥9 Wa 105 5 7 i Fig. 6.10 Ratio of spiral case dimensions to impeller specific speed (USBR Practice)106 DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE PUMP TURBINES a ommmprone| | Pee eee py sett wn |* BE 9 of Ot SaoRTOIX ATG 7 FaOHRTO ee e fF $4 vom |S) FRE | gf ity it = 37.6 cumecs, ‘ange | =| ge | 1 BL ag a An assumed radio of unity used for turbine output to ipobat| 2 3B pomp input at design head, ‘Thus power ratio Pyba ae Pecan) i - iH best efficiency ean be adjusted, within limits, by the pump lemon S| 1 1 By BR se turbine design or wicket gate position to obtain a balance ued ede) a a Penance Derween motor input and generator output over the operating ‘s SE TE ; Bete ae range. g| min [El nee e te ump discharge at best efficiency is calcula 2 eee rer} [THe PUMP discharge Qp st best eficency i ealeulned Blarre|, ieetetl as ; QpHpr jms | ie te = Mw = Qe Hp: 3 g ge ee eg Pm MW = enn) 350 (FPS) € hy 2 [Elise , "8 ge at Xe & |S} get ag ca Mw = —2eHor yy 3 = si a” m cl02) lay 3 é ee gag a 2 Qp ~ MWASH ny _ 100 x 1941 x 0.92 3 S[2E 3§9§ aSeg sag 28 ae ® iat 011134 >< 1000 3 S Sees Bees Seed Re ee = 1088 cusee 5 = ss aa Gg 1088 5 3 gg, 8g ge [ke Mw = 100 x 0.92 _ f s{' | 88288 ss o' Be ee Oe SOE ATK H, = SBOE IO? x 305 aa Usa fe = 30.8 camec. | 4 Ee ot gg OBR ‘The pump rotational speed (n) is calculated from the specific ‘ S aly = speed formula and is the same for both FPS and MKS RE 4 alte to & dea Ee caleulations bes 28 eg «6Gee «Ci 2800 (1009)848 roa se ae) gfe : (OK Tas x Tons; foe = a = 636 np. to: ils ga 2 8 a8 (82 we cp F afeu See ~Go.g — = 696 p.m. i el. ae fetta atte: ‘a assuming that the specific speed of purmp is 2500 galfimia : ay EY g S$ gs (48-4 msec), This assumption of specifie speed is based on Le a - Ea { the experience of different plants actually under operation, i G3 = i E the data on some of which is given in Table 6-4, i ag g foe 42 a ‘The synchronous speeds close to 636 are 600 and 700 r.pam. . e 2 og ges 3 While the upper value of tgp oH = 750 (metric), the lower = a ' | limit is ny (FF = 920. Since n 4H value of 852 cumecs : : i 2 8 be 9 : mE ay Wh EB by ; ‘ - a aoe 2 # 7 i i z 8s 88 3 aS g Ps108 DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE is beyond the current experience limit at a specific 4844 mils rotational speed of 600 rpm i chosen, Ais tke number of poles which gives 600 spm is divisible by 4. To maintain best efficiency head and discharge for the design conditions, pump specific speed (the required diameter) ix adjusted by the ratio of rpm. Corrected spe given by = 2358 gal/min (45.6 m/s) Ifa specific speed value of 2500 gal/min is used : alfmmin is used at 600 rpm sither pump best efficiency head or discharge and power will change, At 2,358 gal/min pump specific speed dy = 1.04. ‘The impeller/runner diameter Dy is given by D= b1 AH a Ot x 7,000. 653 x 10TH ~ 65F x 10-8 x 600 = 05988 aT 08 x 505 Pe Te IPFA TB x 17 x wp M2550 ‘Table 5.5 gives the values for M and Dg wicket gate height, M=0.145 x D 0.145 x 8,394 = 1.217 fe (0.371 m) Impeller throat diameter 394 i Referring to Fig. 6.10, spiral case dimensions are as : Dam ay = B88! = 5.451 0 (1.661 m) A= 13 x 8.394 = 10.912 f¢ (5.526 m) radius B= 1.2 x 8.394 = 10.073 ft (8.070 m) radius Cm Ll x 8.394 = 9.299 f (2.814 m) radius Em 1.0 x 8.394 = 8.994 ft (2.558 m) radius G = 06 x 8.394 = 5.036 fe (1.535 m) dia. hence A+ © = 10.912 + 9.293 = 20.145 ft (6.140 m) dia : | | PUMP TURBINES 109 B+ E = 10.073 + 8.304 ~ 18.467 ft (5.628 m) dia The longitudinal and transverse dimensions of the spiral ‘cate will be 20 ft (6.1 m) and 18.5 ft (5.7 m) respectively. Equations 5.21 to 5.23 are used for finding required submergence i.e. the distance of distributor centre line to ‘minimum tail water at best efficiency head oy = 7.2 x 10 (n, 89 = 7.2 x 10-8 x (2358)48 0.23 Nygy HX 9 = 1,000 x 0.23 = 230 ft (70.1) Lat Hy — Hy ~ Hy = 32 ft (9.75 m) ‘The required minimum submergence (Hy) at best efficiency head is Hy = 230 — 32 —= 198 ft (60.4 m) By comparing 198 ft to actual submergence values listed in Table 6.4 for similar pump turbine installations, apparent that the sigma begin (, ) curve is quite conservative. Note: Frequently sigma critical rather than sigma begin is used as a submergence criterea for determining the pump-turbine setting. Ideally, submergence calculations are based on the elevation at Dy. Because of the uncertainties of the exact impeller dimensions and sigma curve data, during preliminary studies, submergence is frequently based on distributor centre line elevation for convenience. Consideration must also be given to the number of units operating i.e. capacity versus tail water. ‘A number of trial solutions may be necessary to determine the submergence, as a compromise of interrelated parameters of speed, specific speed, unit size and a submergence that is adequate for the conditions. ‘Thus in the above example if meximum submergence was limited to 100 ft (30.5 m), required specific speed would be 1400 gal/min (27.1 m¥js) operating at 360 rpm. To satisfy the ‘same turbine power output, the lower specific speed unit would be about 50% larger in size. Design Example 6.2 Preliminary Dimensions of Power House (in Plan) DATA Net head, H = 195 metres = 640 ft (say)0 DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE Discharge, Q = 70 m8js = 2472 cusees Considering efficiencies of turbine and generator Net power potential = 7. ng 9.81 QH Taking efficieacy of turbine as 93 percent and of generator 85 96 pereent Power = 0.93 0.96 x 9.81 x70X 195 = 119560 kW = 119.56 MW Capacity in metric horse power = 1028 oy = 1098 = 168,000 MHP Turbine horse power in F.P.S. 640 62.4% QE X 62.4 x 0.93 _ 2472 x6: 7 550 a 350 = 166,910 bp. x 710 x 195 Specific speed : 930 _, 990 Vi W600 or Ns= 163.61 metric, Nee == 36.762 say 36.8 (British) Sprckroncus speed + Ht 36.8 x (610,54 166,910 289.54 = 290 rpan, No. of poles = 129750 _ 20.687, say 20 poles Syachronos speed = 292° 300 revimin NAF _ 300% T6500. Het 630 5 = 38.09 “Thus selected Na = 28 (FPS) or 169 metric. Corrected Na = DESIGN EXAMPLE a Peripheral co ficent a = 0.083 (Ns) +. 0.09 = 0.053 (38) + 0.09 = 0.58910 Discharge diameter: 153 $a x 1 N 153 x 0.68910 x-¥640° PLE PEPE EEE = 8.8777 fe. = 27066 mevres Draft tube dimensions USBR. Single pior (Fig. 6.1) Width of one opening = 1.572 x 8.88 = 13.96 ft = 4.255 metre = 4.25 metre (say) Pier thickness = 0.58 x 888 = 5.15 ft 1,569 metré = 1.85 metre (say) Scroll case dimonsions—Stec! seroll case (Fig. 6.2) From USBR drawing D E 1176340 r 181 1607 4.90 c 160" 14.20 4.30 J 133, 1g 3.60 Generator diameter D, = 4.68 P0466 0253, where D, = Diameter of stator ini inches Py = Number of poles = 20 K = Capacity of generator in KVA = 133,300 kVA at 0.9 power factor Dy = 4.68 x (20,9488 x (133000)02%2 ~ 295.40 inches = 24.60 ft. (say 25 fe) “= 7.62 metres12 DIMENSIONING OF POWER HOUSE Including the air-cooler etc. total diameter of generator housing = 9m (say) Unit spacing ete. By superimposing the outlines of draft tube, scroll case and generator, the width of power house and unit spacing can be found by taking the largest dimension in each direction, This would be more evident from the following table giving unit spacing and width of power house. All dimensions are given in metres from the ‘centroline of shaft. Direction of dinersion “Unie Spacing Penstock 4254-552 Bm 5.40 9124.5 Spiral caso 5.4042 side = 5.0 = 7.40 Rightside 5.02 = 490 4.5 Draft tube 5.0242 = 702" Unit Spacing = 1442 = 14A(say) Width of Power House Down Doesnot F=490 45 stream affect $2.01) +1.0(2) Generator 70 + 15(a) =70 Upstream — —do— 4.50 Spiral case 5.60(4) ‘*Tyhicknea of side wall. Note : 1. Thicknes of concrete upto wall 2, Clearance between gentry columns and generator 3. Tage length of gantry coluron ‘Tait does not take into account space required if any for penstock valve, Contotieg | Tota Drape tube | Sprat cose | Genertor | timmnsion | dimension 7 Characteristics of Different Layouts 7.4 Introduction As has already been indicated earlier, there are different ‘lassifications of hydropower schemes. It would be easier to describe the various types of layouts based on hydraulic characteristics and this Part B deals. with the different types of layouts based on water head available, viz., the low, medium and high heads which have already been mentioned in Chapter 3 of Part A. 72 Alternatives A number of alternatives are possible, where the head available ina given reach of the stream is utilised by a number of stations. If the back water curve for one plant coincides with the tail water of the upper plant, the arrangement is called a ‘tight one. Where backwater extends above the tail water, the development is an overlapping one, The one in which the back water remains lower than the tail water level at the upper plant, is called loose arrangement. The overlapping arrangement is required by the necessity of adequate depth for navigation, while the loose ‘arrangement representing less than full utilization may be duo to construction difficulties. 113Hi 114 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT LAYOUTS I Table 7. Comparative featares of low, medium and | hhigh head plants Toad Sadie ead igh ad Size of equips Large Medium Staal M1, Shaft incina- Inclined Verticat Vextical/ ton Vertical horizontal 12, Possibility of | Nil Rare Good reverse running of turbine 19, Load charac Bato Basejlower peale High peck Me Uniomtot High Moderate Low | electricity based | epee i 15, Salle” Low Medium Higa i >eapecly "| 16, Capital cos — Low/Moderate Moderate/Low High | | 17, Construction Short period Moderate Lone LAYOUTS 5. ‘The length of the river from the upstream end of the back ‘Water curve to the end of tail race is called the influenced reach of the river, ores Different types of arrangements are shown in Fig. 7.1. 7.3 As has already been discussed in Part A, the low, medium and high heads are only arbitrary. However, there are certain characteristics of the three different types which Amanagaeubetigns waren cxve Fig. 7.1 Different arrangements for utilizing water head in a stream are enumarised in Table 7.1. These types aro discussed in detail in later chapters while the remarks in Table 7.1 may be taken at a general information which may or may not be applicable in a specific case8 Layout of Low Head Schemes 8.1 Introduction ‘The operating head in low head station is obtained by iting the difference in river bed-elevations, which is possible by creating a smoother path for flow, ‘The kinetic energy of water flowing down a steep-bed stream is all lost in friction, turbulence and is ultimately converted into heat. ‘The same water can be transported in a well designed open channel or pipe at a flatter gradient, making available the balance head for development of power. ‘The same head can be made available by constructing a low dam or weir at the downstream end of the river reach, thus enabling the flow to occur ata flatter gradient due to greater depth of fiow. The operating head can also be made available by short circuiting loops on streams. Low head power stations utilizing the rise and fall of sea water due to tides have come up in the past few years. 82 Low Head Power Station Low head power stations may thus be classified into the following (Power station utilizing the head available in a reach having steep gradient and rapids. Such a situation may be developed by (a) Constructing a power channel taking off at the upstream end of the reach and meeting the POWER STATION ON POWER CHANNELS 117 stream again at the downstream end of the power station, power house being located on the channel itself and a low diversion wair made at the head. ‘This is called power channel layout, and comes under the category of “divided” fall layout. (b) Constructing a woir across the river at the down- stream end of the river reach being exploited and locating the power station adjacent to the weir. ‘These sometimes called run-ofthe-river layout and come under the category of “concentrated” fall layout. 1g tidal heads. (iv) Depression layouts 8.3. Power Station on Power Channels A typical layout of the power channel arrangement is shown in Figure 21, The structures required for the arrangoment are: (@) Diversion weir across the stream with the necessary river control and training works. (ii) Head regulator for the canal with a raised sill at intake Desilting basin and outlet canal for carrying the deposited silts. ‘Transition to the canal and control gate. Power channel. Forebay and intake Penstock Power station, and (ix) Tail races The entry of very coarse rolling silt into the canal is prevented by the high sill at entry, the deposited silt being scoured out periodically by opening the under sluice of the weir, Relatively coarse sand is further deposited into the silting basin at the inlet and scoured out periodically. Where the water is relatively free of suspended matter, the setting basin may be dispensed with. The provision of control118 LAYOUT OF LOW HEAD SCHEMES arrangement at inlet is necessary to control the discharage passing into the canal when the parent stream is in flood. Breast walls or floating booms are provided to obstruct the flow or floating matter into the canal, For utilizing a particular head in a given reach of the river the location of the diversion structure, whether at the beginning of the reach, at the end or at intermediate position, would influence the height of the diversion structure and the length of the power channel, as below : a) iversion structure at the beginning of reach : Height of structure = smallest Length of canal = longest (ii) Diversion structure at end of reach : ‘Height of structure = highest Length of canal = shortest ‘Actually this would fall in the category of concentrated fall (iii) Diversion structure at intermediate position : Height of structure = between (i) & (ii) above Length of canal = between (i) & (ii) above ‘The most economic solution would lie in that location where the total cost of the diversion structure plus power channel is the least. 84 Concentrated Fall or Run-of-river Layout The geographical, topographical, geological and hydrologic considerations influenced many run-of-the-river plants deve- loped in Europe where large number of weirs, were built for navigation and power development. LLL LLL LLL LL ieee Fig, 8.1 Block layout RUN-OF-RIVER LAYOUT 19 ‘There are two basic types of such developments. Plants having the low discharge level raised by the development to ‘considerably higher than the flood level, have an operating head available throughout the year; while in the other the raising of low water level is done to a level lower than the high flood level and hence no head is available during the flood season, ‘The supply in the latter case is intermittent and the plant is said to be drowned out during flood season. In the “block type of layout, the power station is Tocated adjacent to the weir. ‘The river width is either araple to accomodate both the power station and the weir or the power station is located in a bay. The bay may or may not be provided with an intake structure, for controlling the flow. A typical layouit is shown in Figure 8.1 and comprises of : (i) The weir with necessary control and training works. (ii) The intoke structure for the bay with coarse racks and skimmer wall, (iii) The divide pier between the power house and the weir and between the tail race and the stream. The intake structure is not necessary where the river has little silt and floating matter, The construction of ‘a separate intake or bay for the power station is costly but is a great advantage in case of ice troubles. Where the length'of power station is very long for locating it on one side of the rivers the power station is divided into two for better flow conditions and the arrangement is called ©Tuoin Paver Station”, This type allows for the development of a border river by the two bordering states having water rights on the river. A typical layout is shown in Fig, 8.2. SAE nue, aT nven Fig. 82 Twin power house layout120 LAYOUT OF LOW HEAD SCHEMES Another type of layout is 10 provide the power station centrally and the weir on the two sides, known as island type, ‘The advantage in this type of station is that it permits better flow to the turbines. A layout is shown in Fig. 8.3, p> Fe yee, few auvtny. Fig. 83 “Island” layout In the “Pier Type” layout shown in Fig. 8.4, separate units are provided in pier like structures with weir bays on two sides of each pier. The advantage of a pier type is its use in restricted space, but the water in the stream should be almost free of sik RMANOQOY we 4 3 " sPAuWeY Fig. 8.4 Pier type layout of power station Ina special type of pier layout, water flows to the turbine direct, there being no spiral case. Water overflows during flood over the pier as well and thus there is almost no restriction to the width of flood waterway. The pier type of plants, however, need a travelling gantry with long runways ne POWER STATION ON IRRIGATION CANALS 121 for maintenance. The control of the plant due to isolated location of units is also difficult. Where river width is short and provision of bay type layout is not conveniently possible, the power stations are made such as to allow overflow above the roof of the stations, Such Jayouts are known as submersible type. ‘The tubular turbines are placed both in the inclined and horizontal positions. However, the layout is not a monopoly of the tubular turbines alone, as use is made of other vertical shaft turbines. Often the power station units alternate with the outlets through the body of the weir, Ducts are formed in the body of the weir extending from one end 10 the other for placing cables. ‘The turbines have a Jow intake and it is essential that silt load in the stream is light. For maintenance of the machines, a hatch is provided in spillway surface which is removed for taking out the parts. ‘Two essential considerations govern the submersible type of plants. The hydraulic efficiency of these plants is as favourable as that of the pier head station. The design of the weir crest and tail water apron should ensure the hydraulic Jump to occur at sufficient distance from the draft tube ports. This requirement means increased construction costs for the Jong tail water apron extending across the entire width of the river. 8.5 Comparison of Diversion Canal or Divided Fail Layout: with Ron-of-River or Concentrated Fall Layout Besides economics in the two alternative layouts, there are other factors to be considered. Sometimes navigation requirements are important, A diversion canal has to cater for navigation and it is easily possible (0 avoid rapids in the river by providing the canal. Maintenance of navigation channel within the river width is difficult, A comparative statement of merits and demerits is given in Table 8.1 to exploit same head. 8.6 Power Statio Quite often it is possible to obtain substantial falls for development of water power in the first few kilometers of an on Irrigation Canals122 LAYOUT OF LOW HEAD SCHEMES Table 8.1 Comparison of Divided and Concentrated Fall Layouts, Concentrated fal or eh the sr plone Divided Fel, ov Plentson Diserson coral 1, Tong length of power canal. Higher diversion structures 2. May mean of number of cross May euse submergence of important drainage works sarees, 3 Navigation easily provided. Navigation channel has tobe specially Seveloped and maintained with the 4 Die to small width of water Hligher evaporation loses, fon the canal, evaporation otter ase lest. 5, Alignment of power canal may Revlocation of highways / rail / roads interfire with existing high- necettaryif located clove to the river, ways, mil roadh ete, 6. The operation of ho works. Operntion is convenient hecomes dificuls due to loca structures are at one place tion kt a number of places ie all the Water passed at the diversion No such problem and entice water weir to eep the minimum can be used for development of supplies fo the river it alos power. for power. 8, Auxiliary's weirs may have t© The scenic beauty is improved and bbe made to keep the scenic there it considerable scope for sport Deauty ofthe area. 9. Flashy discharge, Comparatively uniform supplies 10. Access to the area between the A. bridge is obtained across the river power canal and the riverbas without substantial additional cost 10 be provided. M1, Deep tail race causes slower There i ao loworing of the water ring of tho subsoil water level table, and creates compli Jpieation canal by shifting the ead works a litle upstream, sides these falls in the head reaches, the water level in the canal bas to be lowered to suit the topography. Where fails are located in the first few kilometers this reach can be designed on the requirements of power canal util most of the supplies available in the stream; when these are pe SR POWER STATIONS USING TIDAL HEADS — 128 higher than the irrigation requirements, the excess water is passed out of the system at some drainage crossing. The power stations can be kept runing even if the canal lower down has a closure for maintenance. Utilization of falls in the lower reaches has _to be based on the available canal discharges and the continuity of the supply during the canal running periods has to be maintained. ‘The power station has to be shut down during the closure period. With the advent of the tubular turbines, it is advantageous {0 utilise even every small falls where high discharges are available. Fig. 8.5 shows the example of a typical’ low head development generally installed on canals. From the figure it is evident that penstock intake and power house have been merged with the result that water comes directly to the spiral case from the head race. ‘The power house is also acted upon by the full water pressure of the head race. eso ce Fig. 8.5. Typical low head development 87 Power Station Using Tidal Heads Tidal fluctuation in certain oceanic regions is very considerable. Tho rise in water level during the tide period and the fail during the ebb can be used for generation of power, This is arranged by having a basin separated from the ocean by a partition in which turbines are installed. Water124 LAYOUT OF LOW HEAD SCHEMES passes from the ocean to the basin in high tide and is taken out at low tide. The tidal range or amplitude is given by the difference between the high tidal level and subsequent low tide level. The tidal range as such is not constant even at a givensite, but, depending on the geographical position of the area, fluctuates to a smaller or a larger extent around a local mean value. ‘The principle of a tidal scheme is shown in Fig. 8.6. Atmean tide, gates (1) and (2) are closed and water level in basin is higher than that in basin Be. The doors are actually kept closed by the pressure of water. At high tides ‘a8 soon as the level of the sea is flush with the steadily drop- ping water surface in By whence the turbines are supplied won econ [DO frvnenes g eam 8.6 Principle of tidal scheme with water, gate (1) can be opened and the refilling process in the basin B, commences. The water surface in the basin By is on tho rive but there is a simultaneous rise of water level in basin By as well. As soon as the high tide begins to drop, gate (1) is closed and when the level of the sea is flush with the steadily rising surface of wator in basin By, gate (2) can be opened whereby the water surface in basin By will fell with the level of the sea, As soon as the low tide begins to rise, gate (2) will be closed and as the tide rises on, the cycle will repeat itself. By suitable dimensions and timely operation of the gates, the generation can be continued throughout the tidal eycle, According to the principle of operation and the arrangement originating therefrom, the tidal power stations are classed as follows : I. Tidal Power stations with one basin | ' 5 ireicicaproroecarinet DEPRESSION POWER PLANTS 125 (a) Single-eycle-system with one basin (i) Single-ebb- cycle system, utilising during emptying of the basin (i Single-tide eycle system, utilising during filling of the basin. (b) Double-cycte system-operation on both gbb and. tide cycles. IL, Tidal power stations with two basins : (a) System of alternately operating basins (b) System of cooperating basins, ‘The system I-a(i) in whieh the tidal energy is utilised during the emptying cycle is more advantageous. For this system the bottom of the reservoir need not be considerably below the level of the mean tide level. Thus the basin need not be very deep and the sills of sluice gates can be located ata fairly good height which means less construction costs. The walls of the basin are seldom vertical. ‘As a result, even in the case of steady consumption, the water level in the basin falls slowly at the beginning, In the system I-a (if), a deep reservoir is required and the sills of the sluices are located fairly deep which means greater construction cost. ‘The ratio of the energy produced by an ebb cycle system to the tide cycle, system depends on the topographical conditions of the basin, chosen to be isolated. Double cycle system, Im this system, the tidal energy is utilised on both emptying and filling cycles. ‘The double cycle system has the advantage over the single eycle system that the interruptions in the turbine operation are of very short duration. Revertheless, < ‘operation cannot be maintained. This reqt “Capacitio for a large ogre of asation. System of alternatively operating too basins Im this system two adjacent basins are operated on a normal single cycle so that one basin produces energy during filling and the other during emptying, and their mean capacity is approximately equal, to give continuous operation.126 LAYOUT OF LOW HEAD SCHEMES Cooperating basin system ‘The water Jevel in the basin 1 is always higher, while in the other lower than the mean level of the sea. At high tide, the high basin is fed through sluice | from the sea periodically while the low basin is emptied through sluice 2 also periodically. ‘The power station is built in the dam which separates the two basins. 88 Depression Power Plants Where vast areas of low lying land is available and ample source of water is available close by, power can be generated by dropping water into the depression, Since the depression will have no outlet, the quantity of water fed into it is kept equal to the annual evaporation from its surface. 9 High & Medium Head Schemes 9.1 Introduction The development of high heads for power generation is possible by (i) utilising natural falls in the streams, (ii) the construction of high dams, (iit) cutting across watershed when the adjacent valley may be lower, or (iv) short circuiting Jong reaches of the same river having steep slopes. ‘The power potential of high head schemes is generally large and plans should always be based on utilising the entire discharge available, storage of surplus water at any time greatly increasing the capacity. The utilisation of the available discharge may not be possible however, due to limitations on the use of water or the absence of suitable site for storage or submergence of fertile land ete. 92 Power Station below High Dams Power stations are located at the toc of dam where suitable foundations aro available and the only head to be utilised is due to the creation of the dam. ‘The most common arrangement is to feed each turbine by separate penstock which is embedded inside the concrete dam, non-overflow section, provision of gates and trash racks etc. being done at the upstream face of dam. The power station building is separated from the dam by expansion joint but galleries can be made at the toe of the concrete dam for housing power station accessories and cables etc. ofien the space between the dam and power house is used for locating 127128 POWER STATION the transformers. A typical section through the concrete dam is shown in Fig. 9.1, In case of earthen and rockfill dams, the power house is separated from the dam founded on suitable location and fed by pemstock generally taken out from diversion tunnel. A typical section is shown in Fig, 9.2. Comparing figures 9.1 and 9.2, it will be noted that while the location of a concrete dam has been shown in, a straight reach of the river, for an earthjrockill dam it has been shown ona curved reach. A concrete dam for its construction may or may not require diversion tunnels, but an earth|rockfill dam will invariably require tunnels for the purpose of diverting flows during construction. Ifa dam is located on the straight reach, there will be bends in the diversion tunnels resulting in hydraulic losses and the length of the tunnel will also be longer resulting in additional cost. ‘The diversion tunnel at a curved reach can be straight and shorter as shown in Fig. 9.2. The choice of site for location of dam would thus depend upon the total economical cost of the dam including the diversion tunnels, Where natural falls are available downstream of the dam, the head available at the fall is combined to the head created by the dam, Penstocks embedded in the dam are extended tolocation downstream of the fall, where the power house is sited. In such cases it may be necessary to let out water Fig. 9.1. Layout of power hhouse with concrete dam Fig. 9.2 Power house with earth/rockfill dam PUMPED STORAGE SCHEMES 129 through the dam to keep the scenic beauty of the natural fall during the tourist season. The penstocks can either be located in tunnels when the power station may be either under ground or above ground, or the pensiocks may be exposed downstream of the dam. 9.3 Power Station at the end of Tunnel and Penstock Water is diverted through tunnel which carry the water at a flat gradient close to the power station site. The connection of the end of the tunnel to the machines is done through pressure penstocks which may be exposed or underground. Figure 2.2 (A) gives layout with tunnels. ‘The structures required in this type of power stations are : (i) ‘The intake structure for the tunnel to control the discharge and check inflow of heavy sediment and trash. ‘The tunnel (power) carrying water ‘The surge tanks where the tunnel ends and penstocks branch off. (iv) Valves on each penstock dowattream of the surge tank for isolated penstocks. (¥) Penstocks for each machine individually or for a group when branches are provided just upstream of the power house, (vi) Supports for penstocks and anchor blocks. (vii) Valves at power station end of each branch of the penstock, (ili) The power station, (ix) Surge tank if required on the tailrace, (), Tailrace tunnel or open channel. 9.4 Pumped Storage Plants ‘The pumped storage plants work on the principle that the same machines are used for generation of power during peal load when power is given to the network and for pumping water back into the reservoir during off peak period. Figure 9.8 gives three types of layout of such plants. The provision130 HIGH & MEDIUM HEAD SCHEMES cor muuruse Tyee CCD WATER-TRANFER TYPE Fig. 9.3 is based on economics of operation and the availability of enough spare capacity in the grid to operate the machines as pumps in the low load periods. In pumped storage hydroelectric schemes, the water is pumped and stored at an elovated reservoir for production of electricity at a later time. ‘The most natural question for such a scheme is why a power station which consuines. more energy than it produces should be planned. Such a. scheme is justified when we consider that at a certain period there may be heavy demand on electricity while there may be lean periods. A low value off-peak cnergy is converted into high-value on-peak capacity and energy by a pumped storage scheme which consumes excess energy from a large electricity utility power system during periods when such energy is surplus. ‘There are various alternatives by which a pumped storage scheme can be developed in connection with the conventional hydro electric resources. These can be classified ax (i) recirculating type (ii) multiple-use type (iil) water transfer type, and (iv) tidal ppwer type. It is possible to combine these basic schemes in a number of different ways. PUMPED STORAGE SCHEMES 131 In the recirculating type, water from reservoir A (Fig. 9.38) is used to produce power at station P and the discharge tail Water is stored in reservoir B. During lean periods, the water from reservoir B is pumped back to A which later produces energy in time of need. In the multiple-use type in addition to the pumping back of reservoir B to reservoir A for producing peak power at station Pi, some water of reservoir Bis also used to produce power at Station Pp downstream (Fig. 9.3 b). In the “Water Trangfer” ype water of reservoir Bis pumped to an elevated reservoir A in another valley. ‘The water of reservoir A is utilized to produce power at station P ing third valley. (Fig. 9.3 c) The various types of tidal pow ions already deseribed in Chapter 8 follow the same principle as pumped storage schemes, the only difference being that instead of using Pumps, natural tidal force is utilized to raise the level of water for production of power, Pumped storage installa Some of the plants of pumped storage type can have an overall efficiency of 75% where this efficiency includes hydraulic as well as electric losses including that of transformer. It will be clear that a pumped storage does not increase power system energy supply (generally) but they are of great value in levelling the peaks and valleys of a typical electrical utility load curve, and for providing emergency power. When combined with thermal generation, a pumped storage scheme allows thermal unit to operate at. nearly constant output and best (peek) efficiency. It is claimed that with pumped storage a thermal system can attain higher overall system efficiency, than with gas turbines. With a base load efficiency of 40% the overall efficiency with pumped storage (with 75% efficieney) will be 30% as compared to a gas turbine efficiency of 20%, A pumped storage installation provides flexibility in adapting to power outages. During the pumping cycle, the pumping input load is~a large interruptable load that can be readily removed from the system. When a pump-turbine132 HIGH & MEDIUM HEAD SCHEMES is at speed-no-load (spinning reserve) it can assume fill output load in 4-10 seconds compared to 30 minutes required for a steam plant to achieve maximum output from the spinning reserve. Because of its ability to store energy, efficiently, pumped storage could advance energy development from unconven- tional sources, such as sun and wind. 9.5 Medium Head Schemes As already discussed in Chapter 3, the medium head schemes are those which come within the head range 0f 30-800 m. Their layout is characterised both by those of low as well as high heads. ‘The following types of conveyance of water are possible for medium head developments : @) From the power channel through the intake and penstock to power house as shown in Fig. 2.1, Gi), From the dam as shown in Figs. 9.1 and 9.2. (ii) From the river through a tunnel, surge tank, penstock as shown in Fig, 2.2 Generally Kaplan and Francis turbines are used in medium head developments with vertical shaft arrangement. i iam a 10 Unconventional Layouts of Hydro Power Development 10.1 Generat One of the most fascinating aspects of hydro power engincering is the seemingly unending challenge to solve unique problems. Even in the simplest of hydro power Projects, there exists an inherent incentive for ingenuity in design and construction. The most effective or economical solutions are not always readily apparent. Often new and daring approaches are demanded. To be sure, no single answer can be applied indiscriminately to every project, because each has its own set of oddities; each, with varying degree of complexity, requires a certain and often highly imaginative solution. ‘The challenge may present itself in many forms like undesirable site conditions such as topography not lending itself to an economical layout, poor quality of rock for the foundation, abutments or Take bed and/or unusual hydrology considerations. Likewise, solution may be required to tackle unusual construction requirements, weather, access, availability of suitable materials, temporary discharge etc; often ceriain operating criteria are the most influential aspects of the design, Special efforts are needed to give proper balance 133136 UNCONVENTIONAL Layouts between benefits and costs ts and costs to assure the economic justification In il cases, it would be ‘necessary to resort i ine na tional designs using engi it it rediuce the a signs by using engineering ingenuity, to reduce the capital cost as well as to overcome major, d-tign protien Ursin design oped in some ower sais ee with examples of following types : ms (i) Hydrodam : (a) Pier « : ier type, (€)_ Dam-power house combii spillway and power house, (b) Hydrocombine, ined, (d) Linear layout of (ii) Power house spillway (ii) Circular shaft type (iv) Long shaft, (*) Combination of power house & shaft spillway. 102 Hydrodam Tis Pe power station. The tendency 10 reduce the Agree of bed enlargement required for the. accommodation cfrunobsiver power plants and improve thereby hydraulic = resulted in the development of ‘pier type? sation, as to allow.a river to flow between or over unite in tine? of foods, by division ofthe station into the piers ofthe welt tief description of thie ty rea iven in Abie type has already been given in The required width of the piers, housing i generator sets, is significant hat of pie ine ne : ly greater than that of piers in the sine? canon ones "eget oe in Haein of the structure is reduced, the aggregate width of largement being less than that of an equivale, conventional block type plant i Each pier houses a single generating. unit, the modern trends towards larger units. T'h dating a single wheel will be Feaarded. However, if special conditiom “call for ‘installed in a single pier without particu corresponding to The pir acme the basie design. > two units can be : ar diffcutty, ‘egarding the degree of bed es of itor no enlargement aan ee layout. This advantage is of grea space available for the accommod on tes me t importance, when the lation of the run-of-river HYDRODAM 138 plant is restricted, o.g. in a narrow river valley. The division ofthe power station into several units may improve the hydraulic efficiency of the structure, resulting in uniformly Satisfactory flow conditions at times "of varying river discharges. Lavamund was the first “pier type’ station constructed fon Drava River in Austria. The principal features of the station are three generating sets each located in the station behind a particular pier on the downstream side These are of Kaplan type each having 4486 mm dia runner with four blades and 24 rotors of niche vanes, 9450 h.p. capacity (max. 10500 hp) at a plant discharge of 30 ms, running at 100 rpm. under a head of 8.3m, The piers, each housing a single unit are 16 m wide and support the 24 m long weir gates. The pier type construction brought about savings in cost and construction time, together with reduction of river sedimentation and of the effects of flood. ‘A mumber of pier head stations have been built on the Yugoslav section of the Drava River; Maribor, Dravograd ‘Vubred, Vusenica. Representative of the basic layout of all these plants is the Maribor development (installed capacity 54,000 KW, H = 144 m, Qy (total) = 411 mje) where each of the three piers house one machine unit. Ybbs-Persenbeug ‘on river Danube in Austria is of pier type with aix 28 MW capacity units of Kaplan type. The plant discharge capacity is Q= 200 mfs, the head varios between 6 to 14 m at discharge of 350 mijs. Five weir openicgs with vertical gates of 30 m x 19.5 m are provided, Schulz suggested a new pier design wherein the conven- tional spiral case is completely omitted, and water flows from three sides to the turbine expored in the front of the pier. This provides a higher sill and a deeper roof, protecting the turbine against bed load and increasing the efficacy of ice prevention. Wells Hydrocombine, The Wells Hydtocombine, a most recent development, is a good example of how engineering ingenuity can accomplish major savings in cost, Great depth of overburden and great depth to bed rock were the major factors which led to the “Hydrocombine” concept. The project is located on river Columbia, Washington, U.S.A.136 UNCONVENTIONAL LAYOUTS ‘The original design for Wells dam structures was a compact, conventional arrangement, But site conditions prevented it from being considered 95 a conventional Columbia river high-flow, low level plant. Although the structure were sited 10 utilize areas of high rock elevation, a considerable portion ofthe cost was attributed to large quantities of concrete because of low rock elevation, It was evident that cost could be decreased only by reducing the area of concrete structure founded on rock.i

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