PoesorCstopher Nardin, Macquai Uiversty ieee mee Translation and Se naa eos . foie edt Tnsiogst Pinta ante Translating: se ranonson = Theory and Practice prams inSiuso w Senor E05) eugene rt trae swing Sten Ein HERES an mance Senso Ine tae be eo) tan neon rai ngrowene Lewring i | 2 Sane aare oss An insocon to Sco Language Pa forcing inferionacowas Sh Lananetaa ano SetenesRnseess SNES Raa eh a Language nd lennon poe Aes mcs / atone Oucoune —— RLAMSBERT FER re a0 pees Ph ‘Set oaves i ‘MatcouN COULTHARD ‘Translation and Translating: Sarehilgong Resawcn "0" ROSERT- BELL ki Be sore teers 7 im ‘CHRISTOPHER N. CANDLIN (E eee eon eee ieee aa ‘Begun Edcatan (SARL JAMES AND — ot fo ae ond LONGMAN LONDON AN! NEW YORKongnus Geoup UK Lan {pan Ha, Bat Mi a, Fore 20 IE, Ean nd Ascot Company douphut the wa Phd inthe nied Stes of Amis by Lane nc, Now York ‘tanga Grasp UK Lied 1991 ‘Ags rsa prof se pubcaon may be educa utd in ‘neal pcs in sy frm yay ean secon, ‘mci pg go whe i ie ea he Uns! King isl by the Capyight Laxesing Aastoy Lid So Tanna Core Ras, Londo, WIP EE Bi Libary Caioping ia Podleaton Data a, Roger loge Tm) 19 (np tapas on woes (neue temas uso ISHN 0 582 1648-7 Lian of Cones Catling Pblinon Daa Toston end waning tery and ractictRog: el ot (apd gus ta ngage) ier bboapia eens ands iano-secete a bane it ee 02085 "yes by Opus Design Company, Oxf in 10 a 12 pane Yel by mga Singapore aber (ed Contents Acknowledgments General Eaton's Preface Iniroducsion Par 1: MODEL, CHAPTER 1 Perspectives on translation LT Whatistansaon? LLL Equtalence: semantic and site LI2- Ruler: deseripdon and prescription 113 Transition; proces and product 114 Sommary 12, Wharisamanslator 1.1 Memory, meaning and language 122 ‘The commonicabon process 123 ‘Thetranlaion proces 124 Summary 13. Whatis uanslaion theory? 131 Theories, models nd analogies 132 Requlemens fora theory af wenslaon 133 Methodology; vestigaing arson 134 Summary 14 Conearon CHAPTER 2 Translating, modelling the process 21. The wanalator: knowledge and sills 214, Meal biingtal competence 212) Expertise 213 Communicative competence 214 Summary 2 4 4 15 "7 n a 8 an n 35 cf 4 asi Cotes 22 Tranlatingthe model 221. Componensand processes 222 Analysis 223 Symtess 224 Semmaqy 23. Using the process to tani LLL Analysis: reading the source langue txt 232 Prepaingtowansate 233. Symes; wig he trgetlanpuge text 234. Summary 24, Conelsion Pare 2: MEANING CHAPTER 3. Word- and sentence-mesning 22 Thethessras 321 Lexical and semantic eds 422 Denotnion and connotation 323 Seman diferent! 4324 Summary 1 Sentence-meaning 331 Wordeand sentences 432 Unerance, sentence and proposiion 1333 Situation conte and universe of discourse 334. Sommary 34 Concuton CHAPTER 4 Logi, grammar and shetorie 121 Cope meanings eatonafuneion and "TRANSITIVITY ALL Paricpants and processes 4112 Greumstances 413. Logicand the tansbator Summary ma 7 as 1B 7 19 13 Comins 442 Imeratonl caning expen foeton md MooD. 421 Conmuniaine exchanges and clus options 422. Ghiand choice: phrase options 423 Geanmarand the tans 424 Sinimary 43. Disoursl mcaing, the textual fareton andthe THEME gm 431” Oxpntnginfrmatons ont sevcne 432 ‘Themsteaion 433. Linking clues tx cobeson 4354 Rhone end the tanastor 435 Summary 44. Concasion CHAPTER 5 ‘Text and discourse Si Stan oft S11 Coes anes 312. Inenioaliy and aceeplbilty 513 nfm relevance and itertenaliy 514 Summary 5.2 Speech stand the co-operative piciple 52.1 Comgonents nd eles 522. Indecerspeechacs 523. ‘The co-operative principe 52.4 Summary 53 Discwrne partes S31 Tenor 532 Made 533 Doin 534 Seman 54 Conclusion Part 5: MEMORY CHAPTER 6 Text processing 61 Texypooges 1 Formal pages 2 Funeonal pages 613. Texypes, om and samples 614 Summary t62 Tax prcesing knomedge 621" Symacichoewedge 622 Semantic knowledge 623 Pragmatic nowlege ‘Summary voces sil 631" Problems snd text pracesing 632 Syuhosewriing 633 Anus reading 634. Sommary 64 Conclsion oa FIER 7 Information, knowlege and memory oman itor procesing TT sage Tha Tweeproees 113. Poedcmas 214 Sammy 12. Krowldge 721 Concpnl xe and ees 422 Kyle ents 323 Sekine 328 Summary 72 Many ene 1" Fpl nd conecpil mony 132 Ablesing seme 133 Recto emmy 134. Semmay 14 Gotti CHAPTERS Envi Appenic ittoganhy Index a 20 mt as Bn 254 a4 aS 56 238 us Er 1 19 us Acknowledgements ‘This book as been growing tealy wih pt versions of pars of it merging oer the period 1984-90 a teaching materials and papers, tt the mole ws only Brot tetera complete fst daft by di offre mec sendy word-procesing in Lancaster ding AES snd cay September 1988. The time snd place were sigan. Ecater was in many ways an del place to wee; que and in the "rummer of 1B, wetand cold Iwas, asthe proverb might hae sid, mil How tat winds nobody good the hlay eade's as was my Brin, snce the tempi to go ent mas ot there tobe reste, Tas very canes of tchacogeal supports I wrote. The text ‘was word-procesed, the London Weather Cente gave me via the ‘aio and elevison, th diy forecasts wanted to heat = showers and wih intr probably with the ght imterssomited~ and Radio “Thee, assy, provided wonder muse whe you wo’ Tam tf Several organizations for help during the creation of this book My parulr ns go to the Briss Couel or proving support which allowed met yout same of he esi this bok in Tal, Groce, Hong Kong snd Paistan ding the past i years "Egalyin the ceston of any book raring have always layed 2 ‘quiet bat ruc ole T mold singe ot for parcular thanks the ‘re-hlpul and professional staffs of the Bray in the Sehol of Languages inthe Popechie of Cenral Londo and ofthe Senate House Library ofthe University of London, owe x parcolar deo grate omy alleges in the School of Languages atthe Plyteca of Central Landon and to Alan Collis ofthe Department of Peycbaogy tthe Unters of Lancaster and the several india who mere generous enough w comment in ‘denon catty versione of the mancacip, Vera Adamson, Chris (Cando, Mak Hite, Cae James, Ricardo Steiner. lam parca ‘ref io Dunn Bel Judy Bowles and Susan Gran who ae cased uta metals poaeading ofthe etx Admoiedgenens Final, need on Aldi Baer, Stel Doron, John and Ann Cori, hn and Jan Rana, Russ and il Rossel, Eke Hutchison, Groin’ Large and Joel Ryce-Menuhin who, i ther own very ire ways ade dis book pose, ‘There are many more without what soppor tis bk wosld not ave ben writen ~ in parca, ny long-ufeing etude, To al of them, named or not, Toler my thanks, acknowledge their ood ess exonerate thes fom the bad parts of his book, those ae, of ‘ourse, down tome alone Roger. Bell neater and London 1989 ‘The Publishers are gral to Eons Galimard for pemision ‘produce the poem Pots by Pal Valery rom Aire Rhum of Tel uel © Estas Galinard and to Cabrige Univers Pree td ‘he autor fra gure ross Gregory, M. (196) ‘Aspects of Varetes Difereniatonin Jornal a Liguitia 3 General Editor's Preface For someone who ie professionally engaged inconeptalsing and “organising psterpercnce programmes in Applied Linguistics (nd : Any mode of communication atthe same tine 3 model of trasaton, of» yeracal oe horizontal taster of sgncance ses send Soa Se gents ee shee Seafarer a el we Se ae Se Sc ea et a nt ce a ae “Hence pe ice Sag seg a me paenrenspatc ea Brin erie ee ce» “Wena serene eecaaemen acta pat Secrets sneer eee es eg ‘esti hermit en catia ie Sac ean na iusto oe “Eee tae at cere eos er acne Ci are epee kes Seay ecg es (nr compas ae hands cc mas roe ae Sie pale eta cans ee ae a wif erent ae oes soe manana eet Se ee Sr 1.2.1. Memory, messing and language “The tasty, Hk any oter communicator, ves in the word of he ‘isc throgh which prcepdons ae integrated as concep, e=per- FACULDADE DE LETRAS / UPMO timtiorecs “16 Translation ond Translating ences can be “ealed'and even ‘elved” trough the sats of ‘Ase tal sein Chapter 7 (whe we conser meni ystems) it ‘sell dbus vee enston = ching Sel rm the cutie wall Urogh the tenes ~ and erepton; te ‘spoon 2 tse lnpreion ino a cde red bat able dimes ‘oun See nd pectin [Bitews cater egw fre Rises tare Setter tect re meeite ote a mea tae aes ieee ras arin oe Peters ricer Rete tare Decimas es pelouriS mets cet Wt bam oh te ear b Reareeeay eeeancc he siehcah range tees Tierney aera senor mietemawae eee ceo cei tere, ppierreerrienert ant San ae Penpesice om remlaon 17 coves a th convents angus an os aly Seng See ngage wed ‘What ds rnin now bong? he ner woul const ol of ng chlo ae et slice Tit so mele of the eons seine fo (0) comeing Sherhaus emy concpes Wiha rane ih pops ‘Gemnic knot) (nope propesins, nich re ues Sod et edt any ngage em the churn es of 2 Faria linge (see tome) and) eli tans ‘ences ad xs inact! comeonire stron het toni) "We sal be condrng ich of hese dough the ss fis twkand yoo pure make wat pr an ins ol. ‘a hs peso aman being ns ener nes apis trans in sey pars sc, forh anther a the ‘er Tease ngoge and wo cultres ined Father ta oe Thao, hg erin he ee ht arse re comely are of aguge and he resort cas hh tondingeal commute se ah purple weer thou lange ey ow fo pei he en) ba o pose foal noaelge Bowring tht et bar sachs ch Ghana) so aogier dle say, sb ston of Fngstce qty dcne ding etal anges ean st wintry ae ding when thy speak owt. We sal he Xp the distinc berocn peed to ac! te Chap? Seton 2 burmenion there bene takes ese he fend of ek whic ces we aonb the ate. {orn te procedural knowledge whic aeistrs pntesioGl ledge nick canbe robe, shred, dacs "The question tat we would wish to ah the, i ‘Hw docs the trandator mone from oe langage tthe other in the corse of ‘ranean and the answer we sal ie wl be inthe frm of ey ple model ofthe proce “The transato, swe ane been syn, by definition a communica tor hose in writen conmniaton, We might hei ‘begin by proving ough, general nde ofthe pores of writen ‘Communication before moving on tothe specie and pac ‘roblematic proces in whch wanstors are mold. “Phe mn presente n igre 13 dee imately fom workin i ‘Information theory and contains sine steps which tke os frm] coding the mestig through is wanemisson and eceton tthe Aecoding ofthe message by the reesinr It provides swith sring| fit for the explanation of the process of communication, abet ined tothe monolingual end, by implication, a dyaieneractins ne sender aed one cee. seo 222 5 scm, OM pecven ven with thee timation, however, i contains widhin i the ‘ements and process which eed be epined and ass age "umber of questions which rqute an answriPwe aro secead ot alti our auemps wo make sense othe phenomen of tansaton, We ‘ld desert thi proces a tr of rine sep: AD) the sender sles message and code ) encodes message {G) secs chanel sans signal contsining message (© receiver receives sgl onsining message (6) recognizes cote 5) deere signa (8) reaver mesge and (0) comprohends mesae We ght nt, however, assme tha this i simple, iirectiona and lnear process noe that each step mst be competed before the ‘ex canbe stared Processing i by its very mature both epee Gi Sender sends more meses orth receiver takes oer the senders, roe) and eoperte (he sender ny well bein aan at ep 1 whe the rexver no farer advanced tha topo) ‘second ood (Figure 1) ow needed to provide 4 ear outa between the processes of monalingual communion snd | ‘rslaton, If can be fead at + coninvation ofthe model shor by ‘ining tp Sin she monolingual proces presente shine with ep 1 : low i. ‘ether reeves seal Scns ened ih esi es cnn mes. Ti eH mtb ned ati oe he ap bat tne the sees fs or ateton 2m sty and ifrence beeweentansaon an ‘Somat ommenicnon. — sero 222+ scien 2 maton neceVER ao SlmaneNAL? owns 4 Teniing a oe 9 smart @ ie coe saeo 8 kr oe gars Beer tanta se opt Te en cere bemeen npalagal ommunicrn ad bling ce See acre ae ea moe ret ea rie See ns icant ict a reas i settgatenroveoctas SET cuenta emt lt20 Traut and Tring to binds of emlanin: (1) poblngitic elation arto cin yet pin nan and @) a ore tgif wciingisieexplnnon which Ret aaee pare ee ae Sprite eo fe en sean cme lero reteocrs Sure es foscvatn as oreeeeas mere ee eens eons ieee Seana Sete areas scree mid eel roe Sear cre seemhlge crag chat ni Sees ee ore me ced a ppt toap ila! realy Smo eo on oe Setar et are siooreis, tans 123 Tete ps ew py pry ein ai ee ot To pea tin tre tert stove ed emp eed nee ee ee ‘Sein a Spas + mre Se et a vo anetater sowckame tes eh ate Sites gem pagel bp tgteen opp Lg sma Ee tl do ace ee nian or er ere cea em te ett SoS GE ae bre a or Meee Sete me eo Fearne rapt pall oats preemie Ss teed aoe sec (the tayo language tex, the TLT). Penge om romain OL Pa =] Cae ee cia 15 Tron proces 124 Summary In ths secon we have mond from dscusing the abst notion ‘rasan athe pote eed ins deseipon ad expan ‘Gon to the uso he atv: he tandator. We hse, very rie. atid nde he atari rt aia che proces alton i the contest of haan communion ‘Sha fay, provid the simplest posible mode of he process of tration, Alo these fuce wll eapeat ter and wl oe del with Ina ch es summary asin Weneed wet to deride how we ae ging tcl the description snd eaplanatin of asain, This wil egal uso dvi on (he ind of dheory which il be most revealing fr oo purposes and his ‘nl mole dsinguishing model from tears and sping te “Hacatrsts which theories in general anda theory of anata parla boul poses) and (2) the ef methodology which il te most pepsin 13. Whatis translation theory? “THe sly of aston seems to be permeate by sundersandng (both ies Engi tending to mbes Ye objects and ‘Methods of esata thor dana tert to demonsite fom sdequste gop ofthe pices of gus and Insts invesigton. One recent qunton wil make thisom he point of ew of the ansae,any sine iment asian dagamnat Goreng 2d raion hors me eho nga sem ae ode) of what gos nln the bain (la eres ey ving there of manag tema and pee specie? We ave bearing tht advance ia trnsaton theory ean ony be achieved though snd ofthe proces of tanstion ad would ake ‘his suggestion fumher by desing hat what Is equted eseription of that process and an explanation aft Wee seching, ‘in ater words, ansmer the questions (Suh haps ms ‘rnsatoy esate and ) "whys the proces ays Ta ode snr thse questions, rH steps eel 9 be taken Fins of all given the emphasis which has ten placed on the ‘vation of the prot, It seems esc tat the balance be ‘edresed twgh the sstemas study ofthe pre, Its the proces ich ereates the product and i ony by understanding te press that we can hope ese curses in sch rol to Belpourcnes 4 thers to improve thir sills a8 trnatos. The need for such shit of anetion has, indeed, ready been anped fc tnd we ang endorse the sentiment expressed ia theory of. aslaion would acount the proces ‘of moving fom orga ext 9 mental represetation and how Airs rom the erga ext Sccony, we must ~ fing the propose! made by Basnet -MeGuire*~ adapta descriptive ralher than prescriptive appost’ 1 our ivestiation ofthe process, recogniig the the puree of Vatslaon then to reach an understanding of the processes undertaken inthe at tans and, no a 550 commonly msndesoa, Provide set of noes fr eet the perfect tansaon In short instead of making subjective and abitaryugments on the ‘tent © which one translation i “heter than anther and esing that ‘pndes resides in the Eth adherencet an imposed set ST ommtandments, our eiettion has to be towards the objective specication othe steps and stages through which th asst works the source text inthe original language ransformed othe get ‘exh focus onthe proces which rates the anton rather than on the wantin el We must nt Howeer, make exaggerated cig for ou eis and teh de Bexogande wa 1c is inaproprine 0 expect that a thee, model of ‘anton had sel e rbot woe. ites shal lite 2 of ete fr sprang cand for coordinating te dierent pec ems ich fom cme le se here a igen Sa eon ses ms () bend te desi, Stier af pce rnc, an avy om pecion an, icing. Ow he mo ree wn a eng wh he dacs wi ements Gee econ asthe and Seton 122 fra pr satemet in elon anon ho). ciue cee’ and ode hate st ben we We ne ise cei hy espe press sien we are ene. i ames Se sty a wee ee srs ear ‘a aaate titra ett a sioemasimmmaarse aan Socaereataen a Eee Caeanets scutoe et epee ct Sees Seaver ery eo Fee foncowame See Ricci cetn eave et Soe eee So ena ie ues ner cr tr men eth ail a wean of ee inane gat sigs eau tor oeSays noun 6 Peep sed engi that ideas preexst thee discover) or ‘eesti we belcre they do see on et a ne beg res paelarae ees See Gece ee ee sence ene ae Sere Soares Sooner te Ftp pep mpeg gin eo] Seto ee aa Se ere oe ere Nel peolagics ct earlgy can at yet prove (Rats cee ie emi on srr a oer oe ea oe ele Seize panes ates Cedar eed trai ‘how they relate to each other: “+! shied 1 a a moka epee pe of Penge o romain — 25 ‘stem and order ia something observed. It exits iat all ‘lop! dbate as rage fortwo millenia over the exten: of ‘tac ens) nthe mind. It has no tng manson, 1 8 idea (bic might wel be nique the individual who “a which ‘omsttes the internal epresentation of phenomenon, em mn idea af th aout ofthe ata! London Underground ssc ‘A-rmodel is in const, an exer rather than a reqrscnnin othe explanations reazaton othe cry I exists {Stange bjt (a dingram, formal, tex) which sands for he les cooled inte theory. The London Underground ste, fe trample, repesened by two very diferent kinds of map: (0) the ‘Shera plan ia which ation ar shown as eguiistan fines are nt faved, cey and @) 4 map in which dhe Bes re dawn i lat the road under which they ran of which they ces. “Armodel most therfore, poses a amber of characteris itis to deel 1 unt ily rpc the they at tans Gr Indinte what the penn ely rater han what appears tobe 2.1 must do this by reveling sgifant carers of the ‘phenomenon exsined by the theory. Clea, gen that 2 mods ‘and for ering fr moe complex than self, no model cn ‘present ws wit he fl complesty ofthe rg but ro ode is Fequred tod hat The eel constraint on mols ot that it Should be sony ofthe gal phenomenon but ta shoud focus atenton on tore pars of the phenomenon which are fonsird obe moet event bythe tho Te must hie » hewriteFnction making it esier wo grasp the ‘elation (the theo) and doing tat aa way which makes Farther stly easier and leds to deeper understanding. This is fehiced by mca of analogy: A model popes that we 3 Phenomena were oer than i appears. For this ress 3 Frode maybe extemely pil (Fr example, uh one we we Chapter 7 expan informaion- processing ivaes a number of “deo charge ofthe several stages) bt theese constrain tors model sno that itsboul be rea Gate sense of ng ory ‘tibe phevomenon) but that abou be revealing of known ts Shout te oii there so need cla hatte model does ny Inore han pe the components involved and the rears thy ‘ne wih each other.‘he modes we salle proposing wile analogs wh see ins of horace Thy sa ro maine he pena we se hey ware smething een ode fly vt anderand ‘hore fal” We doth ath the tanlon paces hater, ‘ating gel popeson to sytc rcres n esatons of Bodh in aeraees and tex (Chapt tad 3) tn qrcening {Chapter 6 and intrmsonpoceting sn menor (hope ‘Wha sen, ofthe theory wee sesh fo? What hrs should we eset it hae apd whit cress shoal ce be for ‘cahating aerate thar this eth sino he ‘eiremens far they of rani, hi ew tas 1.3.2 Requirements fora theory of translation ‘A mode ell mols san atempe ats dept aber han an ‘slenatin. An expaton ia they A theory aye defied satoment of general prince sed upon reamed srgment td ‘unpre by evidence, thats itended to explain parteul fat, {01 phenomena." Le. whe model animers the question ‘ha he deo anawers he Question why? Gincn the ambi ofthe word tana, we cn envisage three pose theories depeading am the fos of the imestigatin the roves or the product These would be 1.4 they of ansaton as proces (ea thcry of alain). This wld requir a staly af information proesing and wit Ot such opis as perception, ) memory and (0) the encoding and lezaing of mesiges, and would draw heavily on psychology and on psyebulingii, 2.1 cy of wanton 2 ra Gs. hy of raed en) "his wl rue n sud af texts not mer by means ofthe ‘cational levels ofinguste analysis Gna and seats) but ato making us fsa tet rcs a teelngaes ed dco sal, 3.4 theory of translation a bth proces and product i. theory a « ‘waning and wanslaton). "The would requ the nr tay offhand sch ener hype, em a or he moment test we ae afer they of asaig a srentuthere ease agement on the Cars ch «theory shold poses, we ean tate what ou idea theory should look Iie, scat, thor is juged on the extent which it exeraly sed nay got ma cpr wih hed och cee na elon prs Gea en feaues, | Teal, «theory must refs our parca characteris: () expr, ics tebe {Q) deerme itmst be able predit @) perinay, tbe simple od {@) fewrtgg — mstbe comprehensive Clery, + theory of ansaton woul be requ to,cnfom, #8 Teese ho cea andthe reser the conformity he ‘Bee jowerfl te theory. Hones the elas beeen exe er rem adequacy role aif it the long enig se of TRUST Seeteion The more weshaed he da, he more {Sctace snd te frer fom he osnes of the rel worl does the ery Become.” it may be concen we are sow ttn to much f rantion they alent fore moment =n cons wih here minal (ramps demands whch ve been made cn in he Ey From th plied agus point of view, rasan teary can Be cel ein te esc oe ee of ei (Gelangugetendhngequalest of cso ace) oat bes (Piiactimeued Gn ogage eating ems the equaent of goba Clee of techniques ado-veal met ic eto Rosas needed i princledapprosch fom whch the est Teal tow ‘uly in descrpde rier han api terms, igh perhaps te wore fae to tink of developing apach rater than + theory ean rents probem of dese nd exiing thea process which dre rom en ama of nsighie iam pycolgy ad nputceit the nanre of the acy of Camng Ine adopt hs pen of acon, we can rw eon “Sidente eperis i aplied ii, fom wich be approach tretod technique sees comes and rode eta ta ft of What we might expect om her of weno: (0) siemens of he comensons which consi the acti of ‘Tan tor han Sins res wich determing28 Trae ond Translating (2) model which afer robs ut act epastios of what ‘a been done ater thn determine «pr odes wich ‘Sn wo ped wha be done, (6) gd othe anes the proces frites than static depos ofthe ce of he prod (9 indeos of he relonshipe which exit beween anaaton "on 'one ide and broer nto sich at communicative " campetoc, dina eience and appropstnes i he theul th code, her thn he mote narrowly dfn concert fee ngs. ie competency, teal cbeson ‘Sd rammaicliy in age te cade on the ee. We is idan St of in Crate, icerdipiary, ‘multi ad nla approach’ to the explanation of the ad we mul lc the approach win Sey ced oli epi wich el en tn oth techn Sle of cig lansage lesciony ‘nd lagen, speech ptoloy, sisi, language planning 2sikingaseron from a major fgere in anton theory: ‘in shoe inde rites lengua, man commaniction eos ‘malt. A sey of tration is tod oflangnge. ‘ox igh, Se we st shout erenng such an approach? The wean bg the fl pr of hi sects metodo. 133 Methodology; insisting translation ‘a in: nd secmingy sige bjcin 12 de noon of pring ind expainng fhe penonenen of tala ight wel ‘et te whe of th proce th he cvs ecepin ofthe physical specs of reading and wrt) takes place inthe mind ofthe anh angen hate ave ero no det acetone Shalt, forced buck prec e usando Sesrpon of te pod wih we hve Ben sig at we ws 0 mo “We well counter hs by pointing ot ats pee eine wba up dmdeon he bss olaerences den fen ance Peeves ov ration 29 rudy ofthe product, Inded, such an approach woul cnstute no ‘mor than a pei nance ofthe dase enginecring poem ofthe "Mack bow’ which conaine mechani sbi converts input ind ouput bats there ttl aes How psn sch scare, to speci the nature ofthe mechani? The sation to work ‘ack from he opt ofthe mechanism (he pod) and make a set af satemens abou the necessary characters ofthe tem isl (the proces) ie to mae ue ofthe logical proces of induction. This analogy, hoveer, does not ft the process of tranaton ‘mac, snce we haven degre of acces tough essa Ips we ave into the working four own in. This ing the se, it should be pose by Inuespecion (he by adopting 3 ‘eductive approach to the problem), 16 buds model of wht me ‘urs are ding when we trarsate Unimatey ~ a the development of psychology tas shown — a ‘null appesch naling bot nducon snd deduction in» eee Investigation, mce kel tobe revesing than he tt adherence to iter Induction ve deus lone ae gute 1). ‘We migheihacate th by tating up anuher fate wbich has cxercied tration theorist oe very long period indeed he problem ofthe size ofthe wn of aman. The question "What she Une of tansaon” esles i all too eel into «search or the mower to the question ‘What ought he wi of tansation to be The Potion ‘nt of tanlaon’~ sometimes writen UT" = hae been ‘Sed in thse terme “The sles segment of nL sours Lngugel et which can be teanbed, a «whol, in lon fom eter segments onal anges from the word hough the easton to the ‘he, It eould be deseribed ear ema a is psible and 34 large ass neces (iss my view), hough Some tansators sald ay ht itis miladng concep, since the oly UT the hate xe nist io imagines beter example fn sue which cre ou for ‘empiri investigation. I we ask what thet that the tantor tual proce inthe cours of walang we coer ha there fod pescolopea and linguistic endene to sugges atthe nit tends tobe the dase (ee Chapter 6, Secon 6.3. fer discussion on textprocessing), There i ko experimental eidene™ which sup- ort the notion of o-oecurrence between copie ‘chunk’ Bound ie andsytcie oundares within the cae; hounds BetweenMe 17 Theo engiy snr cra units Sj, Peat, Complement ee) and the fons which realize therm bre othe spe) or ecm the United Nao Sern Gener rego baa popes ‘in the peace negotiations in Geneva today ae woul he ely be segmented during ending int fe rsx wis: Ith Unied Nations Seretny Geel trponed int popes inte pace nego in Geneva : : Hoda Perspectaccs om iranviatwn — 30 the United Nason Seretary General] [Nine Serer) a {General reported substantial) . Ipropessinche) : [peace nego in} {Genes tds ie ie Rese Bere (Gownl Boal (repel ae (on ie Ine ii ss wed en pech wh hounds eed Seta op isl nd sc "Ninel ae en hy gh be setpoint when he ten dete tom tan’ ce rr he an ots ping i it one 134 Summary Ta this ial sedon, we hav Been addresing the sue of theo in reli to enlaion by singushing mode from theories ‘pecling what theory of tanslaion ought Yo contin and giving32 Trani and Trating spendin the med al eerie rs theory 14 Conclusion : In the capter we hae cleared the ground for what ito fllow. The three-way ambiguly of the tem "wanton has been ied 10 zinguh process Gum product and fom the conept which ‘combines them both. ‘Wie have considered, tify the mature of translation, placed transaon nthe wider contest aman communication and outlined ‘programe forte creation of «theory of wantin, concenuating (lal atlas) on the proces and probing, least implii, he ‘question “What do tractors scaly do?” ‘The answer 10 this question, cena though iti wo our owe incre, seems enormous) clue. At + contemporary Ieray ‘tanto pus someone ass me how I trate, am hard pt to Sind an answer. Lean deseribe the phil proces: make very rapid fst dat, put ade for whe then go oer tat» pity ‘dow pce, enc ~ and eraser ~ in hand: But hat is al outside Inside the jb is infil comple. ‘Our pon i simply stated: we ftend 1 tke on the tak of eserbing is infty comple interal proces and ae convinced tha this ean oly be achieved through he relntepraion of he dy of transaton within the human sciences ~ parclrly psychology and linguistics ~ a «highly siglcant branch of sped guises ‘What is iavoled is speled out Qy de Benugrande) in ration 10 text-liaps abd apps of seca, to wanton and we would > alongwith propane of york based on the fallowing assump ind approaches" "Probabilistic models are more adequate and realise than ‘derminte ons. Dyna azo of trace uli oer Ht wil be more produce then sate desrpone of the ‘sructuresthamaches. We should work to dicover rari, ‘inte, mation, prem and df rather han roe sd laos: Domina canoer more eli casfeaton than can sri eater. Acti and epprprcinas are more cual Ponpesce o ramon 33 cameyng knowlege in et than re clot the tk since wo ptematie te isis of ts object of to ignore it aru isa." nthe next chap, we shal ea hes ofthe proces an fer sling wad which willbe apanded athe eos ofthe bn «Inde the physical mechan of easation andthe pach eal mechanism of perception and melo the aces the ‘ind sit organizes, comprehend and sores nfermato in meno ‘Ae we doe we realize that we shal be forced to abandon ‘he watitonl contention of ings hat languages an slated Salty. and} define language processes as specaai of more poner process pes Syst would then bes spec ease lin indiener ean pei ae of he ain snd slain of owl and pragatis a special case he onstruction and implementation af plans sa goal sand set out ino virtual uncharted testo Notes 1. We, 189. 2 lh 9 5 Tyr 10, 4 Ni te 178 5 alse 98 an so genet nd Shake (1989 whose tection nbs neh he se Te fof Deron he pa ‘rom, Mao op 2. Cpa So cpt my enh mt dee Tanah sul mera mre 4 pagent state a2 pogo ona pr wh the dicusion of pling None he ess ese Inet nnn nthe atin een at Be pret ee) ‘mat be ake 23 postive sg Dabo, 1973, Haroann an So, 1972, 713. i ining, 1940, 605 bs, 198 10. ma “Te rm fa Hatin, 198618 15. News 198,113. 1. News 1976, ‘1, Ben, 1976 29. The quotton Go A.Rich) efersSeiner | (0975, makes cleat the pete pebem af ring Chee | ini ont i Eg and to tanto in gee 1, Soar 199,48 19, Now 1976, i 20 Tyler BI. Tytler pc 7. 2B Tyler op. 79 2B Tyler, pe xg emp. 24 Mecho and ado 1969, 92 25. Jona, 198 Sh a, 187 24 Dees sce Ce, 18 Nos and Bex, Br Stine 195,95, 26 tae, 1971 2. Shana, 90 38, Tr sn Ste op 713, Newmark 198 BE de Bennande, 1978, 26 34. Deane eG, 1980, 37, 34 ai 235 dengan, oe, 15 1. Wi op cy 2 1 Sel 19, 42-4, Cle, 188, 19-48 ar dss. 1 Reb ale se 3, Sete dacion on eso gn ne apo ss eho aes DOE Se 1h tp ing a 4, sists the econ oan cy snd 1990, ah ‘is fron ped login sere et ane Stemi tng shoe 1, Tegan a Kh 972 hr fe ot ag eT, 285, CE, 16 Reus a 185, 15 Vg, 19771 i might bested ae te ase ot a 165s, cy ay ape Inge 42. Sir pc The own aie 44 New 528 Ogos nee ded by ond ken andthe we enced ees oe 4s Jistong tm itr 46 Nowe tit 47, emp ed Dre, 198 igen 40 Bede, oh pl me 2 Translating; modelling the process ' ths capes, we presen adel th wana pee which il be comin feted and explined throughos he book. The “hapter i did lr he eons mt "Ph rst sections deed ox cosas of he oa and stl rege by the waar, a ate a the speieton af tranalator competence If it in any sense ue, ht ‘yal {nxn langage bot aes an teliget pont become 2 ‘fla’! scems important inverse what he eigen’ ‘pe cont of “The second scion shits the foes he prise ad pesens an inert mode of weaning wich devs on the ngs and schol Enoicge we ve touched upon a Chapter and shal {leon saequet chapters pricy, the general pines of texeprocening (ie fc of Chapter). A nme of adel ae ‘Sata he oe pesotd here newtibly ower beta et 0 them. “The final secon i be ey la appjig the mode the trarlon a te ot drt bld up + parr methodloy {the eal no omnes ha ur own aston 2 ses, ‘ee hn my the ot me eae nd sal ay that he theoring ty stay have some val 43 ‘nea of csingstenton onthe nage snd ses ined. Tis tor to deny the need for ‘quali contol intra (wheter ‘erste by reader of tated tens os pa of he mentoring of the process ef by the wens but ope ise aide whi ‘age, parry since so much bas aleny Been ween en The top 2.1 The translator: knowledge and skills “The question we wish to atk now “What that rales need to now and e able fo da oder waralte? We are seeing, nohet36 Thain nd tig won mpéicaon of ani cmptence "We ay begin by naling the perhaps cious pint at dhe rant rocenes texan, ren thal we eu peat ome tine ining the towicde ed sls equi ped, monolngss) texeprocesing, ne aeedy have fod da othe tawer Or Sueston. The tasltor must, wa commucisto, poner the Knowledge md sis hat ae conten all comet (hs mich ‘by ett bandh ane theo to gps ‘Gcieas What we ned to ak does the tanta’ Enoledge-bse ‘nti? One newer as Been sgt in the flowing ers: ss the profesional (ecnia) tanaoe has aces 0 ve 1, ict Kinds of know are language (TL) knowlege, fexrgpe lnwledge source bnguge (SL) knowledge niet tes (re-wold knowledge and conse Inowedge* ‘Adhd the dciing sil feng ad encoding sls of wring (ohh wil edad in he Chapter 6 Sen 6) and we be + ‘role nial ig of Gi eas come of these which aed be [rclaed in ny pecicatn of he anor competence wl be ted that thi oot upg, very sy that suggested a andoak for wanton and comin cepa bythe tics of Cratos in desging th prorammes nd slg and aeing ther parcpnt’ But belrewe move of atm 0 ely the compete, we ned io mos he at ad din espe of ut Sicuin. , “To begin wih we would argue tha ibe knowledge-base spi cual fall arias, profesional or amateur, ecnil or ‘ened, snpy because wnslaon iain whore doe Chri of coun, by no mane 10 deny he Haethod of the profesional doings beter) nd Beas ‘el word owledge Snot the spec preserve of the ech? tandtr ut he ‘sein of al commons. rer, we'wold quero the extent o which he Sv inde of Anowedge te, nay wll oa nnn the ontay, west subvandal reap partealarty between TL, SL. and tee-ype Iponiedge point which wil r-emege during the acon of \Gxepocatig in Caper 0, What ister, nd ert of ‘ime lnporance in ay objective codon of una, he benbracog lnguiie Inowledge on whch all che depen ‘rect the pc which wl oc os rohan ths book. Ie seem indole hat we speed in Chapter 1, Scion 1.21)thetanstnor mst now @) how poperon re sro Translating: modeling the proces — 37 (Gemanse knowledge), 0) bow cause can be syncs ety ropostional content and analysed to eee the content ened In them (ate knowledge), and ©) how the aus ean eres 2 infrmatin-bering text andthe text decomped inthe lane (Geagmatc lowiedge) {Ecko nwlege or cont in any ofthe tre cases would seas " thatthe trans couldnt translate. Wit) a, even ter ‘meaning wold clade she wanton. Without), meaning would be Tinted to the Meal (mance sense) caied by iteracce hich, ‘hough thy might poser formal cohesion (cag tangible relations of ase), would ck foncdonalcerene and communictie vale ‘That, howser, i ony par of Be specication we need. While we would re-affim ou desire nt wo suberbe to the motion fhe 000 ‘tas’ which has dominated waitin ther or wo centr, se would ot allow our rejection of that positon to led ul Peche the study of the "good translator ar one clement fan Incepratedierdiscpiay, mulimethod and muliesel approve the description ofthe proces “The notion of the od tras i inert in ny dicusion of teansaon, Tatltrtrainers mist ble in sre fit et of ‘rates which pies sich sn ddl ~ thei syabuss td Selection and assesment procodore equ th tobe te ese ~ al ‘tm explicit stement of thir assumed Knowledge and sill wold if fined in operational ere What doce te tznsator need we ke and do inorder to tandnte?), consitte one partie an! vet) "alubl kind of specication of wanton competence, We have, s far, made same beady in watinng, Ia clave Informal wy, sme af the Linde of knowledge we would exes he ttasnor opens and would probaly cree some statement the the flloning asa inital Jfnon ofthe task which faces ws Given the goal of Hngusics to match the nae speakers sarmptene, an applied ings theory of tanshtion should Sim at manching the bial nate speaker onan “This would ncesariy involve seeking an integration Between the logue Inowtedge af she two lngunges wit speci and general Knowledge of the domain and of the world is comparative and ‘oma Inguiste hnowiedge. Some stomp have been ade © ‘roe such contastive information, for French and Eogish and for number of language pie But we ae sll «loop way fom 2 | i |‘comprehensive database and il hae reclve substations ‘problems before we reach sch a pint? ‘We a need, before we proceed, t state dhe ec faa at hich we are opening. Are we seeking’ to loctetaneltor Competence in (1) some el want ores! biinga Or) he fra hans wansintor Ae we, diferent erm, to work bia “ings de Ta langue’ o nui dea pa? We shal conser bod of these allermaves (2a hind, more soiling sppeac), hit tthe mpcaans cach hat for Anion af tardaion theory and for methodloy, but dcusing ‘the secon, the “expert system in ater renter dei, since me ‘oir tobe bo ieee challenging an pascal ef 2.141 eal bilingual competence ‘One appa would be t focus on the competence ofthe “eal teanor” or “dea bing who would be an abstraction fom scl bilinguals engaged in imperfciy Performing hs af wanton. be (nie them) operating Inder none of the performance linittions that under the Iimpertccns of seal trsaion. In shis we would be flowing exactly Chomsy’s vw of the gosta lingusue theory and hit propos forthe speciation ef the ‘ompetenee ofthe hel Speer care" and woul, therefore, be ket defiian of tanseson theory sch 5 teashaion theory is primary concerned with an ie! lingual reader, who knows both languages petty and i ‘nafected by sch there iecevant condhion 39 memory liniations dsracton, shift af tention or interes, andere Ceandom or characters) in aping this knowledge In Sctual performance In methodological terms, och a vew ofthe goals of tras ‘hea woul ead us to adopt dedetine cathe than an induce ayprasch to the discovery of tanssor competence itospectin, y {he tars, ita iso her own mind in search f the Knowledge {euler the paced hy ten of which he prt rete ‘Dac intresting technique fr wppng such knowlege might bet ave trast Kec dre of thee experiences and tone them about these. Such a method a vestigation is leady widely wed in cogive cence” and. casing in apie ings, parelry ‘he smd of reading and ought to provides pada reveling way ‘ot tapping the contents of the "black bor’ (ee Chapter 1, Secon 133. "This would be to operate just as transformational generate rammarans do, they perceive formal ingsisereadonship he ‘ind, with all that sch an approach mpl. 212 Expertise : An alternative tthe ‘del trnstator’ model would be to adopt less tract apprsch and describe tanaon competence io tems of fneraletons based on inferences drawn from the observation of ‘tasator perfomance. “A study of ths pe suggest a inductive approach: ding eure in he dt of the product which sogest the existence of parol ements and systematic relations in the proces. ‘Sho of any kind of sora erento, ti kind of approach would ot oalyee-stblsh the wadkonal indotve procedere of "Cpliing’Teatres ofthe anlted tet in terms of process carried ‘cut by he randator in producing it but would also have the ele of opertionaizing the, oherise merely anecdotal dscuson of the “Craft of menting ® ‘We might now, ven the renewed interest in conputer-asited seanaon begin © make the atempt 1 sudy. the craft of the human wanslator as an expert Sytem. (Since) tnsars are experts [we ought to beg] Studying the process of wasn frm this pint few ‘Theevpertsystem sa speclzed sofware package whichis tended to allow users wo benef fom the knowledge ofan exert human camsulant. This knowledge & ypially bit into the system ae 2 calleson of ues, held as dat, which may be updated wih we” Esper stems are used to gheadhice to wars, fo communicate Anowledge conned inthe dbase to them and fo oranze tht nowledge in novel ways, Already a number of domains, inldng spect farce banking, engineering, law and medica possess Sich systems! go ‘we mighe confident expect ppleatons 10 ‘canalon ele too log. We shall oun ut what stems of hi ind cnn and then hint at the general shape of ne for tanslaton ‘An exper sytem conti, in essence, to basic components40 Train nd Tring A knee bik whch cnt combied Lv ad eipeine’ of the donaln or, inore Hel, the sub-domain). In * tee temp ie wos cde aes ‘Ta her asecned peaptons. {An inference mechanism (also known a a ‘inference engin; “Sitwae which can ase thé knowledge Base wo reason or make inferences about tein Contained there. In medicine this mechanism would compare symptoms reported to i with those [ited the database and match symptoms with Hil nesses. In dion, an expert stem would need (3) 2 ae inte which ‘eal allow slope tobe held betwen the sytem andthe ter, (@) lr which would keep ack ofthis dalogue (recording the Even toy de fundanentallements remain () the deabse of owiedge and @ the means of accessing it ‘Cen tenet tsk for anyone who aceps the notion of ansator competences an exert est mould be fo se aboot aempng to ‘model ‘We would envisage a tranator expert sate contsing the Kinds ‘we disused in the prevous caper, ie () a knowledge bas consisting of : (inure langage bromide the syste rule stems of the ‘ade leon ad emetic and ts tea-reating stems 1) ner vl, uae hatin the sous language (0 tat-9pehnolede (ran inference mechan which erie "he dendig of te teadng and comprehending re 1 eget “he ig ft. wenger! lng ee 10 ters oan ten wih he wth he wig efi aay aware of he viglines of his spectaon snd have sab beded ft to show the decion in wich the Guia) ‘mechan fhe proces of nang willed tog and becsie wre are enthuse how the nton ofthe expert este for Both scl nd terete esos Tranting: modeling the pcs ML From the applied perspective, the expert sem prvies a meats of faresig the enormous poten of formation Lech ms ly sa aldo more cleat transating but abo forthe investi of the tantin procese andthe reeeerment of the seins ‘ner translator taining. “From amore theo standpoint, te exertsytem and the more ener sea of sical ineigence have profound tell {npcatons or the tein ot fing tts, particulary hose stich clam pscblolal aby 213 Communicative competence A fina alternative only hinted at cater) would be 10 deny the emmpetence-perfrmance dichotomy which we hare been ici seceping and redefine our abjecve as the speciation of Ialicamponcnt communicate campetence’ which would consis nina, of fou are of knows and sills; grammatal compatene socilngisi competence, discourse competence and srategc competence “These our components cover essential the sae areas o kxowlge suggested etic, though with some shifts of emphasis 1.Grammatcal competence: knowledge ofthe rales of the ene Incuding roesbulary and word-ormation, pronunciation ping and science suture te the Kaowedge and sil requ ‘derstand and exes the Berl mening of werances. 2 Sociolinguire competence: knowledge of and ability to pre ‘and understand traces appropri in context, Le. 35 Stsined by tpi, the satus Of the pata, purposes of the ‘3 Discourse competence: he ait o combine form and meting to achive ond spoken or writen texte llerent gates. Tis ty depends om coeson inform he way a which tence ae Tike sractrlly to factate interpretation of test) and eaberee in meaning (he relationship smong the ferent meanings in {ex ler meanings, communicate functions oso esin 4. Strategic competence te mastery of eommuniatin sales ‘ahich may be sed ope commnizadon of 0 compensa or ‘readown cused by Bini factrs instal communication or toinslfiset competence in one oF more ofthe oe omnes ‘ot commanicatve competence) t1 Franasato ared ranstating ‘This approach would kad us (adapting Hymes’deinion of! communicative competence st we did Chorsy's dcfnon af linguistic competence) to tet aspect ‘waslator communicate compeeace' the knowledge and ably poncsed by the taster whic permits hither to create communicate acs doar = which are nor ony and nat necessary ranvoaal ut sexily appropriate ‘commit o his poston woul make us ase that he tanto tt poses linguistic ompetence in both guages communi. ‘he competence in bath eultuey, consisting of (0 loll of he ue ofthe code wich goer ge and nowlefe of an ably 10 tine the cmentons ich (nme ofthe pan ll forth een fal tee soins ong en none an 9 tne the ops saa for mang ss eum a eth {20 in ony ih he emmy grow ete ‘luctn and erred fang commen (Ge dscm) fn oder “reste comprehend and use content-free TEXTS asthe means ‘oF parcpation incomes sent (situated) DISCOURSE. 2.14 Summary 4 theft chaper of his Book we made a number of assumptions bot cnation theory, ane of which was that eons pols ‘sere no longer appropriate and tht the Use was pe for = new Stteneat anda sft af paradigm. We indicated there tat the groand-ues for tashaton theory nsec have been li down amor exactly wo hundred yess ago hu canbe eneapsusted ia the ile ofthe Bs chap of what mat sureiy ve been the enlist atempr to Formulate 2 theory af ‘ranation (we make 0 apology for repealing the. quote ese, of «goal tuslian: genera rl wing fm th sescition’ iil abjeton wo hi rian derived, as we a1) fm ‘he ctphasion the desrpion athe taslation he produ), when ee ‘horizon the process and (2 from he normative Impiaons omens ore a a at aero mes ees in pent res Senco nica ane Sets icorin engage Mone scp, eer, woul be a focus onthe descrigion ofthe chara ahora a ae cece emai Pes mea eats SES ie ae oy eaters ec comidr swe ave been nth secon the second of hse = sera ng eb ee eee, we yeaa core tai ao Steen at crate Soca es a a at ee etc eum net oe foe Goad sea Gri nbn Se ea Seren pe naan = ee ump mrie ecete meee sdecitetna tm Sorat corey eT cs oe certs ant “ier npr cieoeenend 22. Translating; the model “This model rests ona number of asumpins abou the nate af the process and the character ie must have i i sto explain the Fhemomcron of falaion snfectry. Tt ders from work in Pesce ann arc nelgence on real-time natal Tro represents an upsted veran of err mode of the4 Tiamat nd Traaingb> . wanating process el?® and an imalamaton of plement of eher ‘modes whch we shall present! ter, tex-gflopes and tex- procelag (Chapter 6, Figs! GI and 64438 dnfrmaton- proesing (Chapter 7, Blyuree 7.1 dha 7.2). Vs 221 Cargonent il roe 1 is ea with te upd ame the prs of ‘translating pes () is a special cate ofthe more general phensinenon of human Information processing, ) shouldbe modeled in may which recs ix poon within the psychological domain of information procesing, {@) takes pce In both short-term and long-term memory "trough devices for decoding tein he soure language SL) and encoding txt ino the targst language (FL), vs = on-language-specisemantle representation’ 9 operstes at he nguiicerel of cau, iespectve of whether th proces sone ofthe nas of incoming sgl or the sgmibesis of ougong: ones (mowoingl, readag. and/or + witing, of Bllgul, ie. wana); (9) proceeds in boh's Bottom-up and 2 top-down manne in roctting tet and interac bah approaches by means of Fle of operation which is both cascaded and interactive, i ‘nasser hei at oe sage ncod not be completed before the nex stage i activated and revision Is expected and permite (6 Feats there tbe, for bth lngunger (visual word-recogiton sytem and writing systema G4 syntactic processor which handles the opdone ofthe MOOD system and contains ‘i fequen les store (LS), s lexical search mechanison (SM frequent surcture store (FSS) and parser, ‘rough whl Information pest (0 rom) 2 (@)_semantie processor which handles the opdonssralsble je de TRANSTTVEY astm nd ecg itr (0) pragmaccpocésso hich hanes the options aaah "in dhe THEME yen, ind theres ao an Transat: modeling the pres 48 ot known, makes nferenes onthe bas ofthe informa ‘on al) part ofthe stag for eaing ot pins Tar ataaing pone, devised snd stored in the (0) plaance whch te concerned th erating plans (or eeching gol al Knds, Some o hes pan ay vee toe of language sodh as texprocesig, This might Fncodetrasating text ad this decision might well hve oon mad even befor is fist use ad ben pres Wie shall no tke these components, epand the speieaton of whats inaed at each stage and show how the components ineratt, to erene the dyamie process of washing. (Figure 21 ges an une ofthe process) Ft ofall ven atthe rik of repeating what asst een si in the fith of our ssumptions abovt the nature of the proce) we ould be abot clear about te mature of the process sl the model we ae sing to describe i. The process mt 2 inca nein which stage follows stag nse order is anita press “thc, although every sage must be passed Uy the wer Boi sed and hock-racking evn and eanclaon of vin ee ‘Soa re the sor rather tan the exception. Iw Key thi i nd fd the fact that the proces ~ even In ole = some cmples, ‘we can mae disions int stages and steps which wil, we hope, carly the mode for ts 'oyin the ineretsof rater cry, we sal ete proces ito analysis (n Sccdon 222) and syibesis(n Secion 223) aud, ‘ithin them, thee diogushable areas of pert: (}) syntactic, (@) semantic snd @) pragma, which co-scur, rgb th the fixe sage nich wl be presen dig the dest i wring (Chapter 6 Secon 632) ~ (0) poring, @) open anl lesen, iton sd planing. ‘The imation is to work though the mode, simulating the teanaaon ole, 222 Analysis 2221 Synticaape ‘The fist major sage in teasing i, of neces, reading the tex. “This rues threo he vil wort rection sytem which an Aisingush words rom non-words i the soues language ext (ST) ‘We envisage prcesing as begining with sich recopnton concen Ureted awe sugges carier =n ie clus ad comering the {40 sratealation sand Translating =eoT=) ste bina) nef sae | eee Tae | on Poa Saar | [Cea nae em 2. Trantor oie mode insist a2 whole which peeved a nae sng of ‘ere seals, : : hs i peeing, which we envisage 8 being handed by ih roc ni cainghe dae of lees ands forth (he Ks of processing we stale describing tx CChaper 7), supplies the ipo fr the stele proesing of the lass. We dl provide no more tan 2 skeletal oui of what is Traiaing; moss omc pone 94 involved bere (since Chapter 4 is cacerned with modeling the _Suteme which npn meaning athe eve af he aus), making se ve simple sample: ‘The dog bit the man. . “This taken tothe syntactic proceso fo anal andthe cause i Adzcompored int ytace strocures the use structres eval ‘Opts within the atm of MOOD (ee Chapter 4, Secon 423). "The dat rack hough the procesar woul befor the clase ill inthe fr sig of yb) o pass hough oth he fun eis tore FS) ad the fun race are (FSS) witout reuse 0 ‘her the lsh mechan o he pte. . ‘Apical example of hr wold be the dec rnser ofthe meaning ofthe SL. clase by mets of fed TL case, the Rit use of ‘he Engh eile’ try hue pon ime thee a. rane dicey into Tin a Cera a We shoul this pot emphin he narre ad uncon of thse steps inthe proces. To bela wth, a general pont might be made about the FFLS andthe PSS;-both have the function of releving the short-term ‘memory (STM) af unnecersary storage hy allowing large amounts of ‘mt bypass the parse, in the cae of structure, and the lee ‘search mechanist, inthe case of isan be directed immediately to the semanse level during analsis or the wrt system during ‘yates We would expect bah stores tobe consracted unde the ume kind of constants the notions of changing repertoires and both quanti the and quale diflerences berween Individuals aphing in bth ‘ies ie he specication forthe FSS below). (0) regent lise ‘This ete mental Geyshlingsaie) cordate ofthe physi gs rieminligy daar. a stat Toop’ ely forfeits ‘both word? and “ions, The contents of sucha sore would {nce ems of Bt nd second ode of infermatvy (ee Chapter 5, ‘Seton S13 on ths) ) fe such 8 and ai of tha the, ‘et whlch cost some 20 percent ofthe first 2,000 words in {he average aul vocabulary) and ()oter fequen tems such 8 al,48 Tramaion od Tronaing 2 so, who Ge Furr 238 weeds which make wp the next 40 pereen). However, gen that most ings woul accep that theres no very sharp ln Between grazuma nd vcabula the ‘cabolry, or les sinply te open-ended sn ost deat ‘spect of the grammar of « language [and] te disincion betneen grammatical and lsc is rely only one of deree™ tnd that 2 pacholingusie model of linguage production (nd, of eee, asaon) mst ental + (6) Frequent sare sire 2 of operations that involves he exploitation of fequenty ‘occuring structures [vbch]undoublely are store a memory ‘in ther enrety as fea esa em like depo ee wih] let access wo phrases and sentence. ney a pid 3 is For india worda>® One of two poins should peshape be made here about the arate ofthe FLS and the FS. ‘We imagine there o be one FLS and one FSS foreach ngage the tnnsntor knows Tels to be expected that, for any langue, the contents ofthe FSS wil contain msjriy af emis which sr the Shared coma propery ofthe pesch community, but iti eguly 0 be expected that each lnguage wer (even monologuals but pres ‘ey bing wil ave # dire coniaraon of tems wich ean change ofr time. An analogy would be the repertoires of musicians hich even for the same instrument, diler qualithely and ‘wand fom each eter ad vary over tine, even fore sane India, " "The PSS fora use of English wil consist of combinations of ‘abject, Predator, Complement, Object and Adjunct which between ‘hem coe the ssjr opto sable inthe MOOD sytem ef the langue, i the unmarked orpaniatins ofthe sx case paterns (seed bon) inthe indeave~ declarative ad introgntve = td imperative form. “At phrase lvl the FSS would ao conti the major aasbe ‘pos from the fondamentl mb q st ee Chapter 4, Secon 422 for an explanation ofthese symbol). We all show the Hinde of frequent structures that occuf a the level of phate Iter and oncetrat here onthe level of aus strctre inthe decane ‘mood (ae Chaper 4 Section 42.1 fr deal). ‘Complex shogh Englah clause nti may appear, reason 2 simple feandston of ae hy clase pes: Transat: modeling he prs 19 se Bey rn sre Tey are er sro They hit Prd SPO0 — Theyame Pel $1,000 SP OC — Theydte Mel Psd SPON —Theypar the placs onthe whe Cleat, Adc can ended to cach of hee =the is nig in Having‘ obliging A= in alos all prone and secure gual, cven in the declarative, there are ssl shi revrrngemets which ae aisle, eg the passive SPA re hitb thm which are ikingpevsely beau they ae marl eee Capes 4, Seon 4.20 theratation) and ar, three, eobabl ot in he FSS. “Te incoming string pase nly to the FSS and shen w te FLS. The ordering porta, sce no aman a ade 0 be ale to parse a clus wihou understanding the mesnigs of the trode a Tt spp, tog, tat he spat sei of he ‘lass nt the othe FS al ps om othe (9 Paver "Thar the sk of abalsng ny cause for which amass appears ecssry. One this has ben done, he clase ean continue trough the pres tthe nex tp ofthe syntactic processing tage sees the FES, helena tes in the clase cae matched wih ems aleady toe in the FS ie he ays wae an ete the semi for futher processing This as we pointed out ca, the dal. rout he eau now analysed ins sync srctre = posing ‘hog he FLS without delay. What cold hod it up woul be a tat extreme, comprehension othe sacra the omen, en suche heal as all the oe sla fr ast hr the SEOM ce rc he ay and em el Trecipland athe Append Section 1 and, a eta in Chapter 4 Secon 42 is onsparety cae as the sequence of phan NP PND FP-and teow rete (rub) (hen) (pe) and ‘Sen the Fr cen th esl Heme 4 ol 1 Hp Weisser sublet nr tneting abou he es themes30 Tustin and Feansdaing ‘nats anil ala are countable, posses the ait of being ‘may and fnble reptile gat are es, ble 0 gall ‘bla cite fora petiod of tine (how lang, me might wonder, Is § ‘ori or some een (eo Beal fa voi, ll hs formation sss fom the readers sate howled ae, wort ll ‘hes tl (hat the faction all the elements rato, Ti exampl) or (@) wat the words thenscs sean For nent the : (2 Leia search mechani ‘Tis fas the ak of probing and atempig to ‘make sense’ of any lesa rem which ano be matched wih tems alee tered inthe Hs. We are all very much nae ofthe fasting Spot the-tongue! iiometon whieh fi afl the anlar he ably fo ad {height word anes ae wordt al vest tar oh be ‘nChapter3 Scion 3.11). The LSM pevies the means fying take sense of an uaknown wori2? It woul! be pst to work rh each ofthe eile io he tex abo the pt ight tea easy made by focusing on one of them: ilar ‘Unis the eaer knows that the dictionary definition fears ‘a ‘arflly ished and wel tingbuling stone’ the Teel em «an pass trough the PLS and must be processed by the LSM, Faced by tis dif, the reader ean adopt oe 4 mune of states () tempo assign a meaning othe cmon the bass ofits ‘hrrounding ot (he wore sound ise Chap 3, Secon 33.1 ‘shi gore the en and pe tha ners information of ‘unex Kid wl provide meaning or (6) seach in memory for similar ems; making ws, tat I of some Kind of intro hares (Gee Chapter 3, Seton 3.2 on this) This thd proach may ead ta ‘enaine meaning: « brid te, Le. 3 exo Betwccn an ach and al pr cf ow hcl suggest a eal or hi, ‘No caning eam be fund for he word «woe bat wba pp tobe is two component les Sem to be made po known werd = ‘ib and the ‘sxond hal af another known won ppl The fick tha isis an cramp of ly segmentation (arid ot vie ot ‘he point Is the esl Wich portant cli pram sel ak polar = lar In this intane, the reader fn «ening Gil, presumably, several mening) fora bat ne fr er However, the ee meaning ‘ah eas on oa suey of the concept ee” ad the finding pple there yan cramp ofthe concep ue eg Avista, the veaer a enfed vo pes ote Bt satin of oer misiog, oes he te of asing {ce sme hind of rein f poplar and te whe ts al ree tind of we Foe ee ae nipic eamly be oped Pv churctersia ofboth the ash andthe poplar and most, therefore be ‘yn an a The procs Gee Append, Scion 2 for a elanaon rable hr) might someting He i ‘eshlar: no enteyin FLS A eerien: ae moe 2 spent ems : Toe (example cD se Leckeawep!s ah "BS Sptead dar beckeocep?: lar |= eign eo) soemee ue Be tee sever feet ler sn tee ‘question™: si lor isn dus? sees enya memory Tricion; ah aa (oample ep alert amplet ee thet hr, Cenme ) ee 12a eee ear ite, ecereears iat dameeneee ie tee eeotra nate SSaenay ees ineaeen trainer wn — a fr egav enemies caecum mre wage area eratge mete Sg i ee eee Pa sphere mcneaieen loves hater ey See cen Tem chal a aan abe mote enna =e maroc “opneic tigteattmaesrn, osetia geet eure tant Za52 Translation nd Trang ‘welcome inthe context of expsning transition ‘Weare now ready to move ono the next sage in the ans: he semande. But before dl ot nght be wie to recapisste what as happened so fr and indete just what shat ein utp by the stati processor, ‘What entered the synctcanabecr asa sing of symbols sow leaves ita syntacti (MOOD) stucture. The information entering the semante anaser can now be symbolized in tems of SPCA sequeces wih ther phrase suuctutes and thi ese! lr plus, a lest provisional eee meanings stached to thelial em and + ta ndcating wheter the teme are common ones o ot "We hall display the acti information ae atee-dagram ce the Appendix, Section 1 for an ouine ofthe procedure sed he) running from (0) the syntagmatc chain sequence of the dase (GabjeesPrdicor Otjec), through (2) the paaligatc choices which realize each ple Inthe chln (Noun and Verb Phat) (3) the ‘sgniapmate chain ofthe “es” of the cae ot? (he tres of the pirases; moder head main eb) and he pragma chokes hich realize them (determiner, nous, wanstve ver), Sally, () the acta words which ele the etogorie demi, ma os P ° T T ( a le oe om oS te vo © on a aa | I 1 © thedf he them ‘Weld nt wish opre-mp wht willbe sid in Chapter 4 buitscens tefl to state here (vith Haida) thatthe aus the produc of thre simultaneous semandeproceses Isat one snd the same ine repreenaon of experience, an incracive exchange, ad 2 ‘message and ow emers the seman aber wih information of {Bis bead kind (MOOD) Le that toda ad declarative a, in terms of is Wl mamig, x statement. Tati all. Wher it nts asa statment for ethe the sender or the receiver hast abe lscovered and wht comes net isthe sala ofthe lane inxs of is emnt y the seman aaier ands puro by the pragma, Trani modeling he pre $3 22.22 Somamiconass : “The semantic aac has the ak of concep eee ining the TRANSITIVITY sclatons which under the atic ure sf the cla [ota the sats proce Had the tsk of dering sre “onthe near sing of bol ouput the visa word-rection syrem, x0 the semantic processor serves to derive eomtent fr he fynacic sractre supped by the previous stage of ass, I fnlaes out what the clause is about, what i repress; gil ‘elonsipetwscnpartiant and oceses (anda, i they ae prevent, conextealing reumatancs; tie, spe, nes, 6) Heston! meaning semante sens: propostona ona. eto return t oa clause "The dog bi the man, In content rms, what mate dicprred is wat the pce which is being evi out (might well be a rcationsip eather than eine acon, i'n dierent comple fd fe cen), who the arta re and hw thy relate each ther paras Sh proces “The infrmaton from the gytacticanaacr was da he ase sactre consisted of an SPO sing. ‘The somatic anscr Fecngizes an Actor Prcest Gol sere in the propionic ‘ders the clase in which the Subject fs eutted with Act, Price wit Process and Object with Goa! Tn tems of purpose, ii diel infer mc ors, pi, than the def aseasment ha his a semen, We ol be ths ‘pagina the net vers ofthe pemmatal mode we have oon using, somatic analyse provides information about the TRANSTTIVITY otis ‘eich hve fouled strate the pepo wih we the dae in speech act ems, we now have the popotosl cute bu iconay fre the entent bt ot the purpose lh ‘ceded fore We cn tsp he cau t apical seech ‘Now tha we have 4 meceton ofthe lil fr span the clase we cam move ont the atl f the commiestine Finn sor. 22.2.3 Prgmatcanbsis ‘Th otec pocesr has 2: we have ast een, oo tions heA Hruska ad Translating anal of structure ~ MOOD ~ andthe astigig of ei mening) and the semanie + single fncton (he rsteval of conten | TRANSITIVITY). The pragmatic proetor alo has, lke the sym, sks i lado tthe ration ise m the Drevin ges of nahi (1 st ts here, 2) toprovide a rer eas ‘The fist is concerned with THEME (vith the istibuion of Infrmation and wheter ds sn mare or marke ade) The cond is concemed wih rte wth yi harcore inching ‘orp aking i acount he tree slit parmcer of (@) tenor of discourse: the celaionship wih the sesiner which the sender indates trough the choices made nthe Tet Gee Cher §, Section 62.0) (0) moe of discourse: he medam selected ar essing the txt (Gee Chapter 5, Seetion 5.3.2) (6) oaain of discourse: the "el ovr by the text the rol it |s playing the communicative ae, ha the clase or, tthe sender nade 0 coe, mma lee Chapter 5, Section 53.3), Siouancousy, the caus eased (1) Thema smaure which shows thatthe spl las fas the Thedes it the man THEME” RHEME Sine Subject, Actor and ‘Theme are all guste this is an ured ttre (which is why it by-passed the FSS i the fist lee. (2) Register featur. We en apply the tre sie parameters to the cise assuming the gly ally circumstance tht thi ‘est has apparel ut ofthe blue and ot embedded within ‘honk on guste) and i ou sessment, On the basi te evidence we bie: (4) in tens of tenor, fray, plas an inpenonay ot mare! Gwe shall ignore them in oo tagging o the ses at a ges orm wsing ihe dean be marked) but aceliy exremey highs (©) intems of made, there en indication of prtistion af potency (ve hare no way a knowing how ch fot took the writer to produce its probably iota ot but hae ato is bigh rien to be read, and the tex completely pic, (@ im tems of domain, the texts cern eft, by no means emt, orate, hai pote (oles we Know ‘there iho prcaar care comes rom) mating, “The domain provides an indication of purpse (the slacatonary for) snhich, when combined with the existing information on content, Siepeis speech acta the ot of te example me have been wins, ‘Suomi ed tha abe plthe rest of the information passed on to the net stage fo further processing. Tews be ‘dene Kort Macatee Gol Spas nrg “Theinforaton can now be psd on some form Ike the falowing: Thedepbittheman Speechace lnfoiog Thee = marked Tenors + cess Mode: partici 5 Ghanian (writen oe read) + poble Doman 1 ferential (On the bss of hs nfs, he sine ear can make + Sonia sgamet of te ce tec, is se he ‘aus ald up see use exe-yps but wale © ‘iene fo ar Sanne til snthesacmet el be mide "Stl quenon otk wel Wh ind text wood conin a doe ie a, esa ae which onl ima fra Sitauws he ty ibe man te dog wold be and oly ube nd scele tt penis fro parlcyton ad pees Tin ed ee er in “Mebane mat wel hi pit come op ih supine oko elon uss or lo who ce ‘fan or pnphen woud eps peop ed sch rl56 Trion od Trani sentences? Let us suppote tht tat isthe deen; Bogut” Pilosopy. Two things now bappes |The infrmaton on the elite moves on with the spitic speciicaon given abowe and the tentative label ngs’ ‘Philosopy booWancle” to frm a comple langungefece ‘semantic representation. This consiites the whole of the meslagf Be tow presen th cs aprend y he 2. The analysis is ed the wo remalning stages fanaa to which we ‘ow fra the Kes onpnzer and the plane, Ie is crucial important to recognize the dliference betwsen the Tanguagesce sonanic repreenaton (2 set af abitac nie ‘concepts and raonshipe, which represen the whol fe thot cxpesed in the clus) and. the language-pecic dame eel, loranized trough SPCA relaionshipe selected from the MOOD ‘pes ofa partcular language. Let it what hasbeen apse out rom the original SL. cl. ‘The temanic rpraeain of te exo now contin the allowing yma seman sl pragmatic ifm 1. Clase sate: MOOD snd leit choies inching lesa ‘easing and where any of the ls i uncommon, 2 0 that fe. 2 Poptitinl cen: TRANSITIVITY choles; the loge aaions mapped ont he syste srueture, 3. Thematic simcure’ THEME choices incloting indications of rmahedne 4 Rest fatras tear, made a domain of une. 5c oe dtived fom domain) ich, when combined with ‘brpstionl cio, indicates « (6. Spech at which the clause “eons a; the simplest cise itn ‘where there is one-toone mapping between aus and epcch at {2 not uncoasson but fr from univer state offs, “he semantic representation isthe result ofthe tree-nay ana of. the clase (andthe bass ofthe theesay Sythe of ne lee 28 1 sranlt) and if we ae ven to begin to understand the proces of ‘rasan, we mus ecogie that we donot ante le from language Aino a lus fom lnguege B We break down the A ase Jt is semance representation and use that at the bai forthe ‘nig ofan aterntve clue in ancther language ie. eanion) rin the sane lnpioge Ge parphrase). rating: madling te pros ST ‘A nay analogy is tat ofthe iee-eabe (SLT) which thawed (read a rerozen (uated) ‘Dring the proces of asain the eae is meted Whi Tui utes every molecule changes place; nome eens in i ‘ial sete eters Tem begin the proves Torming the work in» sccnd language Malceuks esp, ecules ate poured into fil the spaces bl He ives of ‘ling al mening are ily ine. Une wok exists in {he sca nage ae Kee ha anparances the sme For most lnguage ser (pasty monaingat reales), omc ‘wo exes ta, ce the ang seo eae on te ‘Ghose and converted Ino ie semante represen, is sci for woul! be dceted fom the working memory he STM) a is rmetsing ale stored Gn the LM, ‘Translators, hover, king that thy il ne tobe aware of themate markedness when the) fame to wile te TLT, have prewimbly to rain some ol the ‘atc information, i any to Be able to sid (or iss on ong Through) the parser atthe sythesis stage Simulacouay, th mbol ana edit de iden organize. “This ie caualent ofthe Cena Exe fe pyeologiea e ‘of human inlormation-peocsig which we sal noe in Chapter 7, Seton 7.13) ha he feton of) stegrtng the analysis wih the develning eral layout ofthe eta me of 3 groin hese 8 the reader works though, returning from inet tne mtr ‘he acum nfrmation and) fevsing sone scinante rye ett otenary on the bat of new infront Stic iswell-asted by thse translators who report hatred Teatrigh tough before atenping to ansate ay of "Thane alo bed bythe planer aa usin any my angen ta at reaching the arent goals ich precede ‘ening; a ae poi tht dessin ae made onthe ae of ntinvng 4 read, ad 9 arth and, erally iportan Ke ou pt of wen, on whether to translate ‘Up to ths it, he tnd weave cn outing opis aly 0 the moog rake atl he ess. deed, up bs oe. the {tanto onolingal eer, The net dedi s whether oF wt totale the som peti fat the ress mn Immediately othe Bpinsing wo start work onthe next lax "The dein anne aes the dea ow stored asthe seman represennon ofthe ewe = rough the reverse proces. We shall aiefo the semantic representation through a itis sues ino omponen of target lnguage ext and se dhe opportaniy present | (in Figure 22) « moe explicit and dled model 223 Synesis We tte up the prose a the pin where dhe SLT clase has been Conve naa seman eeseatin (Be one which ave cy been lied) andthe render bas didlo the opton of tani Trista the intone in he omc nproen sion sufi ta supe tence win which he case gh be ‘eco oear, nthe mos unl evet thatthe reader does ot already know what itis example in pela station suchas 4 Tangage examination, he consrcion af ext which gall or the lected prt of, = te cms ofthese erst ag (ocean ar ‘nese of diy on, imanng the proceso be Une, ch 1 in the pragma proceso the tu lng 2241 Pragmatic nthe, ‘The TL. prac processor receives all the information alae in the seamic representtion and is requied to cope with thee ey probleme (and make to futher decions for each of them: #0 {pusere orca) (6) a to deal withthe pupie of he original. The taste may ish co atempt 10 ‘presen’ tis ot 1 alter it. Ether way, 4 decision has o be made on how to express purpose through the valle content or ~asumig tht the tna plaice "decison to shift any of the parmeter (eg. 0 turn An informative ext ino polemial one), through difent conten. (0) Tow to deal withthe hon rac ofthe orginal. Pree tion" or aleatian ef the orginal theme-rhemeclatonhip ‘ema sn the ease of puro! above dsson on he pat ofthe trasbtor and an avareaess of the opions avaible, (6) lero deal wit the splot the gna. gti, ire ithe chice hemen atemptogw replete onthe ae hand ding to pire pea theo, In ach ofthe thre ete it is within the pragma proessor that ‘supp of sible purposes, thematic stutres and dseoure rameters of mode, tnar and damn have to Be ound. = a =} fe fal] | | cal Se SS So — = i a * ERO a: “LFS our 2.3 Amodeofte run proces60 Tramaton and Toasting“ 2242 Souasticgybis “Tne TL. semantic processor receives an indication of he illocutonry force (he pup and works 10 eres strvtures to carry the ‘propos content snd produce a sasactory propaston to pss on tothe nent sage of shes, 22.33 Space yt “The TL mace proceso accepts the nput fiom the semantic sage, scans ig PLS for siable eal dns and checks in the FSS fora ‘Sppropriatedauepe wich wil represent the propose. I hee to salle cause structure in the FSS to comey the parle ‘meanings, the propos Is passed through the parser (which i now fnetioning ts yes hele) and, aly the wring stem sctated to realize the cea ng of sos which conse ‘he arget language text. ial the proces concludes in the sane way ait id with he monolingual reader the return tothe original extend th est clase, 224 Summary “The proces of walang an be modelled a ada nd nerve ‘prcor mich conang three major sages sate, vemanic and Pragmatic processing While each of these has Tobe invaed in both {nari and syste, is) possible for some stages vo be passed through very quickly where, fr example, the dats Being proves is repreened in the FSS or the FLS) and) the orn for processing to bers combination of beton-up and top-down, Le. the aap (and Lic syateas) ofthe clare approached tmalancouly by both atte recopaaingprocedorer and by inerencing bared on previous perience and expectations. ‘Weare now ina poi to tackle the trnshation of short French oem and we itt demote the procs in eon 23. Using the process to translate ‘Se a, we hive Been dscsig iano in vey absct manner and ging few specie exampler of taiaton problems of of Cermparave stuctures between languages. This has een intentions. ‘etbve been wing seruploush to operate atthe eve of approach = 1s we poised we would in Chapter I (Seton 1.3.2) ~ raving on linguistic ad copive sence to provide insights which help in Tran; modeling the prc ‘rt fate ke sense fea a res ater than prodect and avoiding producing Ets ransation problems an pes “ow se then he very pre and ees el ‘of methodology and technique which can be found in ecally ‘ale texto ‘Nevertiles, he waldiy af heretical ml ean ony ets cout instal pace sd for thi ease th we tend to De thischaptr ta clos by eximining a sor test which we ave id 10 tesalate in ter ofthe model. The tet a French gil 3 the ttanaition i to Eoglish ‘What fellows is «record of the procedure usd in mong em source to target language tet y one anlar, inthe contest of ‘cons made aboot the orga text andthe Kd of ext he would sel forthe tegetlnguage text and on one parca ocasin “The rose ino se being rogesed athe bet rly ay of tacking the text nor are the tnsatons themscves fered ‘os, Wenn o judgement rl to wok though the proces, Indientng ate do, what Kinds af Jeon need to Be ade a tthat meane we hve a1 oar pal for making and realing vr “econ, “edges ofthe quality of ranted text dof cous, lve 10 te mae by translators and tratlatr-tainere and are alo made by ther readers ute dot wish become engaged, nook whieh tempi an obcetive dessin an explanation of perae inthe debate which nciably arises over quay asesent ad {tandton ecm Thi soto suggest ht, paying» ren tole (ar trasnor sins, cent or bnguge teacher we would be tiling Unde mety blleve tht the Kd of wars the phenomenon which we are seeking wil pride feedback wh wl ave praca appiations of his Bd We tal approach the tain of the ex ash the sags involved were lina and sequential We know pfctl it they freon a hae Tove that th ete ee oa severe ae Nove th es, hve wake ab-isins al peouse rte be of dt on) tec ares of foes: (1) the aaa he source anguge test (2) the oicaton ofthe semantic represenains of the fn Vidal clases of the pcm ito a8 gt shenawhih “ona the nko of the information the Feder has ben abe te accumulate in the course of reading the text, (8) the hr othe ew target language tex62 Trunlaton and Translating 23 An ysis reading the source language text ‘The testis avery shore poem by Pl Vary which we wanted 1 salt fortwo pacar ressns (0) because is ame seem | ‘eer wind ef behavaue in wick the tans i volved = the ‘wy we sere the database oF our agetere memo wee yt ‘ec! inlrmaton stared there (oe dcsve thr ithe Prous Sexton a wll return to tin Chaper 7, Scion 733) and @) ‘eease, in fom, iis both be and accessible and so appears to aie shan eo which ys mal we ne Bsn 24h Tas "Federer ma it pi) on ma eden ae ‘anew Pon tend uae mat tyme de bre darn ‘Situs at 23.12 Pre ‘We shall del with the tent clase by cuss ashing the relevant ‘ges a eth tage inthe pres and a necessary, reve out Ierpetaons a reasons. Je cher an mot Sac anes We begin by chechng ifthe elawe iin ou personal eral PS and the iid! esa tems in our PS. They ae he wots azecanibin os, the elctins betes the hin the upper range of pba of occurrence ee Chapter 5, Section 51.3 an th) and the clase statue, tbo, 3 very common one Sircre: Subject Pretiaor Object Type ince an dsl Thre therein no need fr paring, so we can nave ineeitly to the net stage Somaie ani: There ate wo posites here, depending on ‘heer weenisage the poet ea) actly searching fora wor a istinary (CE nashlge in Geran (searching for «word ‘Traroiatng; mont ine pros a is own mind (f acer in Geemas; ‘word’ like yo many gsc ‘Phenomena being both ysl and mental ents Covet (ropostons content lel form) (a) cor + Material Process + Goa () Sener + Mental Process + Phenomenon. Pragmatic ana: We see know that this clause comes tron» poem bat hres othing parca poee abouts form or content oar, None theless, we eon ana ats of theme, reer an urate llactonay force; communicate function Theme: womarked Regie ter () accesible 0) unmarked in terms of ober tenor features mode writen be ead) ‘brain referential and lnce ther the reference othe technical gu (and alo every) term mt (word), metlinguisie Prrpo: informative We know, akeady, that tis spat of «poem ~ it was found in « Callecon of poets and have, therefore, no eed 10 infer the tercype fom the eave Tnded, we would indie quite dificult do Soon the evidence of je cherce un mot alone, except recognize tome kind of metanguisti Funcon, ‘semantic represeataon Is shown in Fire 23. —4 Traton nd Treating In addon to what we have shown in he dpa, the tal ‘configuration ofthe semantic representation cntais the speech at, ‘lie and tex-ype infomation we gre abo andthe whole of the ‘tons of the semantic representation i avalible fo storage ane/e ‘ano, ‘We hal not ke the opin, this poy, of wanting he clause — in realy, me might or might na oso the opprtanty i ther, we wish ae I (shal ant in Sesion 2.3.3) ~ an wl goon Yo the next eae: (ie pot) ‘Shmacic ana: This thneenord clave, presents wih noes than Tour problens (I) we donot how ifeand pot refer tthe sae of difetenrindivduas, @) unlike he fst claus, his PS stots ot "epresentedinthe PS (loos tf lnc, ike an interrogate) and therefore requires separate parsing) the tense of di ambiguous (oreseat or pass the sane representation will require a change fom ody tdey/Bforeo show ths), (hap (pagrese cor babi Paring ges Sirigue Predlestor Subject = Subject Predis Tipe indicative, declaraive ‘andthe information the chai sequence fhe clase ands phases sed ft the sotandeanaeer: Semantic nabs There is no ambiguity about the propesona omens Sayer Verbal Proce However, ow that we hae the information that this second elase ‘the realzton of «propostion whose pres is eral athe han ‘aerial or mena the starr of the it enue change ad becomes Fepored speech. 0 use the somewhat unfortunate TRANSITW- FEY sytem term, verbiage and we shall need alter the semancc representation (ete reading 5 fa) allow or his Pragmatic ens: We need to nae bere a Leep in mid i and ‘when we come 1 transite, thatthe poe fnedon has ined he feferenal andthe metalingustc ad we no = Theme: marked eh: ter sce nd terms of ether Tramating: maeing he pros 68 1 noe pial writen language (wtiten w be red) i referent Pap ialenave Ares semantic cprosntaton cad for (Figure 2a, 00 {9 the net case sn nt ui sit oni, de dela, enean P oF, ern par nant, de rire, tins a Satie "Phe dau i non-ite and ovgh sel speaking ‘otto be in the FSS. Ie length presents no problem (imple process igh-ranching phases) (Gee Appenis, Sccion and | Chapter §, Section §3-0n rights and le-brancing steucures and ‘hc ipteons for teaabiiy) but the parser wold have cw be ‘rob into operation to recopize thatthe oe clase was io sppsiton (are by ithe forma below he pesos Ohi ‘Theanahals would ned a show that the Objet ofthe previo cae Reet room me with oh attr ha hee borate cause wih no fot han rx empl se epi Coordinated wih ot and others implicitly coordinated by sequence iis) ——— i foodloge Ge Append on the fel sb-fncion f te TRANSTTIV- TTY sytem and lage by pats 26d ypatss and the bol system wel blo): Sinaune [SP 0 = ONP(aLh aS FCCC -&C $C) Tipe onstite “This ispased an with a note o (the moa ofthe ver Gein the “bite and (#5 modalyyabligaion (ee Chap 4, Seton 42.2.on mods) ~ dhe next Hage of prsessng Somatic als: "The las presents no serous problens “Coens Carer Reltinsl Proce Ata What i slnicant& the atribues and thei elaonship to the ari the met which Valery is loking for ~ aod ta each eter. The range of exter which have to be sated stggering: () "4 () phonology de lene Db, een a P vet ab (3) seman rier enced "ne debriare, dart on the one ih ot sage se Ban a por seat, p> oer ‘Alls ato Be parts. 1 te of ana Proust ans home: somatted agit the clase suppor the previo sas ent eit and ‘expe but the complex stroctring he complemen “theater wll eed to be Maye, Paap nfomatve [New thie semantic eresentation which integrates this infomation ‘vd uhat hat gone before is shown in Figure 25 Shui ansir The fl cause Ga fra surface srr ems & pst) present the same Kinds of parsing problem asthe previous lase IU isbestacen a= non-fnie cute nich by dion, weld, head sepuate rocssng outside the FSS The scr seve” ‘wovkt inte the unreseot iy on Sujeet-Preieser strate Bela the relied Complement and Adjunct which is the case: mae: ($B) CA Tye ior Translating; modeling the proces 67 2s to. 7 wo. doe ti oun 25 Sena repesenion 3 Sena nay" is strighforar Coens xistent, Le. 'sx codons est Praga anahsis Theme masked(68 Train ad Trang Reger: fuer support fore sessment nothing els of Purpose: ernst ‘Thisbrings ws to the lst semantic representation; one which combines all the infrmton we have ft snl, abst univers schema “hich forms the Basi of our omdertanding ofthe text ax readers and ‘ur traaformaton oft at wansaos igure 20). "We now have the information to revere the process shift fom realing and ana 0 sthess, weg and wanting. 232 Preparing to translate ‘Lets suppose) hat we decide to trandate (coud of ous, just tad the tex) aod (2) Ut we tend wo produce por thee are ‘eny of eter alterates aod he state options rable the Iierary ‘anton. pariculr are congiderable. They can be prevented atthe extremes of fv cota (0) to reproduce either the forms (yt alesis) othe ian (he semantic conten) ofthe rg, (2) to retin the spl ofthe orig o adopt ferent spe ce {Chapter 5, Secon 5:3 on the sli parameter fr, le and dons of dicouse retin or aban the source ngage tax-frm ce Chapter 6, Sean 613 on textes, texforms td ten-sampe) for example, to rant poem a 3 poem or 2 pos (2) fo retain the Kita spe dinersion of the iia orto ‘ender it in contemporary fom to tanlate Dante into Middle English or into modern Eaglh (ce Chapter 5, scion 5.309 diner and register, (0) tproduce seat which ead ike an gina roe wich reads ‘ear (6) to old or amit words, phrases, case... oF 0 atemp 10 traeer everything fom source target. our purpose were to promulgate commandments othe cretion ofthe perfect transom we would comm oursees on each af ‘hese parameters and posi (ut ot probably), jsf our dessins This fs not our purpose not i ie the purpose ofthe vast majriny wong in the eld of tanto sides; pola we made at the Ueonog of te book Gee Chapter 1 Section 1.1.3). "Telit doce pve us some ination of he id of decson-making Tralting: modeling te pros 69 | i) + I Ty 3 rol 4! that is inoed even tthe begining ofthe ranston of tex. We shal be very cautious led arco this occas, ry to bess “tid as posible out coneption of he rg ie. opr ‘fra al mening, syed empl chaacteticn brettheh ses he am rg at ple, eer ls or ‘eketes coment vig made the decison to rant the way we hve we should beaware ofthe methodological apo wich are now aalable to ws, ‘he mean aoa ipl fo achieving the kind of waster we ee ‘Soveral method txonanies ae ave, sane Bg Uncles um dichotomes of contrasting metho oftheir 4) dloeMter/semanic rasan (2) fee/paraphranie/commanitive tration nd suggesting coneaons betmcen methods of one srt and Parca exp, whe wher retain» sinar wo-wsy distin i ste within ew specify» ite numer a chnigs ‘This three below, ate subdisons 0 (1) ra! the remaining foro (2) fie ration (0) Boring (emp): The cany-over of le items fram the source ngage ote wget lnguage, normally without formal ‘semantic molifeation for expe the Eagish econ French or the French spallation amin Enplh. Laan Tramation Gul) The ee sbsiason of ements of ‘melange by elements ofthe other formal wun phe) Tor cna, the Engh fot do appearing in Spanish pore ‘alone 0) Lica! Trion (naduton lal "he replacement of Source anggesytace srctare by target ngage sucare (oormaly at chuse Ive) which i ismorphie or near ‘omorbie in team of member and hype of ei em sod ‘Syonymous in terms of content, fir example, the Feech ase sans die appearing i English a ta er it saying (9) Tronpmion: The reneting of source language cement by target language elemens which are semantically, but ot formally egutalent (ecsee of, for carpe, word-clise hanes; for example the English no ating trnsoned ito the Prone deme de fer (6) Maino: Shing ‘he poi of view of the speaker, fr ‘ample, th Preach sgn pl and the Engh ne seen (©) Equal The replacement of 3 seth of source language Garey Moms, ches, proverbs andthe Tike) by fs Fincional equsalet (geting for example, English hi by Tin in Emgsh ello (on telephone) by Ilan proms (Geral "eay) (@ Abtagtacion: Compensation for cultural differences between the two languages, for example, the French san as nena quilt inthe English chr but none for So spi the English equivalents sem, sce! Wile isnot being suggested ht these techniques onstote x su toc ote prom of aectg + modo tote transiting or tht the categorize waterght afd inambigous, Tsing does, at least oc ur atenton onthe Lnds of ways we can ‘convert semantic epeseattons it text] We shal ear them in mind {me work on oor tanlaon ofthe Valery text. 2133 Synthesis wring the target language text We begin o wane wilh the fll resources of the semancie represents ofthe claus avalabe and with she uniy of he text ‘rgnied ae chem ready in memory. This Schema willbe sila © ‘he one ne shal be suggestg for an event in Chapter 7 (igre 7.) ‘Ler reap what we have: (0) The schema (Figure 26) in which sll the propoionl reltionships are displayed and interconnected. (2) A ising of spies tex-ype and sie Infomation about ‘ach cure and about he text a whole. Forename we now now that every clase i idcatne ad declarative in ters of fs MOOD and tht exch is esenally informatie ~ with Steady lnrease in the metlinguitic and poetic asthe text devo = in terms of fpction and th! provides us with © elu path through the processes which do ot aed tobe ‘esaed and, therfore, do not take our atention vay frm ‘ru decison points. (ur deton was oy to repbae ‘he orignal a possible “The pragmate synthesier i accewed and the nonsemanc lngcmacon matched there, i, we have to fd sh eglaen text-Form {in the age nguage which meets te same speech at, thematic and sii eres the erga Net, he configuration converted bythe Sinan yhesie into ‘seman sre speech act with these popostonal content ‘nd ilocuonary fre (arpse a he eign At this poi, there ‘eto residual problems; he ck obo tense and aspect marking in much ofthe form and coment afTL Tramlation and Tanating ‘he French ergnal and the uncertain ove the tars of the process, ‘material or mental: 7 1. The time reference i the French text was unmated for bath tense and spect itis nce ato whether is present post tense and thre i no indenon wheter the proce i bl ‘ne or progresive one In some language single fre can have ‘hen more dine referent. Consider theft nes of he falling ‘ble Pushlinpoom, where fab hat six pose wanton ino English Yael: abe ye bi mac W dah aye gu essen “The seman sese of this any one of he flowing a) ea se ne te »(Es | ‘model, What euch bly to recogni ie acres Ua ‘real he orga the ches that an Be found in the arget Tangunge andthe relation har chazes foveclose other. 2. may be necessary to decide, one way or the oer, whether we Teacating: malig the pes 73 ae cacemed with material or 2 mental proses In some Fanpages, the paraence (lhe muliple meaning) expense ty dere cra not be eave ithe language posse two ves, ‘ne fr looking fr something conrad the wher fo looking for fomething era, Prtnaey, ia English, ln for can seve ah 1 perma, ‘The static synthesizer accepts bth props Actor Mate Poses Goa! Senser Mental Proce Phenomenon and, sce thre fs an salable stretre ithe FSS, by-pass the ase ad op gp ° Tamir 4 word it he ing syste ad we moon tthe nex represent “hi eld forthe seman epesentaon, cpl al ta aed theme’ whch the sli hen pss ru {ht senate ese ehh ete le poston ote) ‘Sesymntesyhsrah he requ isle sa marked syst. The parser ot he FSS, nce ne peed tthe Sis age, tht he mare rer na ed) Wl ‘sie Fa set rte Fro eal wi ‘opens he cle ros aid he pt a cdo che wg ystems, ‘Te net presentation fo problemas 2 i sth pragma and seman stapes of syed are concerned. Wha ie the Selection of the ee frm 0 cay the ody sd, pa ih icy fed en. "Te PM em a fa i a | with the previous semantic reresntain, There ae sic | seman problems with th ease the sntacieuracurs wil be | mapped ono the semantic bythe parr a the remaining des | ibe leiTL Traltion ond Train the French original and the uncerany over the stars of the proces, ‘mae o¢ eta: 1. The time reference in the French text was unmatked for bath tense and spect Le. ti uncle aso whether iis peesent Ps tense and ther sno indicadon wheter the process i abiual ‘one ors propresive one In sme language singe form can ave ‘fen more dine referents. Consider theft nes of the following {wie Pushkin poem, where Hail has sx pose tention ito English: Yoshi: ihn yes it mez V dah mae age ese ‘The semantic sense of his is any one of the ellowing oe tt | te sth (sr hs aga etn ed re Bl svt are awtrey 4 model, Whats ruc is the abit recognize we aternauves at ‘xcaaliblein the eriginal, the choices that ean be found in the arget language and the realation hatches loeloe eters. 2Itmay be necessary to decide, one way ofthe other, whether we Tolting: wndlig the pros 73 | are concemed with = material or 2 ment prices. tn some languages, the polalenee (ihe auliple meaning) ered by dere could not be resned ihe langage poets wa ets: ‘ne for looking for something conte the othe or king or tomething shire Fortunately, im Engh, lt for ca serv hh | peposs: ‘The smc syhesze accepts bth propositions: ‘Actor Material Process Goal Senser Men Process Phenomenon And, since there is an arable sroctre inthe FSS, by-pass the ser and ouput sp ° 1 amboingfor a vod ino the wsting system nd we move on oth next represen, ‘This sealed from the seman rapresetaton,cenpeeih tag ‘marked theme” which the sisi ater psc on th the seman sythesiae (eich rere the proposal conten, ‘he mate gnesier wth the regimen tha itso be say naked ssl. "The parser (ot the SS, ince we aged tthe tals sa ht the marked order was nt sored thee) bis» ‘sible Pig siti eqaalent the Prem inal appes oe sytactily en Pos ail the pot sa pase on othe wing system ‘The next epesetton ft probleme 2 ar as se pega snd seman ses of syns are encore. Wha eu Seletion of the ver form amy the tdi a pth Ais he fee en. ‘BA ie ed we ae ra le | wih the presous semantic representation, ‘There are sie oe j semande problems with the clase; the seacic race ll be { mapped ono the seman bythe prey andthe ening de kre | sl be lee \ |This gies ws the overall whem forthe poem and a complete semantic representation. eae ems which elie the ates the mr have nowt be found inthe intra eicon ‘hich fave frammatesl gender and is therfore + meainguie term, There neveteles, no leat tat we cam thik of lbs: abo a meting term but more coon than Pant Par Fatuon meting lsh who no the spb renee iteraly) bt in this content, clearly, again a meting nc erm; writen Jeter which mot prone, mute tl. me the onboraphie "fs not pronounced in the ton fom (5 on in etary) ofthe word. Among the posses eludes ltr hs before theese, nological consideration ght well erry th dy tus hold Uses ont unt mae ofthe tex is eompet ‘peop sje fro her might for ‘which sere appa o be na plunble single ter aterm; we ‘il the Inger ail te tame meaning of enue rise: re oad; deve fom Bre hic hs ot oly phi ‘but media and emotional ennoations to brak rok beada/ eat io laagtion, weathering an), brig diac ‘art: tema sly, edie fart aval, eto ‘niin eatin, rion, rps, eti et omen tony of We eae an his basi, proce a tematvetraation ofthe whole text Dra rasan mii fein tthe noi one wich split to lenges | olf once = ' ‘What we now heveis the in of play hat might be expected ‘ conputer-asited wenlaton package. The ground har ben broken forurbot hers remains goad may, cuca import, detsons for us 0 make; on sound paras ~ whether me wth to repicste allesms for example ~ on lnyout ands fr, even after we have ‘aes selection from the salable eel ems. We donated 10 tke dese fal deesions. We have decded (o use de Beauprande's ‘eminlog) tht thi or ws, 4 tral of trina a ae therefore, sbou op. 234 Summary We have attempted (end were possibly fothandy 10 dos) in his Section o pur our teasing into prac by ranting a shor poem, ‘not because i was 2 poem but beeuse twas short and seemed good ul What emerged can badly be led a Ierary masterpiece we Ad, afer al sop before making most of the decision where there ‘were sll options svalable. Tas was intenonal the whole objec of the eercse wast show what quesions needed tobe asked and st ‘what pos Iwas never ou Intention hough the temptation was, Vie lost ress) to provide Bal anaver hate quesons "The nea sage would be sean, pve the Kindo tat we ave been dealing with Iterary and the declons we would reach would Aepend very och on peronal ste Tn any cae the ranlaton can never rely be finished: Even atone ‘completes the aversion one exh yin woes Hangen nin; rept reat 24 Conclusion “Tis chapters provided « mode of the trnsaon proces nd iis the modeling of that process which we Bele tobe the gal which transnton theory should now seta, indeed, we hae FACULDADE De LETRAS / UPMO16 Train a Tramlaing We have tickled three parculr ies in this chapter: (I) the specicaan of rsa mpi (he knowledge ad sil eguired Up the wanstr in order to be cpable of trating @) the resesaion fa paling made OF the proces, (¢ medel which rw is inprton rom recent work in cogae sine, ex- procesing and Sytem guises; al ares of knowledge which will ‘ete sujet of considerable dicuson in inte chapters and () he

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  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

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• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

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  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

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• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

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• Steve Jobs

  

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  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

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• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

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  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

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• The Outsider: A Novel

  

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  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1839)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

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  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

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  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

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• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

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  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

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  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

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• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

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  Brooklyn: A Novel

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  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1937)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

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  The Woman in Cabin 10

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  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2322)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

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  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

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  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4609)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

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  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

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• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

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  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

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• Little Women

  

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  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

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• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

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  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

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• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

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  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

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• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

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  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

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  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
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  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

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  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

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• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

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  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

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