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    194 views330 pages

    Mabie & Reinholtz - Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery 4 Ed

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    Alexandre Silva
    Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    eee ee MECHANISMS AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY FOURTH EDITION Hamilton H. Mabie Charles F. Reinholtz Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University ~ Joun WiLEY & SONS New York Chichener Brisbane Toroato Singapore DEDICATED to the late FRED W. OGVIRE About the Authors ‘whose contributions to the First and Second Editions motivated later editions, and to SALLIE MABIE and sent REINHOLTZ whose assistance and forbearance have made this edition possible. Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Visginia Poly- B.S. degree trom and his - | Haxauton H. Mab technic Institute end Staie University since 1964. ceceived his the University of Rochester. his 8S. degree from Comet! Univers Ph.D. degree from Pennsylvania State University ‘Froe 1941 to 1960, Dr. Mabie was-on the faculty of the Sibley Schoo! of i i i ‘All sights reserved, Published simultencously ka Cant { | Mechieteal Engineering at Cornell Univesity. From 1960 to 1964, he worked at 1 i | ‘Copyright @ 1957, 19,1975, 1967, by Jobe Wey Son. ne Sandia Laboratory in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where he was enesged in esearch and development related to nuclear Weapons. In addition ta his work in kinematics, Ds. Mabie is engaged in resesrch on il bearings, environmental effects Reprovection or tnelation of any pact of ‘as work beyond chat prmiled by Sections ET and 108 of the 1996 United States Copysght ‘aetwitont the permision of the copie ‘wer is wold, Request fer penmision tr Faber information should be adesied 1 {he Permisions Department, Jahn Wey & Sons gears, torque characteristics of instrument bal umiaumn and fretting corrosion of rolling ele ment be: hored many technical papers in these fields. le is a igan Soviery of fnthe fatigue hile 0 He has authored and eoaut Teenged protersional engineer and a Life Fellow of The Ame Mechanical Engineers. aie est ction of Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery wa published vein 1957 ond the second in 1563, both sith the late FW “The third ecition was published in 1975 and an SI Version Charles F. Reinfoliz a5 coauthor Ltrory af Congres Catsloging Ia Pablicadon Dates Mabie, Hamilton H. (Hamiton Herb), 1914 by Joha Wiley & So Oceirk as coauthor. a Incl ades index in 1978. This fourth edition has freee Metin, ee | tne Tis M1316 eid meus 1 Cuances F. Reintoute is currently Assistant Professar of Mechanical Engi- Tan OTST | secring 2 Viginia Polytechnic Institute and State University te Blacksburg, Virgins,» postion he has held since 1983. He holds B.S., M.S. and PD. worked for Burroughs Cor Peinied in the United Sates of Amedca degrees from the University of Florida. He has sf ws Ss erie iv AMQUT TEE AUTHORS sdtion ata design engineer in the Peripheral Products Group. Professor Rela. arhas bee active ia the arca af kinematics and mechanism design since 1976. He is o member of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, The Amer. ican Society for Engineering Education, nnd Signs Xi. He as also a member of ‘Tau Beta Mand Pi Tow Sigma Honor Sucieties Preface “This textbook has beea completly revised and updated. Is contents have been ‘rongenize to better math the sequence of topes typically covered and to reflect {he many changes brought about bythe wse of computers inthe classroom, These ‘honget iclade the wae of erative methods for linkage position analysis and Stati methads fa force onalyeh. BASIC langwoge compte programs, devel Oped on 8 personal compoter, have been added throughout he text to demo Sate the simplicity and power of compater method. All BASIC programslisted ‘tite tem have sho been coded in FORTRAN 77 ond listed in Appendix Thee, “The tex cam now be used with cther U.S. writs, Sl units, or combination of both, Where the unis of am equation masi be specific, bath 3 U.S. and an Sl foumare given. Ain efforthias been made 10 mainte a balance between analytical and graphical methods, 2 "This edition es been cxpanded to incade # number of sew topics. In keeping wth the addconal emphasis on computer methods, kinematic and 8 ers analysis of inkages tas een demonstrated using the comeeilly a hte Totegeried Mechanisms Program (IMP). Analytical com eg tes ‘cen expanded to include equations for deteraiing the various isk cam cow tours Bosh the U.S. and meric systems of gearing ake covered, alo complete ‘problem set is given foreach ayatem of nts, A.new sectiow that covers now ‘Meadard apor gears cul with pinion cutter has been added 10 the chapter on onatandard geeang, TWO new topics nnve Deen inetuded inthe chapter on pear Ttaim, heemanie doves and power flow through planetary gear tains. ‘Complex number metheas ard loop-clostrerequations have becn wed more catensively in the velocity and scoeleration analysis of linkages. The chapter on force analy ha been thoroughly evieed In aition tothe supecpsiion meth v Vi PREFACE it now includes the matrix method, which is» powerful tool when used in com- junction with w computer. In the cipier on bainacing, 8 method for balaseing four-bar Wakages tas beun uded. The chapler on kinematic ayers haa b revised and expanded to include may new topics, including 1 genesal dispusion ol feaction generation, path generation, and body guidance, and the problems of branch defect, orde: defect, and Grashof defect, The fal chapter. On spatial Rechusisms and robotics, is completely new. The mileril contained ix this chapter it becouing increasingly important in the design of compler sulometie production machinary. We appreciate the many suggestions and helpful comueats made by our reviewers: Richard Alexander, Marvio Dixon, wud Willian H. Park. We are in. debicd to the following instructors at Virginia Polytechaie Teriitute and State Univemsity for their belpful suggestions: Craig A. Rogers, Richard E. Cobh, Edgar G. Muaday, Joseph W. David, and Peier J. Leave. Finally, we would bike to acknowledge thehelp and eneouragemen! provided by oureditorsal Wiley, ‘Charity Robey snd Bill Seenguist, Hammroet H. Mom (GuARLES F. Renatourz, Chapter Introduction 1 Jntradyetion 1a the Study of Mechanisms 1 Mechanism, Machine 5 Motion 5 Cycle, Herod, and Phase of Motion 7 Paising Elements 7 Link, Chain 7 Inversion & ‘Transmission of Motion 9 Motiity, or Number of Degrees of Freedom PROBLEMS 15 Chapter 2 ‘Linkages and Mechanisms 20 21 22 23 2 Position Analysis of the Fous-Dar Linkage 20 FourDat Linkage Motion anct Grashott's Law 24 Position Analysis of Linkages Using Loop Closure Fquations and Ueralive Methods 26 Linkage Analysis Using the Integrated Mechanisass Progra (IMP) 12 ‘Slider Crank Mechanism 35 ewe wee ee ee ewe wee eee eee eer rere vi, CONTENTS Taggle Mechanism 40 Ovdnarw Coupling 41 Straight-tine Mechanisms 41 Pantograph 42 Chamber Wheels 43 Moake’s Coupling 44 Constant-Velacity Univertal Joints 46 Intermittent Motion Mechanisms 50 ‘Computing Elements 54 grators 55 Synthesis 57 ‘Case Study in Mechanism Design: The Hydrominex $7 PROBLEMS 61 Chapter 3 Cams 71 3.2 a4 Cam Classification and Nomenclature 71 Dick Cam with Radial Follower (Graphical Design) 73. Disk Cam with Oscillating Follower (Graphical Design) 76 Positive-Return Cam (Graphical Design) 78 Cylinder Cam (Graphical Design) 78 Inverse Cam (Graphical Design) 79 Cam Displacement Curves 79 Cam Displacement Cusves—Advanced Methods & Disk Cam with Radial Flat-Faced Follower (Analytical Design) 99 [isk Cam with Rodis! Retler Rollower (Analytical Design) 96 Disk Cam with Ozeiliating Roller Follower (Analytical Design) 106 ‘Contour Cams 111 ‘Thee Dimensional Come 115 (Cam Production Methods 118 PROBLEMS 119 Chapter 4 ‘Spur Gears 128 41 Introduction to Tnvolute Spur Gears 128 Involutometsy 131 Spur Gear Details 134 Characteristics of Invodute Action 133 Interference in Involite Gears 140. Gest Standardization 141 Minimnm Number of Tecth to: Avoid Interference 151 Determination of Backlash 136 ‘CONTENTS 49° nternal (Annular) Gears 162 4.10 Cyetoidal Gears 163, PROBLEMS 164 Chapter 5 ‘Nousiandard Spur Gears 171 5.1 Theory af Nonstandard Spur Gears 171 5.1 Extended Center Distance System 173 5.3 Long and Short Addendum System 183 54 Recess Action Gears 185 53 Nonstandard Spur Gears Cut by a Pioion Cutter 187 PROBLEMS 199 Chapter 6 Bevel, Helical, and Worm Gearing 26 6.1 Theory of Bevel Gears 206 2. Bevel Gear Detaiis 210 63 Gleason Straight Bevel Gear Tooth Propostians 213, GA Angular Straight Bevel Gears 214 65 Zerol Bevel Gears 214 6.6 Spiral Revel Gears 215 6.7 Hypoid Gears 219 68 Theory of Helical Geare 220 69. Parallel Helical Gears 26 {6.10 Crosted Helical Geant 225 6.11 Worm Gearing 231 PROBLEMS 235 TA» tntodvctioa to Gear Trains 245 7.2 Planetary Gear Trains 248 7.3. Application of Planetary Gear ‘Trains 258 TA Assembly of Planetary Gear Trains 262 7.5. Circulating Power in Controlled Planetary Gear Systems 257 76 Harmonic Drive Gearing. 273 PROBLEMS 775 Chapter & ‘Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 292 A Introdection 291 2 Linear Motion of a Particle 29% 83. Angular Motion 296 Bd Relative Motion 296 5 Methods of Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 298 86 Volactly an Acceleration 88 Relative Velocity of Particles in Mechankums 312 89 Relative Velocity of Particiesis & Common Link 313 ‘B40 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles on Seperate Links 316 G11 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles at the Point of Contact of Rolling Elements 318 8.12 lastantancous Ceatccs of Velocity 321 8.13 Iasiantancous Center Notation 323 814 Kennedy's Theorem 324 8.15 Determination of Instantaneous Centecs bby Kennedy's Theorem 325 8.16 Determination of Velocity by Instantaneous Centers 327 5.7 Rolling Blements 329 8.18 Graphical Determination of Acceleration fn Mechanisins by Vector Polygons 329 8.19 Relative Acceleration of Particles ia Mechanisms 330 8.20 Relative Acceleration of Pasties in a Common Link 330 8.21 Relative Acceleration of Goinciden! Particles on Separate Links. Coriotit Component of Acceleration 333 8.22 Relative Acceleotion of Coincident Pastcies at the Fotat of Contact of Relng Elements 340 $25 Analytic Vector Solution of Relative Velocity sod Acceleration Equations 344 5.24, Velocity and Acceleration Analysis by Numerical ‘or Graphical Ditferentiasion 349 825 Kinematic Analysis by Complex Numbers 354 8.25 Anslyic of the Stider Crank by Loop Clowure ‘Equations and Complex Numbers 357 PROBLEMS 372 Chapter 9 Force Analysis of Machinery 395 9% xluction 395 9: ifugal Force in Rotor Biades. 396 9.3 Inertia Force, Inertia Torque 399 alysis by Vector Mathematics 208 8.7 Determination of Velocity in Mechaaiums by Vector Poiygoms 311 34 Force Determination $02 9.5 Methods of Linkage Farce Analysis 404 2.6 Liakaps Hover Analysis by Seperpasition 404 9.7 Linkage Force Analysis by Matrix Methods 413, 9.8 Force Analysis Using the Integrated Mechanisans Program (IMP) 418 9.8 Linkage Foroe Analysis by the Method of Virtual Werk 428 Linkage Force Analysis from Dynamic Charneteristics 425 kage Force Analysis by Camplex Numbers 49 9.12 Engine Foro Analysis 44 9.13 Dyoamically Equivalent Masses 440 9:14 Application of Equivalent Masses 441 9415 Engine Force Analysis Using Point Masses 442 9116 Engine Block £45 9.17 Engine Quiput ‘Torque 430 9.18 Flywheel Size 455 9:19 Forces on Gear Teeth 462 9.20 Cam Farees 468 9.21 Gyroscopie Forces 470 9.22 Moment-of-Inertia Determination 475 PROBLEMS 479 ‘Chapter 10 Balance of Machinery 503 10,1 Introduction 503 102 Balance of Rotors 504 103 Dynamic and Static Balance 510 10.4 Balancing Machines 511 10.5 Balance of Reciprocating Masses $13 10.6 Analytical Determination of Unbalance 516 10.7 Fisiog Order 525 10.8 ¥ Engines. 525 10.9 Opposed Engines 532 10.10 Dalanve of Four-Bar Linkages $33 PROBLEMS 535 Chapter JE Introduction te Synthesis 545 1.1 Classification of Kineramtic Synthesis Problems 545 412 Spacing of Accuracy Points for Function Generation S49 3 : ‘Analytical Desi 11.4 Curve Matching Applies to the Design of a Four-Bar [Linkage as a Function Generator 557 3 we wee eee we ee ewe eee ee wee HY ve fas ne na ie 19) 110 Pra Graphical Desiga of 2 Four-Bar Linkage as Function Generator 560 Graphical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance S61 ‘Analytical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance 554 ‘Analytical Synthesis Using Complex Numbers 567 [Design of a FourBar Linkage a8 a Path ‘Generator Using Cagnates 570 ical Considerations in Mechanism Syntbestc (Mechanism Defects) $72 PROBLEMS 373 (Chapter 12 ‘Spatial Mechanisms and Robotics 542 wa 22 3 4 ibs 126 7 Introdvetian 582 Mobility 583 Describing Spatial Motions $87 Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisins $95 Kinematic Synthesis of Spatial Mechanisms 59) Introduction to Robotic Monipulators 600 Kinematics of Robotic Manipnlators. 612 PROBLEMS 608 Appendixes 612 “Answers to Problems 628 Index 635 Chapter One Introduction 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MECHANISMS "The study of mechanisms iz very important, With the continuing edvences. made inthe design of instruments, aulomatic controls, snd automated equipment, the study of mechanisms takes On new significance. Mechanisms may be defined 35 that division of machine design which ic concerned with the kinematic desipn of linkages, coma, gears, and gear trains. Kinematic derign is design om the basis of mation sequitements in contrast to design on the basis of strength requirements, ‘An example of each of the mechanisms listed above wil be given in arder to nt a. carnpeliensive picture of the components to be- studied Preeth aketeh of a Hokage ts chown in Fig. 1.1. This particu ‘serangement is known a he Sldat-rank mechanor, [ink 1 isthe frme adi tionary, ik Bien extn Unk 1 the eonnecting rod, and hak 415 the slider. A contmon spaltaoa ef his Wekage i in the femal combustion engine where link 4 FIGURE Li Stider-crmk mechanism 2. wmopucrion ‘becomes the piston (Fig. 1.22). This figure also demonstrates how difficult it may Ibe to diacern the basic incenatie device when looking at & photograph or a drawing of complete machine, Figure 1.2 shows the kinematic diggrars of the slider-crank mechanism corresponding to the left sie crankxbaft-comecting-rod- Piston im the photograph of Fig. 12a. Such a kinemae diagram is much easier to work with and allows the designer to separate the Kinematic considerations ‘rom the larger problem of machine design (General Maiors Corporation). RETRODUCHON TO THE STUDY OF MECHANISMS 3, 8 1.3 shows the sketch of m cam and follower. The cam rotates at « Constant angular Yelacily, and the follower moves up and down. On the upwasd ‘motion the follower is driven by the cam, and on the return motion tis driven by the action of gravity or of a spring. Came are used in mindy machines, bet ‘one of the: most coramom is the automotive engine Where two Cains ake UScU pes Cylinder to operate the intake and exhaust valves, alvo shown in Fig. 1.24. A, three-climensional cars showa ia Fig. 1.4. In this cam, the mation of the follower depcods not only upon the rotation of the cam but alco upon the axial matioa, of the cam inure 13 ‘Two-dimensienl cam, FIGURE 14 Three-dimensions cam. Gears are used! in many applications 10 transmit motion from ane shaft to. another with 4 constant angular yelocity ratio. Figure 1.5 shows.several commonly used pears eve re FIGURE 15 (comiraed neet page) Hersigtone FIGURE 15 (continued) In some cases, the desived reduction jit angular velocity achieve wsing omly two gears. When this occurs, several gears must be connocied together {@ give what i¢ known as a gear tain. Figure 1.6 shows a gear train ‘where the speed is stepped down in going from gear T to gear 2 and again in froing from gear 3 (0 gear 4. Gear 1 isthe driver, and gears? and.3.are mounted ‘on the same sha. In many gear Cains, it is nccessary wo be able vo shift gears in and out af mesh so 98 to obtain different combinations of speeds. A. good example of this is the automobile transmission where thee speeds forward and fone in reverse are obtained by abifting two gears In devices such as insuuments and automatic controls obtaining the eorrest motion is all-in portaat. The power transmitted by the elements may be'so slight a to be negligible, which allows the components to tbe proportioned primarily fon the basis of motion, stcength being of secondary importance: however, where the kinematic analysis is only 23 been determined. how the variaus machine FIGURE 1.6 Goss tte 4 MoniaN 5 these parts must be analyzed, From this, the physical size of the parts may be ddctermined. A machine tool isa good example; its strength ate rigidity are more, cult 10 attain than the desired) mations. ‘tis important at this time to define the terms. used in the study of mec ‘anisma. This i done in the following section 1.2 MECHANISM, MACHINE: In the study of mechanisms the terms mechanism and mochine will be used repeatedly. These are defined as follows: "A mechanism is a combination of righ! er resistant bodies so formed and connected that they mave upen each other with definite relative mation. An example ithe crank, connecting rad, and piston of an internal-combustionengine ts shown diagrammatically in Fig, 1-25. “A machine s 8 Mechanism oF collection of mechanisns which trnnsrai fore from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome, Am cxnmple: is internal-combustion engine. 13 MOTION J dealing with the study of mechanisms, itis mecessary to define the variows types of motion produced by these mechanitms. Plane Motion ‘Translation \When & rigid body so moves that the position of each sistight line Of the body is parallel to all of its other pasitions, the body has motion of translation, te Reetilincartranstation. All points of the body move im parallel atesight Hae ‘ithe. When the body mover back and forth in this manner, itis ssid to feciprocate. This is ilusirated in Fig. 1-7, where the slider 4 secipeocates between the limit BP and 2. 2. Curvilinear translation, The paths of the poiats are identical curves parallel ta ficed plane, Figure 1.&showsthe mechanism that wasused in connecting WIGURE 14 the drive whecis of the steam Jooorotive. In this mechanism, tink 3 has ‘arviliacas traasletion, and al points ia the body trace oat identical cyciids se wheels? and roll along track 1. Link Simoves with rectilinear tramlation. Rosation It cach point of 1 rigid body baviog plane motioa remains at # constant distance trom a fixed axis that is perpendicular to the plaoe of motioa, the body has motion af rotation, If the body rotates back and forth through a given angle, it ia ssid to oxcillate. This is shown im Fig, 1.9, where link Zsotatcs and lak 4 consillntes between the positions 2” and ZF, FIGURE 19 Fourbar Unkage. Rotation and Translation ‘Mary bodies have motion whichis combination of rotation and translation. ‘Link 3 in Fig. 1.7, links 2 and in Fig. 1.8, and fink 3 in Fig. 1.9 are examples of this type of motion. Helical Motion Whea a rigid body coves sa that each point of dhe body has motion of rotation aboot a fixed axis and at the same time has translation parallel to the axis, the unex, CHAIN 7 body has helical motion. An example of helical motion i the motion of nat as he mut is screwed onto & bolt. Spherleal Motion When 1 rigid body moves 10 that ¢ach point of the body hes mation about a fGxed poiot white remaining at a constant distance from it, the body bas spherical Spatial Motion A body moving with rotation about three nomparallel axes and transistion in lite independent directions is said to be undergoing general spatial mation. 14 CYCLE, PERIOD, AND PHASE OF MOTION ‘When the parts of a mechanism have pasted through all the possible posiions they can assume after starting from some simultaneous set of relative posiions aod have retumed to ther erginal relative positions, they lave completed ncycle ‘of motioa. The time required for a 0,0, (0.4 ~ 0,0) + AB > 0.8 (OB ~ 0,04) + OA > AB “The second and abltd relation can be derived from the triangles O,A"B" and O,A°E*, respectively, and the fact hat the sum of two sices af a iriangle must be greater than the third side. Figure 23d shows an arrangement whereby liok 4 of Fig. 2.1 fas bee tcplaced by a sliding block. The motion of the two linkages it identical. "The motion of the foar-bar linkage i offen characterized by the term crank rocker to indicate that crank 2 rolales campletely und link 4 oscillates a4 in Fig. 2.Sa. Lo a similar manner, the teria double crank means that both link 2 eed link 4 rotate completely atin Figt, 2.50 and c- The term double rocker indicates that Doth link 2 and link 4 oscillate as shown in Fig. 2:2 ‘Aa a mein of determining whether a four-bor lakage wil operate as a crank rocker, a double eranik,or n double rocker, Grashoff's law can be appiled. “This lw guates that if the sum of the Jengths of the Longest fink and the shortest 26 LINKAGES AND MECHANIENE link is fess chan the suas of the tengthe of the other two, there will be formed 41. two different crank rockers when the shortest ll: fs the crank and elther of the adjacent Kinks is the fied link 2. a double crank whem the shortedt Link it the Gxed lick % adowble rocker when the link appasite the shortest isthe fixed link ‘Aleo, ifthe sum of the lenghs of the longest and the shortest links is greater than the sum of the lengths of the other two, oaly double-rocker mechanisms will result. Also, if the sum of the longest and shortest inks is equal to the puss of {he other (wo, the four possible mechanisms ave similar to (hose of 1, 2, and 3 bore. However, in this last case the center linesof the links can becoste collinear 0 that the driven link can change direction of rotation unless some means is provided to avoid it. Such a linkage is shown in Fig. 25h, where the links become ‘collinear along the line of conters 0,0). Attthis position, the direction of rotation of the driven Hink 4 could change unless inertia casted fink 4 through this point. 2.3 POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES ‘USING LOOF CLOSURE EQUATIONS AND ITERATIVE METHODS 1 fs posible to analyze the majority of mechaniiess by using methods much ot the oe described in section 2.1. These aze known as clored-form methods; that is, a finite number of calcelation: are required to find » theoretically exact 20- latins. Uniortanniely, however, itis difical to develop a computer aided analysis, package using tbis approach, because each different type of mechanism penerally Fequises a separate analysis method and a separate computer program. Because of this, several of the commercially available mechanism analysis programs have bea developed based on iterative methods. Iterative methods altempt to eon- verge aa a solution by repeitive caloulatioas. For this reason, it s not known beforehand bow many calcultions will be required, er even if «solution cam be Found. The bisic enoccpts of itceative mechaazsm analysis will now be illestraled by way of w four-bar linkage example. ‘Consider the four-bar liskage of Fig. 2.6 with the x-eoordinate axis along Link 1 which i fod. Since the Kinks of this mechanism form a closed loops the ‘and ycomponcats of the Links must sum to zero. This may be expressed 8s follows: Components: Fy bryos ~ rca = rycon by = 0 an » Components: retin 0 = sain 6 = rnin 8) = 0 an POSITION ANALYSIS OF LEWKAGES USING: LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 27 in position analysis, the ink lengths r,,7,.r5, nd 7%, are Rows, and the problem is to find the angles #, and 0, for a given value of 8;. Thwt, Eqs. 2.7 and 2.8 appeas to be a simple set af two equations in the two unknowns @, and &,, The ‘complication is that these equations are transcendental, and » simple linear s0- tution isnot possible, ‘Note that the above equations will be satisfied only for thoce particular valuct of ¢ and 6, that lose the mechaniam loap. ‘Those values arc offen called the roots of the equation. For any valves of, and 8, ther thaa the roots, these ‘cqualitics will not be satities, so that in peneral + recs Ge — ry com Oy — eve, = f1(8,, 0) = $40) 2) FA, 8 = £40) Where the shorthand eolation ® = 0,, 0, has been used, Finding the roots of these equations is now equivalent to fading the valucs ‘96 and 0, for which f,(6) and J,(0) are simultaneously equal to zer0. At this [PoluL, @ tial soletion could be used to find tke moots. A far more efliicat Procedure, hoes to use a lincar approximation to the funetiont-in seeking, successively improved solutions, __ Suppose, for ekaniple, that values of the angles 6, and have been selected arbitraily. In general, these will not be roots of the equations. There exist, hhowcver, some values 4, and.AQ, which, when added to Oy and Q., will give the roots. This can be expiesied as follows J) + OM, 0+ AB) = f(Oe ayo Fm a2 QD eee eee ew ewe wee wee wwe 28 LINKAGUS AND MECHANISMS A linear approximation to ‘ol its Taylor series expanciat is function is obtained by ‘aking the first two terms boat the point 0, 6: a) = 00 + (7 a0, + (8 V Nn ten an IW is now possible to solve for the values of Ad, aod 0, that will drive this aear function to zero. Tf the linear function is a reasanable approximation 10 the otiginal function, these values should alsa cause the original function ta be approximately equal to zero. Setting the linear function equal to zero gives 100+ (262) a0, (22200-0632 aay [By substicuting ( = 1 and (= 2 ia Bq. 2.13 and by rearranging terms, the fol- Towing equations result: Jae. = - 1.00) a4 Jan, = — £60) 15) ‘Once an initial estimate has been made for the values of 6, and'B,, the values of FA) and f,(8) can be calculated from Eqs. 2.9 and 2.10, The partial derivatives needed in fags, 214 and 2.15 are found to be 2M) ying, rain Oy 16) reas = ra 805 Oy Since: the partial derivatives found in Eq, 2.16 are evaluated at the estimated values of 0 and 8, Eqs. 2.14 and 2.15 are actually two Finear equations in the two unknowns 40) and fy. Solving these equations simultancously yields the values of 0; and 48, which, when aliked Lo the estinested values @, and, will make the approximate linear function equal to neta. Alhough, in general, these function, they wil be an improved POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINIAGES USING LOOP CLOSURE EOUATIONS 29 estimate, By using tit improved estimate, a second linear approximation is made to the function and a. new set of values for 8, and 0, is calculated. This process is epeated umiil the roots of the approzimats fanction produce velues of the coriginal function which are nearly equal to rero. The method just desenibed is ‘one of the best known and most often used aumerieal root-finding techniques. lknown a8 Une Newton-Raphson method. The following numerical example will help #0 show the detail of this method. and ite epplication to mechanisen analysis. Example 2.2. For the four-bar linksge shown in Pig. 26, solve the position analysis problem asing the Newiow-Raphion root finding method. Use @, = and wre link ‘Slosensions 27, r= kinandr, = 6ia Refore analyis cas proceed, initial estimates of 8, wad yaa which vo iterate must, be ebiained, Normally, postion analysis begins t wom known wasting postion of the tmechasism sad proceeds by incrementing the input angle by some small want. The ‘aloes of nd #, at the previous potion tr Usually» good estimate of the corresponding aloes at the peesent position, Another approach i to eaimate these values graphically. ‘Toderansiate the rapid soavergence of the Newtoa-Raphean method, values of 8, and 8, wil be elected whic are Rowe to be far from the twe roots. The wave of will be estimated at", and the value of 8, wil be exienated xi 107. Sabsituliag these estimated ‘aloes slog with known dimzasions of the Enkage in the le omure equations (Egy 2.9 and 2.10) sad alsa in the expressions forthe partial derivatives (Eq 2.16) gives 18) = 7 + G08 WO ~ 3 con 6 ~ B eon = ~ 3.50 18) = 6 sn 100" — 3 sin OY — Bein ~ 3.300 2189). sine = 0 fo 8 HE) «6a 09 ~ 590 HY. sca = = He) a cant = ~ 8.000 Hae) ~ HAS) 6c WOR = —1.082 ‘Sataitting these vabos ino Bs. 2.14 and 2.15 yield the foowis ‘herwoknowns Bt and Al: O48, + (5.900) a0, ~ 2.50 (800) 46, + (1.002) 48, = ~3510 Solving for 40, and 88, gives y= 0.092 rad = 28.18 0.559 mad = 3" 30 UPON AND MECHANISMS. panning hw 0 hm ete vate an be swing proved ean = 0 + ms = mae 0, = N00 — 24.244" = s.086" “Values of te funesions and the patal derivatives ae recalxtned using these oe vues, tand w second set of approsiaate 8 valves is obeained. This proces ie repeated sil the ‘ilu of the 4,0) and J,(0) ar equal to 2220, own pa rer Inspreveinet can be ‘obtained, A fowehart al this trative proces ie chown in Fig. 2-7. The corresponding ‘omypter program, writen in BASIC, ts shown in Pig. £8 The results of this progam ‘teach ierabom are grea in Table 2:1, Its evideat thom this table thatthe Newioo- ‘Raphon method converges apiy for iis exam, ROSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGHS URC LOOP CLOSUNE EQUATIONS 34 Seadiar dea 7 100 Rn a *ETAG *Seaanab tueAS~raerAS Dest NNyTASERG= TANTRA OEETRAD scos (ranma) )=(wascoa’EHETAS} fa ctateecrany yet entourasensyt Favrisesvcostaeeras} braertcataaw(tuerad) ‘TABLE 2.1 Resnlts of the Merative: Analysis Program SAA Aart ome eon 3s 33H ms GSEs ~0910 ne 71 ~o01s Ban m8 0000 Hn ti, a5, 350 3407 ~ S65 “5.70 HKAGES AND AMECHANESMS a 24 LINKAGE ANALYSIS USING THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS: PROGRAM (IMP) ‘As mentioned in the previous section, several commercially available mechanian. ‘analysis programs have heen developed based on itcrative methods of salving the loop closure equations. One of the mast widely used af these programs is the Integrated Mechanisms Program, know ss IMP. This program was developed by Sheth and Uicker! and ée curveanty distributed by Structural Dynamics Re~ search Corporation, a subsidiary of General Electric CAE Intemational * Peo- fessor Wicker and bis associates have developed another IMP program which is being distributed hy IML Research Ine *The IMP system is capable of unalyzing displacements, velocities, accelerations, atu forces in a wie variety Of two anc tdiecdimensioaal rigid link meckamians, It ust be emplaced that the se of is program is ne dubstitite for 8 told understanding of basic kinematic pein faples, It ean, however, relieve the designer ‘of many routine calcalations and Provide analysis capabilities far beyond those attsinsble using hand calculation Dc usce-writlet pOgrams, For these reasons, programs sch as IMP are rapidly becomming indispensable tools for industrial designers. ‘The following example silt ituetrate how this program can be set up 10 analyze the angular displacements of the iopot and output links of a four-bar Tinkage. Bxample 2.3. tn the fows-bar linkage shownin Fig. 296, lik 2 the drives and rotates completely. and link 4 oscillates Use the TMP program 10 determine Ure angles which Conesped te the entreme poriions of lik & Tibet FIGURE 248 ‘one FW. Sheth a, Vicks, TRAP (Ingrid Mecha Progen), A Compute Aled Daag “Kastpis Siem for Mechaicne and Lickagen” lewma of Eagiscrin jor lndhery, Brew. ASME, Yat Bh, May 197, pp 4k jy me patecnectaniame rogram,” Sirota yeas Rese Coppa, Milford, OH, fenoeny, TVTEGRATED MECHANISMS PROGRAM (IMPY_ 4 Feabem Oren Language for ute Aldea eg nn Attys Of Mechasea! Spies,” IML Rasen Toe 194 LINKAGE ANALYSIS USING THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS PROGRAM 33 ‘Tee designations OH, A, H, anil OWA in Fig, 290 represent taming, pais 01 evolutes (joints) nod permit only relative ration. These posioea would coatain the bearings ia an actual mechanize. The euds of each Link termite in pit which isthe ‘enter ofthe revolute. Te Fig. 290, lik 2 ic defined by polets GOR aad AA, ink 3 by [points 443 and BBS. and link Ay BB4 and OO4, (Thisuse of wainge letter, for cxanple, {A to despite a revolute and af x double eter, AA, 10 desipoate 8 psn’ ts chosen Tor ‘Svemience to avoid confusion in epecsying the made! forthe mechani.) At illstrated in Chapter 1, point Aa is « point on bath links 2 and 3, wad point BB is comma to both Tinks 3 and 4, faa similar manner, point O02 is common io inks 1 2nd2, and point OO is toaon to Hoks 1 aad 4. The kdctonal labeling of the meckaniem to 2pecty there ‘ois i shown in Fg. 2.80. It very intportant tha the revolute and points be ee Sistngsshed, om mee ‘oo FIGURE 236 “The tttements forthe revues tobe sted le the lap trthe IMP program ftiow; GnouND= FRAME REVOLUTE (FRAME .LNK2) =OH2 REVOLUTE (LHK2 LNK3}=A REVOLUTE CLNKS, Luka 1-8 REVOLUTE (LMR, FRAME) =0H4 1 should De noted in the aye Hating ear whe patern & nk 2 yelative 1 frame, ink 3 relative w link 2, ink 4 relative to link 3, and frame relative to link 4 By sting wich frame snd ending whith frame, the requirement tha the loop mast cose fs Saisted ‘The nent sep isto determine the coordinates of the revolted label theny 3s shown in Fig. 2:3. Also the orientation of two local cooviiaate system tach! t0 the Tinks on each side of the revolutes mast be chosen, Al dota for revolute joints must be fives relative tothe global reference frame ‘Toe data foreach revolute mast now be sedi the inpet tothe TMI program with 1 dataevolutestalement. This will contaia (c) the coordinates of the revolul, whic fs also the origin of the two neal coordinate systems; () a point on tbe common lead positive s-enee of these epsteme; an () and (4) polis onthe positive serene the Incsd Coordinate ayrtem for the Bat and arcond links mamed in the corresponding revolute ‘atemvent, The enscat way to give the directions in item (e) and (d) is ta ga fon OF2 {DA forthe acirection alg Unk 2 for revolute OFZ and fo rewchue A tog back fan 34 UNKAGES AND MECHANSSES camara acres $s FIGURE 294 a FIGURE 29° Ato OH2. The diseetions af the xenordinates for the other revolutes are bandied Un 8 i ‘Siar miannes. The dat fos che vevolutcs ave a8 flows: DATA:REVOLUTECOH2)=0.0,0/0,0,1/1,0,0/-2.1215,2.1213,0 OATA:REVOLUTE(A)=-2.121,2.1213,0/=2,1219,2.1219,1/0,0,078 9.2242 5.9988.0 DATA: REVOLUTE (81=9.2242,5.9388,0/9.2242,5.9980, 178, 2.1215.2.1218.07i0,0, DATA:REVOLUTE(ON4)=10,0,0/10,0,1/8.2242,5.9988,0/12,0,0 ICURE 25+ “The data for he point ive in he loc coornae pees ofthe sseinted font re ‘ised next 25. SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM POINT CLHK2}=002, AK2 {Tis echonun is wey wid a id ils rests ppiction nthe ternal DATA: POINT (002, 0H2}-0,0.0 combustion engine. Fighte 2.104 shows a sketch ia sich link 1 is Ue Ieame DATA.POINT{AAZ.AI-0,0.0 (considered fied), link? the erank, tink 3 4 Use coonecting rod, and lnk 4 t - the slider. With the imernal-combustion engine, link 4 is the piston upon which paricrourrinas: Alen 0 ‘gas pressure is exerted. This force is transmitted through the cannecting rod to ‘ :Ab=0,0, the crank. It can be seen that there willbe two dead points during the cycle, one DATA:POINT(E83,8)=0,0,0 at each extreme position of pistoa travel. In arder 10 evereome these, iis wee: POINT (LMC4} B84 ,0O4 ‘essary 10 attach a flywheel to the crank 50 that the dead points can be passed, DATA:POINT(884,8)=0,0,0 ‘This mchanisan is abo wed in air compressors where an electric motos driver DATA:POINT(OO4 ,H4)-0,0.0 he ceaak whick i turn drives tbe piston that cormpresses the aie 2O0MLT)=6 1.5.0 In considering the slider crank, iti oftem necessary to calculate the dis- ] placement of theslider and its corresponding velocity and aceeleration. Equations for displacement, velocity, and acceleration are derived using Fig. 2.108 RETURN “The IMP progam was run on x VAX T/TRO compte using the above np king “tne minim dope ase fs the opt fat OMe shows ia as Tee P= REL~ Roost Loot ‘tine of the uae er oot GHE's 15.65 (ptr bcos en ah 2 its yc cnntin-p qe frame, ore), IMP deGnes counterciochwits tngler as positive. The valve of the angie ) + 1 ) ea Si iis" (nqaine been ate frame ete fo lak), as ae eae aeentaen bute oreys Retin torent emer aneye aft fim (Bfewe] amy Recap to fotn OU 26S, ned he efor fat Oula S173 Ve 36 HNKAGES AND MECHANISMS FIGURE 210, In order to simplify the above expression, che radical cam be appromimated by replacing it with the binomial series o oh (emp e ne de where B= (RIL) sin gene, ibis slficetly ssruatef@wSe ly the fist om terms of the “Therefore, . or ae wae Hf at oie 7 ‘a Rt a= RC cose) + Fant whore — sof because oi constant; and as mdfane + ana] ain SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM 37) WAGURE 211 It is possible to fix some link other than 1 om the slider crank and thax obtain thuee inversions, which ace shown ia Fig, 2.11. tn Fig. 21a, the crank Pe held fined and afl che othr links are allowed! to move. This gives = mcchanism that was used inearly aircraftengines, They were known as rotary caginesibecause the cman was stationary and the: cylinders rotated aboot the crank. A more tnadern application of this inversion {8 ithe Whitworth mechanism, which wil fe dhcussed under quick return mechanisms, Figure 2.116 shaw: an anversion in hich the coanecting rod iS held fixed, This inversion in modified form + he bes far the crank shaper mechanism to be discussed later, The third inversion Twhete the slider is held fixed, Fig. 2.11c, is sometimes used in the hand farm pomp. "A ratiation of the slider-craak mechanism can be affected by increasing the: sive of the erank pin wnti it ie larger than the shaft to- which i ts attached and iM the same time ofketting the ceater of the crank pin from that of the sha ‘This ealarged crank pin is ealled an eccenfrie and can be used to replace the crank in the original mechanism. Figure 2.12 shows aaketch where paint A isthe center ‘ofthe eccentric and point O the center af the shaft. The mation of this mechanism Shih the equivalent erank length OA is identical with that of the slider crank, ‘One sorkous disadvantage of this mechanism, bowever, is the problem of proper Iubrieation between the eccestric and the rod, This finite the amon of power that can be trantmited. 38 LINKAGES AND MECHANISNS 26 SCOTCH YOKE, This mechani bs ese wict will lis eatly appte ‘tion was on steam puraps, but it i now used asm mechanism on a test machine to produce vibrations. 1 is also used a8 a sine-cotine goherator for computing elements. Figure 21a shows a sketch of thie mechauuen, F the manner in which simple harmonic motion ic generated. The radius 7 rotates al a constant angular velocity w,, and the projection of the point P upoa the axis (0c y-axis) moves with simple harmonic motion. The displacement from where the cirele cuts the s-asit andl inereasing to the left is Aor reot, where 8, = et am) Therefore, x Fil — 05 wut) v= Se ra sinas = rasa, @21) 4-8 tenn = rat om, vf ‘Another mechanism which will give simple harmonic motion is a circalar ‘cam (eccentric) with & fst-faced radial follower. This is discussed in the following, chapter. AGURE 2.3 27 QUICK-RETURN MECHANISMS These mechanisms are Wied on machine tools to give w alow cutting stroke and quick retumn stroke for a constant angular velocity of the deiving crank apd arc ‘combinations af simple linkages such as the four-bar Linkage td the sider-crani mechanism. Aa inversion of the slider crank in combination with the conventional alder crank is also used. In the design of quick-return mechanicms, the ratio of QUICK RFTURH MECHANISMS 39 FIGURE 214 the crank angle for the cutting stoke tu that for the return stroke is of prime fnportance and is known at the tine ratio, ‘To produce a quick retura of the sting tool, this ratio must obviously be greater than unity snd as Targe at (possible: Asan exampic, the crank angle forthe cutting stoke for tke mechanisas Showa in Fig. 2-14 is labeled a, and that for the reture stroke is Labeled. With ‘he assuciption that the crank operates at a constant speed, the time ratio is, {hersiors, «/B, which is much pyeates than uaity. ‘Thete art several types of quick-teturn mechanisms which are deecribed 2p fotos Ding Link This & developed from the four-bar linkage and is shown in Fig. 215. Foc 3 ‘constint angular veloity of ink 2, Kink 4 will rotate at nonusifocm velocity Ra 6 will move with nearly constant velocity over most of Uke epward stroke ‘to give a slow upward sizake and 2 quick downward stroke when driving link 2 rotates clockwice. Whitworth “This is variatioa of the first inversion of the slider crank in which Wie erank ie boeld fixed. Figure 2.16 shows a skelch of the mechanises, and both links 2 aed A make covnplete tevolutions. Crank Shaper ‘This mechanismis.a variation of the second inversion ofthe slider crank in which the conaccting rod i beld fixed. Figure 2.14 shows the arrangement in which link 2 rotates completely and link 4 oscillates, Ifthe distance 0,0) is shortened lant itis Less than the crank, the mechaaism will revert to:the Whitwoeth. ‘Offset Slider Crank ‘Thestider erankean be offset as shown in Fig. 2 1?.owhich will give a quick return motion. However, the amount of quick ceturn is very slight, and the: mechanism ‘would only be used where space was Einited andthe mechsnista had to be simple. FIGURE 217 2.8 TOGGLE MECHANISM ‘This mechanism has euany applications where it necessary to overcome & Farge redicance with a «mall driving force. Figere 2.18 shows the mechanism: links 4 rand 5 are of the same length. As the angies a decrense andiinks 4 and 5 approach bucing collincor, the force P required (@.overcame a given vesistance P decreases 1s shown by the following relation: & Fo Fton az) Ii can be seen that fora given Fas @ approaches 2era, F approaches Eeinity. stone crusher utilizes this mechaninm to overcome force. This mechanisen ea be used ot STRATOHET-LIME ACECANESNES FIGURE 2 29 OLDHAM COUPLING ‘This mechanism provides a means for conseeting two parallel shafts which are out of line a small amount so that a constant angular velocity ratio can be trans- inilted from the drive shalt ta the driven shaft, A sketch is shown in Fig, 2.19 ‘This mechanism is an ioverston of the Seueeh yoke. ‘SURAIGHT-LINE MECHANISMS As the name suggests, thede mec hanigns ore designed 2a that a poiat on ane of ‘te liska will move in'a straight line, ‘This straight line will be either an approx- imate oF a theoretically comect stmnight fine, depending on the mechanism. ‘An example of an epproximate straight line mechanism is the Watt, which is shown in Fig. 2.20, Point Fis so located tht the segments AP nod UP are inversely proportional to the lengths O,A and Q,@. Therefore, if tinks 2 and are equal in Length, point P must be the midpoint of Fisk 3. Point P will trace 42 LINKAGES AND NECHAraSaeS outa path ithe form of a figuse:8. Part of this path will very nearly approsch a siraight line. “The Peaucelliss iechsuism is one which will generate an cxact straight line. we 2-21 shows a sketch where linke 3 aed 4 are equal. Links S, 6,7, and 8 unex, sd Unk 2 sab Se Stace 0,0, Bot wit ace oot exact straight-line pat Straight-line mechanisms have many applications; notable among these are the mechanisms for engine indicators apd for electrical switch gear equipment. 211 PANTOGRAPH ‘This mechanism is used at a copying device. When one point is made to follow ‘ certaia path, another point oa the anechanisen will race out an identical path that is enlarged or reduced. Figure 2.22 shows a sketch. Liaks 2,3, 4, and 3 form parallelogram, and point P is ow an extension of link 4. Point @ ic on Hak 5 the intersection of a line drawn from O to P. «As point P traces out » path, point @ will trace out w similar path to a reduced scale “This mechanism finds rmany applications in copying devices, partkcularly ia ‘engraving oF profiling machines, One use of the protiag machiae is ia making dies or molds. Point F serves asa Gnger and traces out the contour of a template while 2 rotating encimill is placed at Q to machine the die 19 a smaller sale, FIGURE 222 Gaiamnnn-wnees 43 242 CHAMDER WHEELS ‘This mechaniste takes several forms, which al type consists of two lobed heels operating within a casing. The Roots blower, as shown in Fig. 2.23, am example of this type. The rotors are cyloids and are driven by 3 pur of meshing pears of equal sei back of the case. a the mowera application, the Roots Blower has thee lobes on each rotor and is wsed for a low-pressure supercharger on Diesel engines. ‘The other cass of chamber wheels bas only one sotor placed ecceatrcally within the casing and ss generally 4 variation of the sider crank sechanisin Figure 2.24 shows » sketch of this (ype. The mectunien shown w9s originally sdesigocd for a stcam cogiac. but its modern application i im the form af a pnp, ‘Another csample af the scoond type of chamber wicel ts shown Ih Fig 2.25, which histates the mviacaple of the Hankel engiae. a this mechan en, te expanding get act upon the theee-labed rotor, which verolves ditectly ow the cocenttie anc! Waniaits foique tu Hac ouipt shal through the contri wich is lntegral with the shaft. ‘The phase shlstion between the rolor aod the volation of to twy chesifications. The frst FIGURE 2.25 44) UNKAGES AND MECHANISMS FIGURE 2.25 the eecentvic shaft it maintained by = i of intrmal ond eter gears (0 shown) $0 that the eb nine —— motion of the rotee is propesly controlled 2.13 HOOKE'S COUPLING This coupling is used to connect two intersecting shafts. It is also known as a ‘universal joint ana! has ils widest use in the autamative field. A sketch of the coupling is shownin Fig. 226, and a commercial motel is In Fig. 2.26, tink 2 is the driver and link < the follower, Link 3 is a exoas piece that Connects the two yokes. It can be shown that, althowgh both shafts must complete ceveation in the same length of the to shalts is aot eonstant daring the revolution but varies at a function af the angle B between the shafts and of the angbe of rutatio cal B betwen mmple-of ratatian 8 of the driver. The se me e ‘i Iso? 0 @2 AA plot of this eqaation in polar cas quarter vevobution of the HOOKE'S COUPLING 45 FIGURE 2.25 driving shot is shown in Fig. 2.28, which clearly indicates the etfect of a large angle fi between the shafts. It is poate to connect two shafts by two Hooke’s couplings and an inter: mediate sbafi such thit the woeven velocity ratio of the frst coupling will be ‘canceled out by the secand, Figure 2.29 shows this application when the two shafts 2 and 4, which are to be connected, der not tie in the same plane. The ‘connection faust be made so that the driver and driven shafts 2 and 4 make equal fancies A ovith the Intermediate shaft 3. Also, the yokes on shaft ¥ must be Connected in sveh a way that when one yoke lies in the plane of shafts 2 at 3, ‘the other yoke lies in the ptane of shafts and 4. If thc two shafts to be eonected fie in the same plate, thea the yokes on the intermediate shaft will be parallel. FIGURE 227 Heoke-type watverm jotat. (Coortcay of Mechanics Unk ‘veal Joint Diva, Mory- Warmer Carp.) 46 UNKAGES ARD MECHANIEMS o ar aror anno ns seas 1s FIGURE 229 ‘An application of to universal joints connecting shafts that lc inthe same plane is the Hotchkiss automotive sive, which i used om most rear-wheel dive ears, 2.14 CONSTANT-VELOCITY UNIVERSAL JOINTS ects hve boem conideig ‘ne many years the develope of «sige taken pin capac oft gw chamameweichy to. See! fe that weve ariaions ofthe" ‘ple wee proposed, one aseary 08870, CONSTAMEVELOCITY UIVERSAL JOmS 47 ‘ith the intermediate shat redvced to zero length. As far asin known, howeve, Joints of this design have never been sed to any extent some ally With the development ofthe front-wheel drive for automotive veils, the need foe waver! joint which was capable of transmitting a constant angalar- velocity mitio wis inszeasod. It was rue that two Hood's couplings and nt iatermediste shaft could be wsed, Bot this wax not entielysatstacory. With a drive mvc ais required on a foot whee! of an sutemobie, where tine angle 4s sometimes quite Inge, the dhtaging conditions made it simost impossible to ‘obtain constant angulst-vetocity ratio. The need far a conslant-reheeity universal Joint was met by the introduction wf the Weis nal the Reeeppa joes in thos ouniry and by the Tracie joint i France, The West jit was at patented in 1925, the Rscpps in 1928, and the Trncta in 1938. Operation of thee Juntsi 104 Based on te sane pincnitcas the Hooke coupling ‘A Henlt-Wis otis sora ia Fig, 2.30, Ax showin the figuce, grooves thae ace symaneticl With taped to each other about the centes lines of the shafts ave fonned inthe surfaces ofthe peOags of the yokes, and four lee balls ave located between these promgs ala point where the ates othe arsovesin one yoke intersect the axes of the grooves in he other yoke. Power t transmitted Jromthe drives the follower through thse Ball. A Eth Ball with slot provides, for locking of th parts in assembly aswell as for taking en thrust. In operation, the balls wil automatically sift their postioas as the anilar displacemect of thetwo shafs i varied, so that the plane comaining tho eaters ofthe balls wll always sect the angle between the two shalt constant angula-velwiy salsa ‘vill erefre result from his condition. A phowagreph of a Bead Weis [cnt ‘is shown ia Fig. 2.33, ‘A bell4yp8 Recpps join (pronounced “scheppa)isshown én Fig. 231. The Joint cassis a spherical bousing and an inner race with corresporilng grooves \aveach part, Sit steel bills inserted in those grooves transmit torque freee to folloner. The balls are located ia caved looresin the races and are positioned by cage between the races. Cenlrs of eucvturef01 the grooved races ue offset FIGURE 230 4G UNCAGHS AND MECHANISMS wicuRE 231 im opposite directions from the joint center along the shaft axes. The offsets Conttal fhe posits Of the balls x0 that their centers always le in a plane which biseets the angles between the shafls, With the centers of the Balls ia this plane, the jain will transmit coostant angular-velncs!yrafvo, A photograph ofa Rz=ppa jonnt is town ie Fig, 2.33, [A Trecta joint i shown in Big, 232, It consists of four pers: two shafts vit forked ends and rwo hemispherical pats, one of which haa tongue and the other a groove to receive the tongue. In addition, exch of the hemispherical bodies is provided with a groove that permils the eontection of a fork. The forks subtend an angle greater than 180° so as to be self-focking when assembled. The fongite sind the tongue gioove are at sight angles to the proovea which admit the forks. fly menas.af the union af the tongue and groove when the joints assem- FIGURE 2.2 bled, the axes of the hemisplherical parts must always remain in the 3 ‘When the joint i¢ assembled, the forks are free to rotate about the axes of the hemispherical hades, which ie in the plane of the tonguc and groove. “The joint is held in proper alignment for icdustrial application by two spherical housings not shown. When assembled, these provide a ball point «ype of bousing that sappart the shafts sa that their axes will intersect at all tienes ot 1 point equidistant from the centers af the hemispherical members. With this alignment, the Tracta joint will trinsmit mation vith a constant vel |A photograph af a Teacta joint is shown in Fig, 2.33, Tn addition to the constant-velosity joings discussed above, another type of joint hes Been developed known az the oi-por joins. The trepot joint has 2 Sykidreal honsing with theee partially cylindrical, equally spaced axial bores ‘The asi bores howse a spider which has theee tmaions, with: a ball mounted on cach trusion. The contact paints between the balls and housing bares always Fie im a plane which bisects the angle between the twa shafts. Coastant angular ity ratio MIGURE 2.39: Constant-rlocity wnireral fini: Bendls- Weis, Recppe, sed Trica. 50 LINKAGES AND MECHARISNS FIGURE 2.54 Promtaeea drtve ati. (Comrtary of Sepiaan Steer ‘ng Gew Division, General Motos Coxperntien.) velocity will therefare be transmitted between the input and the outpat sat at ‘any angle between the shafts. The spider ls usually splined to one shaft, and the housing is bolied toy other shat. * ‘A trk-pot joint im combination with » Raxppa joint is wed exientively in sulomotive front-wheel drives where the Rzeppa is used ior the outboard and the tr-pot foc-the inboard joint. A troat-whee! drive unit of « Rceppe and a ti pot joiat ix shown in Fig, 2.34. In froat-wheel drive vehicles, if the froat wheels src designed to bave indopcadeat suspeasion, it ia meceasary io use two comstant- velocity joints per axle to allow for the suipeasioa motion and the stcering angle of the wheel. 2.15 INTERMITTENT-MOTION MECHANISMS ‘There are many instances whore it is to conrest continuous motion into Intermittent motion. One of the foremost examples is the indexing of a work table on a machine tool sas to bring @ new work pioce before: the cutters with {tain Dongs en 2, GMa Daven), “Uae ala wt INTERMITTENT MOTION MECHANISMS SIL cach index of the table, There are veversl ways of accomplishing this type of Geneva Wheel ‘Thismechanisin is very usefabin producing intermittent matinalbecnuse the shock, of enengement is minimized, Figure 2,35 shows w sketch rotates Continuously, contains a di imeanber 2 Ia the shetes, 2 15 turned one-quarter reveution Far eats vol ff plate 1. The slot in ievabey 2 miet he tangential 1 he pats of the pla wp engagement in order to reduce hock. This meane that angle O,PO, will be a right aogle. It cam lio be seen that angle Pl icone half of the amgle turned thr ol by member 2 during the indexing period. For the-case shown, Bis 45". eis necessary lo: peovide m lackiag device so that when member 2 is not being indexed, i will nol tend to rotate. One! the simplest ways of accomplishing this is to mounta locking plate upon plate 1 whose conver surlace will mate with he conve surface of member 2 except duviog the indexing poriod. Itis ncacssary ‘cat the locking plate back to provide clearance for member 2 as it swings ough the indexing angle. The clearance age in the locking plate will be equal to twice the angle a. If one of the slots in member 2 is closed, Uben plate 1 ean make only a mited: number of revolutions before the pin P strikes the clased slot and mation ‘ceases, This medhifieatioa is known as the Geneva stop and is used in wateles ‘and similar devices (9 prevent overwinding, 52 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS Hutehet Mechanism ‘Tis mechanism s used to produce intermittent circular motion from an oscillating fo reciprocating member. Figure: 2.36 shows the details, Wheel 4 is given inter mittent cireulsr inotion by means of arm 2 and deiviag pawl 3. A. second pawl 5 Prevents 4 from turning backward when Z is sutated Celeration in terms of time, the velocity from the curves V finJéeg) can easily be converted ta ins by the relation V (ins) = (180) a (in./leg), where we is eam velocity (rads). Ta & similar manner, A (Hn fe!) = (180')%utA (in eg, of reconts (CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES BT ane [eora(f -mreZy oaemn(f - _ = ~satngY orang] EevsG-mg) | | TE seeteis) oof [maf sermon (fone 35 Lt =e ~nara(g} rmere($)] crew | PN (mew | tebe) teem fy rms py * -mano(f} eronam(ff] Pt [Sree [Roem fK ok sing) eS osmme($ eft [i rar) - cam (55 vf] [R77 teh eomen Gl onmmas * sevomig) meg] z " ae > T set(m ag) =" S* =-8e8 7 $y . 7 g a acf[-saem essay se nem gh RIOD) | aie " t , oy aa oo barb (im petite | TN Toten a * thet fae ea byann ecard kN. ee) KO es See = Example 3.1. A robes ‘otiower isto mave thigh # ttl placement ant yearn ‘ith na delle inthe eye. Became of de operation pettrmed by the mecbantan Portion ofthe outward mation must beat eoataal velocty, Determine ths motion on fo te used. Reler to Pig It ‘AB: Use hall-9 C> 08 ma ‘The length ofthe follower fae i termined from =P () > 08am fee 0a Because the motion i smaactsical, the theoretical og of the Lallnwer face in 8 ve (n cach side of the centerline. An addtional amount raat the added to each side ofthe fellowes to peevent contact from ocuring atthe very 2d of the lave v Lu & uv we Le v w ¥ SE er OO (FOO EG TET 96 caMs 3.10 DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER (ANALYTICAL DESIGN) “The nanlytical determination of the pitch surface of disk eam will a redial roller follower presents no difficulties. In Fig. 3.24, the displacement of the eenter af the follawer from the center of the cam. is given by the following equation: Rm he 10) em where R athe minimum rediut of the pitch muface ofthe cam and f(@) is the dial mation af the follower as a function of camn angle. Once the value of Ry fe known, its an easy malter to determine the poli coordinates of the ceaters ‘of the roller follower from which the cam may be peneraied, ‘A svcthod for checking this type of e8m for polatiog has been, developed lay Kioomn tnd Matfiey, which considers te radius of curvature pf the pte surface and the radias of the roller R,. These valves are shown in Fig. 3.25, together with the radius of curvature pc of the cam surface, If im Fig. 325 p is held constant and R, i increased, will decrease. If this is coatiaued wnt ‘equals p, then py wil be zero and ihe cam becomes pointed at shown in Fig 3.26. As Ris further increased, the cam becomes undercat 28 shown ia Fig. 3.265 and the motion of the follower will not be xs prescribed. Therefore, t0 prevent a point or an andercut from occurring on the cam proSle, R, mast be fess thea pu, whee pu, isthe minimum value of p over the particular segment of profile beiog considered. If there are several types of motion through which thefollower passes, cat case must be checked separately. Becausitisimpossie ncime ssf to undereat # coscave portion of cam, only the convex portions need to be investigated. "The radins of curvatore at a point om a.curve expressed in polar coordinates can be given by Re + (aid P Pay naiagy — RUPRIAE) where R = f(6) and the fist two derivatives are coatinuows. This cquation can te uoed fa finding the radius of carvature ofthe pitch surface of the cam. Far this ease, f(0) = (4). From Eq. 3.10, i | 98 cams, “Thetetore, + wre AOR = RO eu Equation 3.11 may be evaluated to find the expression for p for particular type ‘of motion. However, to prevent points or undcreuts oa the Cam profile, Pa MUST determined. Differentiation of Eq. 3.11 with its various functions te obtain ‘ainima gives very complex trunsocedeatal equations. For thit reason, three seis cof curves ate given thet show the plot of pau!Ry vervus B for various values of ‘LIN, Im these curves, pis the total angular rolative of the cam for a complote eveot, and L is the hit, Figure 3.27 shows the graph for eycoidal mation, Fig 3.28 for simple harmonic motiog, and Fig. 3.29 Gor eights-power polynomial ‘motion, By means of thes curves, itis possible (a determine whether or HOt fam is greater than R. ‘Example 3.4. 4 radia roller follower is 19 move Gheiugh 8 total displacement of L. = ‘60 in. with cycloidal motion whic the cam rotates B = MF, The flower dwells for 43° and then returas with eyelodal motion in WF. Check the can foe pointing 0 ‘underoutiog if ove radios ofthe Toller is 0.25 in, ad the ninizaurn radius Roa the pitch surface bs 130in, L a7 isa” ‘The outward :otion will parera becasse of is smaller. Thereor, rom Fig. 3.77 for LR, = O40 and f= a, te R82 Pe = O22 x 1.50 = 0.8, ‘The cana will at be polated o¢ vederent bocause a, > Re. As mentioned previously, pressure angle it inportaat coasidcration whea Alesigniog cams with roller followers, It is nesessary to kecp the maximum pressure angle assmall as possible, and this maximum has been set at30F, However, higher values are occasionally used whea conditions permit. Although itis possible 10 make a layout of the cam and measure the maximum pressure sug, analytical method are to be preferred, Several methods ace available, one of which has hrcem dexeinped. by Klovmok and Mutfley, whereby the preseure angle can te determined analytically for either a redial lle: follower Or an axcillaing roller follower. Only the radial zoller follower will be treated here, ‘For the oink cam and radial yer follower shown in Big. 3.30, the pressure [DIME CAM WITH HADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER 99 key a ACTWE Came ance. ft occREES. prin, 3 a) oe —Hosaii ACTIVE cam ance, #2 occne es icung 3.27 motion. [M. Kloemel: aod it. ¥. Medley, “Fiate (Cam Design Madins of Cureabere," Prod, g., Seplamiber 1955, as revised M. A. Ganter and 1. J. Uicher I, Wipes Rails Followers: Gas tr Dik Gee Sten Par Furst of eed —"" eT ES SOOO COEOE ws print, ow eo a ioe ean ao ACTIVE CAM ANGLE, A. DEGREES, pm Re £8 * =o ACTIVE CAM ANGLE, @,OEGRECE FIGURE 3.23 Harmoaic motion, [M. Kloomot er 2 Ganter and 3.1. Uleker, By, “Design Charts for Disk Redlal Rote Oa our Riel Roce Felton," AShe Fret, Jeera! of Mechonkal Daim, Oe ACHE CAM ANELE, B,CEEMEES pnd Ry £ ° 0 30 “0 oO =o ACTIVE CaM ANGLE, 9, ORCARES JURE 329 ihiporet on Eis. “Pate Coe corr Bae ceed by Me Atetey a. Ue Bie Cpa tia tpn Motel Roir Fotowtn = bat of Mackomical Dest, 11), Bay 1779] | WIGURE 38 angle OCA is denoted by a and the center of the cai by @. The cara is assumed stationary, and the follower center rotates clockwise from position C10 C" through | small angle 48, From the sketch, ‘As OW approaches zero, angles OCE and ACC” approach XP. At the same time, (CD approuches CA which equals 88, end both approach CE. Tyerefore, Blocause the sides afa anda become mutually perpenidicular when A approaches rer0, a bevories equal ta a, Therefore, DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROLLE FOLLOWER 193 ‘An expressivg for m may be determined from Eq. 3.12 for any type of modon. To solve (or the maximum pressure angle ic often very difficult, however, because of the resulting complex transcendental equation. Far this reason, Kloamiok and Mulfiy use a nosiogram developed by F.C. Varnum, which ic given in Fig 331; B and LAR, arc parameter as previously defined. From thit chart, the maximum value of pressure angle may be determined for the thee types of eintion. Points oa the susféce of the cam may also be determined by using Fig. 3.30. ‘The coordinates of the point C are given by oman om ‘The coordinates of the poiat of contact (pola) are obtained tram the x and y Projections of line segment CA and trom the distanees ¢ and yc as follows: same # R cos (ar ~ @- a) Ya = ye ~ Resim (ow — Se ee ee ORE NG TE TEE TO EE OU 10a cams, ‘where R, is the radius of the roller. Simplifying these expressions using trigea- ay te Ream @ +) a ye Resin (0 + a) om ‘Brample 3.5. A saa cles follomer ito ave through a teal Scplacement of 0.75 in. wit eydoidel motion wie the cm rites 45 The lower dwell for ad thea erat with eylndal maton tx Find the vot Sanit nent, The outa ‘Potion wil vere because of sale B. Tor 8 A" and aon = 3, & (oom F231) ‘Therefore, 078 = OB oan ‘The anhtcal clclation of canvand-ollower procter sig hand calculator becomes tedious when more than a few cam angles mrt be considered. Fortunately, ach repetitive caution are convenially eared Gut oa a dial computer, The example below shows a computer program developed for the ease of disk cam and tranlating roller follower. This program waa writen in BASIC fn aa IBM personal computer. Although this program i specifically wittea for excoida se, dwell, and yeoidal rien, would beameasy matter to generalize this [o include: other types of motion specifications ar other follower.comfigura- fia Bsample 3.6. A radial voles follower isto rise through a total displacement i 30.0 ‘om with C5 eyeldel motion wila the eum rotates 180". The tllawer ebelis fo the next Send then reruns $0.0 mum with C+ cycldal motion ia f° of cam rotation, The ‘nino rai, ofthe pitch earfhce it 25.0 men. Write acomputer program te cleat the displacement 5, velonty ¥, and acceleration A of the follower at each IT of cam rotwion. The should also calculate the radius ofthe pith surtace tbe vadkos ‘of curvature (p), an presure angle (a) at each IP of eam rotation. ‘Solution. The BASIC program shown in Fig. 33 wa developed toast this problem. Ronaiog this program-oa an IBM personal computer produced the output of Table 3.1. Note from the output that the uaxiowam pressure angie daring rise willbe 35.6" ata cama angle of = 20" and that the masionsen presse angle during setuen wll be S42 at ‘IP These values are to high for most applications. "The designer may wish to improve * DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER 105 eee {UB teapostine to calcetate ty to, ALFEA aad print ceva ime Eibtsfaaversamascree/rn1°2__tGomrect,degceee te rettene wa eUsFanizceaeav ste ras) ara rear ng by lcesig the bab ir adn. Once the posi I tn, REQ Eitge enue tichoncn coe: Manel the program tg Re ~ 300 ws ee sts pears anges of 340 Sag ret #1 dateg wm. Al, ratte ph natse corte phat xine tabla va of 14. mi 01S Sita rio, Since ia cove porn of the am sc, va ae soothe ing eae of pastel 250 mm. im proce 1 ae he Fea ST ta be devo ening npatngle pe of Tr ne Fraie hne Tos Tales ee true croc vos remare ane a arse enter sivatge sf ung u computer be aby to qucly peer plot of och ag adonlcesets weeds, cab, vd ca ie wc, Fo hi angle protien, ¢ samp! ot ol be conch see bse te Pp areal ope scabs becuse provides mulch, eaptodeerret visa Eee. 106 cams DIME CAM WIM OSCILLATING ROLLER FOLLOWER 107. TABLE 3.1 Outpot Genernied by the BASIC Program of Fig. 3.32 a ee a gpI See ee ae FIGURE 333, Cam pln mcac goed agen JBM Perens Compute. A IBM Instrument RYT Dighl Peace om 3.11 DISK CAM WITH OSCILLATING ROLLER FOLLOWER (ANALYTICAL DESIGN) Im Fig. 3.34 is seen the start of layout of a disk cam with an oscillating roller follower, The displacement angle 4 is & function of the cara angle B. Although the cam rotmies through the angle @ for the displacemeat angle y, the radius R rovates through the angle 4. By specifying valice of R and &, itis possible to {generate the cam. From Fig. 3.34, itcan be seer Usat eee eu) dap r e190, Angle is w constant for the system, aad its equation can be de ived {rom trang HGURE 3.4 pw ww ee ee ele NS re Ceere + 108 cams 240! as San 25R, where S, R, and J re Fired dimensions ‘Anile Tis a function of Fits equation can be derived from tiamgle OBO" vos arr os p= SEE on ‘An esuation for R can also-be written from triangle O80" as follow: R= P + St WS eos (+X) ow) Angle © is 8 constant determined trom tritmgle OAD" as ELS cos Z ay Gem and angle i the displacement angle for a particular cam angle #. Therefore, from the preceding equations, the values of R and (can be calculated for given ‘values of cam angle # and their corresponding angles of displacement $. In designing this type of cam, itis necessary lo check for underatting and {for the maximum pressuce angle. Equations forthe eedias of caresture and the Pressure angle can best be developed by using complex variables, Figure 3.5 shows the sketch of» disk cam and orilting rile fllower with the radius of ccvature ofthe pitch suriace designated as pand the pressure angle as e. Point is the center of the cam, point D the cemer of eurvature, and pot O* the Be and ah 1 at, 2k, Therefore, R and R From the equations for Rs and Rs, the cam contours may be determinest that will generate the given square Frnction. If the cans Ore operated In Teverse, square roots are atkained. 2. Logarithmic Function. To generate the logarithm, = toe 8 = oe Int, a 1 40,” T3008, CONTOUR Cams 113 sod *. a7 Therefor, ¢ a ae, nd 230300, 7+ 23000, From these equations, the carm contours may be determined that will gen crate the given logarithm. Operation in reverse will give antilogs. 3. Thigonometric Function. Toillustrate the generation of a trigonometric frnc tion, consider 8 = tan oy 2 coer 8, 2, c neh and C cos? Oy By eae 8, “ose refers othe equations for and Ry developed forthe three functions, its ovident that in (1), Ry = O when 0 = Cand in (2), Ry ~ O-vhen 0 = 0. Tn Q),#, = Owben 6, = HP. When one ofthe radii goes to ero, a impenctica Wa cams ‘design results, With the fuactions illustrate, the fact that the scale of @ cannot ‘art a 2ero ig the first two eases nor extend 10 50" in the third case will probably ‘ot limit the generation of these functions. There arccases, hawever, where such linitations would prove a chendvantage aud 4 meios must be foued for eliminating this probiem when ececsary. Another problem that sometimes aria when de- signing contour cams is that with certain functions the value of Oy i Dbouutie equal to 1, which maker the radii R, aad R, infinite. Either of thees irablens mast be avoided if t occurs in the watking range of the functiog. This ‘can be accomplidhed Ly olfseting the fumchou by = comsiant which can Iater be suburacied by a dil ‘Aran example, euasifer the function 8) = sie, and Be 21a, cos a? * ‘Therefor = Oi sin 6 cs 6) "Fein 8,608 8, + and a 13 Tee 8; wr 6, ‘When 0; equals zero, Ky = 0, when 0, equals 135°, dO/d8, = -1. Ta avoid ‘these conditions, the function may be offset by a cometant KO, euch thet sin? 8, +O ay go ~ 28H coo Os + ‘Aficr gencration of the new function, 4, would be-subtracted to give the original fonction @ = sia? & posible because of the pure rolling action of the eam. Such gears are known 8s Gontour ‘gears, ox noncireufar gears. A photograph of a pair of noncrcular gears ts shows, in Fig. 3.7, ‘THREE DIMENSIONAL CAMS 115 a bee i FIGURE 157 Neschrestar grace (Semple gear cour {cay of Croaiagham Corporation ) 3.43. THREE-DIMENSIONAL CAMS ‘Acskctch of «three-

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